STRUCTURE.

1. CONDITIONALS.
Teachers explanation. There are a number of structures in English that are called the conditionals which are used to talk about possible or imaginary situations. A "Condition" is a "situation or circumstance". For example: If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens. There are four basic conditionals that we use in English. Zero Conditional First Conditional Second Conditional Third Conditional

Students explanation: There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are some more conditionals that we do not use so often. First Conditional: real possibility We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do? IF condition result

present simple WILL + base verb If it rains I will stay at home.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result. The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?): IF condition present simple If If If If If I see Mary Tara is free tomorrow result WILL + base verb I will tell her. he will invite her.

they do not pass their exam their teacher will be sad. it rains tomorrow it rains tomorrow will you stay at home? what will you do?

result WILL + base verb I will tell Mary He will invite Tara Their teacher will be sad Will you stay at home What will you do

IF condition present simple if if if if if I see her. she is free tomorrow. they do not pass their exam. it rains tomorrow? it rains tomorrow?

 Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can think about winning in the future, like a dream. It's not very real, but it's still possible.

IF condition past simple If I won the lottery

result WOULD + base verb I would buy a car.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples:

IF condition past simple If If If If I married Mary Ram became rich

result WOULD + base verb I would be happy. she would marry him.

it snowed next July would you be surprised? it snowed next July what would you do?

result WOULD + base verb I would be happy She would marry Ram Would you be surprised What would you do

IF condition past simple if if if if I married Mary. he became rich. it snowed next July? it snowed next July?

Third Conditional: no possibility The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true. Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-( condition Past Perfect If I had won the lottery result WOULD HAVE + Past Participle I would have bought a car.

Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now.

Look at some more examples in the tables below: IF condition past perfect If If If If If I had seen Mary Tara had been free yesterday they had not passed their exam it had rained yesterday it had rained yesterday result WOULD HAVE + past participle I would have told her. I would have invited her. their teacher would have been sad. would you have stayed at home? what would you have done?

result WOULD HAVE + past participle I would have told Mary I would have invited Tara Their teacher would have been sad Would you have stayed at home What would you have done

IF condition past perfect if if if if if I had seen her. she had been free yesterday. they had not passed their exam. it had rained yesterday? it had rained yesterday?

Zero Conditional: certainty We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific fact. Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The ice melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not.

IF condition present simple If you heat ice

result present simple it melts.

Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are not thinking about the future or the past, or even the present. We are thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result. The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition always has the same result.

Look at some more examples in the tables below: IF condition present simple If If If If I miss the 8 o'clock bus I am late for work people don't eat you heat ice result present simple I am late for work. my boss gets angry. they get hungry. does it melt?

result present simple I am late for work My boss gets angry People get hungry Does ice melt

IF condition present simple if if if if I miss the 8 o'clock bus. I am late for work. they don't eat. you heat it?

Exercises: Complete the sentences. If you a coin, the machine if the temperature enough fuel, it working. (insert - start) 100 degrees? (boil - reach) . (not have - not run)

the water If a motorbike If you

this button, you

the computer. (press- turn off) , if you its battery. (not work -

The mobile phone not recharge)

If you more. I I What What If you

(not give) me an excuse, I (accept) your excuse only if you (tell) you the truth only if you (happen) if everybody (you/say) if I (put) me under pressure, I

(not be) your friend any (tell) me the truth. (not tell) anyone else. (know) your secret?

(not say) anything? (not say) anything.

2. WHISH

Teachers explanation. The use of the verb wish indicates that the speaker wants reality to be different. As in unreal conditionals, the use of a past or past perfect tense verb indicates that the situation is impossible or unlikely. The use of hope, on the other hand, indicates that the speaker believes something is possible. Wish can also be used with would to express a desire that someone do something differently.

Students explanation. You can use this structure when you would like things to be different from the way they actually are. Use the verb wish to refer to how you would like things to be in the present or to talk about how you would like things to be in the future. It can also be used to talk about the way things were in the past, but obviously the past can't be changed.

Wishes about the present (and the future) If you want to talk about your present situation, you can use the structure wish + past simple or continuous. For example: I haven't got any money. I wish I had some money. I don't earn much money. I wish I earned a lot of money. We're all living in a small flat. I wish we weren't living in a small flat. I wish we were living in a big flat.

The same form can be used to talk about someone else's situation. However, there is another structure that you use to talk about actions that take place in the present, but you want them to change in the future. This structure is used to talk about another person, and generally about things you don't like. The structure is: wish + would/could + infinitive. For example: Your friend is always borrowing money from you because he never seems to have his bank card with him. You could say to him: I wish you wouldn't keep borrowing money from me. I wish you would remember to go to the bank from time to time. Perhaps the same friend does lots of things that irritate you. Maybe he phones you early in the morning when you're still in bed. He might arrange to meet you and then turn up late. You could say to him: I wish you wouldn't phone me so early in the morning. I wish you would wait until later. I wish you would tell me when you're going to be late.

Wishes about the future (and the present) When you talk about the future, you use the same structure as you use to talk about present states. For example: I have to go to the dentist tomorrow. I wish I didn't have to go to the dentist tomorrow. I'll have to do some extra work over the weekend. I wish I didn't have to do any extra work over the weekend.

My brother is coming to stay with me next week. I wish my brother wasn't coming next week. The future in these cases can't be changed (in theory), and so the situation is seen as unreal and has to be referred to using past tenses.

Wishes about the past: regrets When you think about a situation in the past, naturally you can't do anything to change it. Therefore this is a way of expressing regret. The structure you use is: wish + past perfect. For example: You were too slow getting ready to go out. I wish you hadn't been so slow getting ready. Now we've missed the train. I wish we hadn't missed the train. I promised our friends we'd arrive on time. I wish I hadn't promised we'd arrive on time, because now they'll be waiting for us.

Note! As mentioned above, the structure wish + would can't be used to talk about yourself. It is used to refer to actions, and you should be able to stop any action you're doing. Therefore when you talk about yourself, you're talking about states you have no control over (I'm poor, I wish I was rich) or other people's actions that you have no control over either (I haven't got any money. I wish you'd give me some).

If your wish might come true, you should use a different type of verb. For example: I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow. I'd like to go to the Caribbean for my holiday next year. I hope you get well soon. You don't need to repeat all the verbs all the time: My flat is cold. I wish it wasn't. You smoke. I wish you wouldn't. She told him! I wish she hadn't.

Exercises:
find the correct answer.

I don't have anything to smoke. I wish I had more time. I wish I had a cigarette. I wish I knew something about cars. I wish I understood it better.

Simon has gone on holiday and I really need to speak to him. I wish I was better-looking. I wish they were smaller. I wish he was here. I wish I could as I love visiting Spain on holiday.

Girls don't like me because I'm ugly! I wish I was twenty again. I wish I was better-looking. I wish I had a more powerful one I wish I could as I love visiting Spain on holiday.

I don't have much time. I wish I had more time. I wish I wasn't working. I wish I knew something about cars. I wish I understood it better.

My computer is old and slow. I wish I earned more money. I wish I had a more powerful one I wish I lived in a hotter country. I wish I finished earlier.

3. UNLESS.

Teachers explanation. Unless means the same as if...not. Like if, it is followed by a present tense, a past tense or a past perfect (never by 'would'). It is used instead of if + not in conditional sentences of all types. Students explanation. 'Unless' expresses the idea of 'if not'. 'Unless' is only used in the first conditional. Type 1: (Unless + present) a. You'll be sick unless you stop eating. (= You will be sick if you don't stop eating) b. I won't pay unless you provide the goods immediately. (= If you don't provide them I won't pay) c. You'll never understand English unless you study this grammar carefully. (= You'll never understand if you don't study...) Type 2: (Unless + past) a. Unless he was very ill, he would be at work. b. I wouldn't eat that food unless I was really hungry. c. She would be here by now unless she was stuck in the traffic. Type 3: (Unless + past perfect) a. The elephant wouldn't have seen the mouse unless she'd had perfect eyesight. b. I wouldn't have phoned him unless you'd suggested it. c. They would have shot her unless she'd given them the money.

Excercises: Fill the gaps with as soon as, if, and unless. 1 We had a cup of tea _________________ we got home. 2 _________________ you see Lionel, tell him about the party. 3 _________________ Alfie saw Ruby, he knew they were going to be special friends. 4 Please phone me _________________ you get in. 5 I generally wash up before I go to bed _________________ I'm feeling too tired. 6 _________________ it's raining, I do the washing on Tuesdays. 7 _________________ it's raining, I won't do the washing. 8 _________________ my English class is cancelled again, I'll go and see Lost in Translation at the cinema. 9 We can rent a dvd this Friday _________________ of course you'd rather go out. 10 She always checks her email _________________ she gets to the office. 11 _________________ you go online, check the headlines, will you? 12 _________________ my boss says no, I'm going to take Friday off. 13 Buy me a paper, please, _________________ you go past a newsagent's. 14 I don't normally buy magazines _________________ I'm going on a long journey.

4. MODALS.

Teachers explanation. Modals are special verbs which behave very irregularly in English. Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without "to"). Can, Could, Be able to Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn't Shall versus Will

Students explanation. Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences: 1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person. For example: He can speak Chinese. She should be here by 9:00.

2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past. For example: He should not be late. They might not come to the party.

3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses. For example: He will can go with us. Not Correct She musted study very hard. Not Correct Can Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:

talk about possibility and ability make requests ask for or give permission Structure of Can

subject + can + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). subject auxiliary verb main verb + I can cannot He can't ? Can you play tennis? play tennis. play tennis.

Note! Can is invariable. There is only one form of can. The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

Use of Can

We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:

She can drive a car. John can speak Spanish. I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.) Can you hear me?

Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability. A. Can you help me with my homework? (present) B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

Can: requests and orders

We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):

Can Can Can Can

you you you you

make a cup of coffee, please. put the TV on. come here a minute. be quiet!

Can: Permission

We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something: A. Can I smoke in this room? B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden. Note! We also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.

Could

Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:

talk about past possibility or ability make requests

Structure of Could

subject + could + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). subject + My grandmother auxiliary verb could could not She couldn't ? Could your grandmother swim? walk. main verb swim.

Note! Could is invariable. There is only one form of could. The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

Use of Could

We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do:

I could swim when I was 5 years old. My grandmother could speak seven languages. When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the door.) Could you understand what he was saying?

We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able to (positive) and couldn't (negative). For example:

Past General My grandmother could speak Spanish. My grandmother couldn't speak Spanish. Specific Occasion A man fell into the river yesterday. The police were able to save him. A man fell into the river yesterday. The police couldn't save him.

Could: Requests

We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):

Could you tell me where the bank is, please? Could you send me a catalogue, please?

Be able to

Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could. We use be able to:

to talk about ability

Structure of Be able to

The structure of be able to is: subject + be + able + infinitive

be able subject main verb adjective infinitive + I am is not She isn't ? Are you able to drive? able to drive. able to drive.

Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:

I was able to drive... I will be able to drive... I have been able to drive...

Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:

I would like to be able to speak Chinese.

 Use of Be able to We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tensesbut "can" is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect) For example:

You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple) I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive) Have to

Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We include have to here for convenience.

Have to (objective obligation)

We often use have to to say that something is obligatory, For example:

Children have to go to school.

Structure of Have to

Have to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the have to structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is: subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive

subject auxiliary verb main verb have infinitive (with to) + She ? I Did do not you has have have to work. to see to go the doctor. to school?

Use of Have to

In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or school rules). Have to is objective. For example:

In France, you have to drive on the right. In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform. John has to wear a tie at work.

In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.

We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We conjugate it just like any other main verb.

auxiliary subject verb past simple present simple I I

main verb

have
had have

infinitive to work to work yesterday. today.

future simple present continuous

will

have

to work

tomorrow.

She

is

having

to wait.

present perfect

We

have

had

to change to do

the time.

modal (may)

They

may

have

it again.

Must (subjective obligation)

We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary. For example: I must go.

Structure of Must

Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure is: subject + must + main verb The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").

subject auxiliary must main verb I You We must must must go visit stop home. us. now.

Use of Must

In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. For example:

I must stop smoking. You must visit us soon. He must work harder.

In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from outside. We can use must to talk about the present or the future. For example:

I must go now. (present) I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)

We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about the past.

Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)

We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed. For example:

Passengers must not talk to the driver.

Structure of Must not

Must is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure for must not is: subject + must not + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").

subject I You Students

auxiliary must + not main verb mustn't mustn't must not forget disturb be my keys. him. late.

Use of Must not

Must not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not allowed. The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real law or rule). For example:

I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective) You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective) Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective) Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)

We can use must not to talk about the present or the future:

Visitors must not smoke. (present) I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)

We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other structures to talk about the past. For example:

We were not allowed to enter. I couldn't park outside the shop.

Shall versus Will

People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). This is not really true. The difference between shall and will is often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the difference does exist. The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will: 1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact) Person I you he, she, it we Plural Verb Example shall will I shall be in London tomorrow. You will see a large building on the left. He will be wearing blue. We shall not be there when you arrive. You will find his office on the 7th floor. They will arrive late. Contraction I'll You'll

Singular

will

He'll

shall

We shan't

you they

will will

You'll They'll

2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command) Person I Singular you he, she, Verb Example will shall shall I will do everything possible to help. You shall be sorry for this. It shall be done. Contraction I'll You'll It'll

it we Plural you they will shall shall We will not interfere. You shall do as you're told. They shall give one month's notice. We won't You'll They'll

It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let those who make assertions such as "People in the USA never use 'shall'" peruse a good US English dictionary, or many US legal documents which often contain phrases such as:

Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event of termination.

Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It is perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write. For example:

I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest catalogue.

Exercises: Write the correct modal for the following sentences. Sometimes negative forms are used. 1. John goes to work at 7 o'clock. He to get up early.

2. Mary has been playing the harp since she was five. She play very well. 3. Joe has a toothache. He go to the dentist. get a

4. Sam and Eva want to get married. First, they license. 5. Tomorrow is Sunday and I 6. My dog is getting fat. I 7. You 8. Peter

work, so I can sleep in. feed him so much.

put your feet on the table! run faster when he was younger. have a SIN number. find them.

9. Before you apply for a job you 10.I dropped my keys in the dark and I

5. MODALS IN PAST.

Teachers explanation. The modal verbs form a special category of verbs. They verbs are usually used with the infinitive of another verb to express ability or possibility, obligation, permission The verb shall can also be seen as a modal verb. However, it is dealt with separately under future aspect and modal verb. Students explanation. Past modals come in two forms. The first type is the easiest and usually requires only a simple word change: I can drive. I could drive when I was 16. I have to go to California. I had to go to California. Lenny will pay tomorrow. Lenny said he would pay tomorrow. Past modals with have (present ability) (past ability) (present obligation) (past obligation) (future intention) (future reported from the past)

Some past modals can be formed by using have + the past participle of the main verb immediately after the modal. (should have, could have, would have, etc.) However, since modals express possibility, intention, obligation, etc., they do not always indicate a definite tense. Therefore, when using past modals with have, special meanings need to be considered. I should go to the funeral. (I feel an obligation to go-I should have gone to the funeral. later.) (I didn't go. Now I regret it.) Lex might take Karen to the airport. Lex might have taken Karen to (It's a future possibility.) (He may be on his way there

the airport. Lex could have taken Karen to the airport. Lex would have taken Karen to the airport. Otis didn't come to work yesterday. He had to take care of his children. His children must have been sick.

now.) (Most likely he didn't.) (He didn't. He had an excuse.) (past fact) (past obligation) (conjecture about the past)

Modal auxiliary verbs are used to moderate the main verb, that is to enhance or restrict the verb to a certain context. The most common modal auxiliaries in English are: can could may should might will must would

Notice the usage of modals in the following sentences: I pay my taxes. General declaration of fact. Paying taxes is something I normally do. Expresses ability. I have the means (funds) to pay.

I can pay my taxes.

I might pay my taxes. Expresses possibility, but not certainty. Maybe I will pay; maybe I won't. I will pay my taxes. Expresses future intent. I resolve to do it at some later time.

I should pay my taxes.Expresses mild obligation. It is required, and I expect to comply. I could pay my taxes. Expresses possibility. If I have nothing else to do with the money, I

might pay taxes. I would pay my taxes. (In this case), expresses reservation. If I had the money (but I don't). . . I must pay my taxes. Expresses strong obligation. I am required and have to comply.

Modals are followed by only the base form of the verb and are no used alone unless there is a clear connection to a main verb. He must to finish his homework. Jack could heard the bell. Jack could hear the bell. Penny will going to the movie. Penny will go to the movie. There are many ways to make requests in English. The most common involves using the imperative and modals. Using the Imperative

WRONG WRONG RIGHT WRONG RIGHT

He must finish his homework. RIGHT

The imperative is the simple form of the verb. The subject of an imperative sentence is understood as "you" although it is usually not spoken. Open the door. Will you help me? Pick up your toys. Please help me. (You) open the door. Yes, I will (help you). (You) pick up your toys. (You) please help me.

The imperative is often used by persons of authority when speaking to subordinates. Using Modals

To show respect and politeness, most people use modal expressions when making requests. For example: Will you...? Would you...? Would you please...? Could you (please)...? Could you possibly...? Would you kindly...? Would you mind (Ving )...? Would you be so kind as to...? Will you open the door for me? Would you open the door for me? Would you please open the door (for me)? Could you (please)...? Could you (please) open the door? Could you possibly open the door? Would you kindly open the door? Would you mind opening the door? Would you be so kind as to open the door?

Common Problems with Modals Correct They are going to meet us at the theater. He should eat his dinner. I had better go now. You must not use that pencil.

1. Using "to" unnecessarily: Incorrect They going to meet us at the theater. He should to eat his dinner. I had better to go now. You must not to use that pencil.

2. Using anything but the base form after a modal: John could heard the bell. John could hear the bell. Penny will going to the movie. 3. Using double modals: You should ought to speak English. She might can help me. Penny will go to the movie. You ought to speak English. /should speak She might be able to help me.

4. Omitting "be" in certain modal expressions: They going to meet us at the They are going to meet us at the theater. theater. Jack supposed to take his medicine. Jack is supposed to take his medicine.

5. Using wrong word order in questions: How I can help you? How can I help you? Where I should go for the Where should I go for the meeting? meeting?

Exercises: Complete the sentences with a verb given in past modal form. Use short forms if possible. For example A Why was she upset? B I don't know. She might have had some bad news.

1 A James was at the party last night. B He 2 You driving test. (be)! He's in China. (be) pleased when you passed your

3 Anna wasn't at work today. She day off. 4 A Where's Mike? B I'm not sure. He (go) home.

(have) the

5 There was so much traffic, there accident. 6 Janet working.

(be) an

(ring) you last night. Her phone isn't

6. USED TO / STILL / ANYMORE.

Teachers explanation. We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a tense. It is a special expression. We use the expression used to do for the past only. Used to has another meaning, it can be used as an adjective and we use it to talk about things that have become familiar, and are no longer strange or new. Anymore is properly used in a statement about a change in a previous condition or activity. It is often spelled as a two words, any more, but most authorities accept it as a compound word today. We use still in questions, affirmative and negative sentences to indicate that something is not finished and that we are perhaps surprised or concerned about this. Because it is emphatic, it often carries considerable word stress

Students explanation. Used to

We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens. For example: I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago. Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't. I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.

We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.

For example: There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't. She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off. I didn't use to like him but now I do.

Still

We use still to say that a situation or action is continuing. It hasn't changed or stopped: For example: It's 10 o'clock and Abdullah is still in bed. When I went to bed, Mohammed was still working. Do u still want to go to the party or have you changed your mind? Still usually goes in the middle of the sentence with the verb. Is it still raining? Yes, it's still raining. No chance of playing tennis today, I'm afraid. I still don't know whether Brendan will be coming to the engagement party. I've tried to reach him several times on the phone, but can't seem to get hold of him. Always, still We use always to say that something happens all the time (or very often). We use always to say that something happens all the time (in an annoying way). We use always to say that something exists for ever. I always go swimming on Monday evenings. She has always wanted to visit Finland. He is always forgetting things. He's always complaining. I'll always remember the first time I met her.

Always is usually before the main verb; after an auxiliary or modal verb; after the verb 'to be'.

I always have... I can always... He is always...

Still means 'continuing later than She is still living with her parents. expected.' Why are you still talking about it? It expresses that someting started in They still haven't mended my car the past and is the same now. (They haven't mended my car yet). Still usually comes before the main verb. Still usually comes after the main verb if the main verb is 'be'. I still like her. Does he still live in Cambridge? He is still here. I can still run 100 metres in less than 12 seconds.

Anymore.

"Anymore" is an adverb meaning "any longer" or "now," as in "I don't live there anymore." It's often seen in negative contexts like that one. The phrase "any more" is most often used to talk about quantities of things. For example: Would you like any more dessert? I don't care for any more, thank you. Any more / any longer / no longer

We use notany more or not. Any longer to say that a situation has changed. Any more and any longer go at the end of a sentence: Sara doesn't work here any more ( or any longer ). She left last month. ( not ' Sara doesn't still work here' ) We used to be good friends but we aren't any more ( or any longer ). You can also use no longer. No longer goes in the middle of the sentence:

Sara no longer works here. Note that we do not normally use no more in this way: We are no longer friends. ( not' we are no more friends' ) Compare still and not any more: Fatima still works here but Sara doesn't work here any more.

7. BE USED TO / GET USED TO.

Teachers explanation. We use 'be used to' to say that a situation is not new or strange, or is no longer new or strange. For example: I've lived here for ten years now so I'm used to driving in the city. He's not used to working at night so he sometimes falls asleep. Are you used to the climate? We can modify 'be used to' with adverbs. For example: I'm very used to his strange behavior now. She's should be pretty used to living without electricity or running water by now. We use 'get used to' to say that an action or situation becomes less strange or new. For example: It took them a long time to get used to their new boss. Have you got used to driving on the left yet? She is getting used to waking up early for her new job.

Students explanation. Be used to

Be used to is used to show previous experience and familiarity with a certain situation. For example: I am used to living abroad. - I have previous experience living abroad, so it's not difficult for me. Jane isn't used to living abroad. - She doesn't have much experience living abroad, or if she does it is still difficult for her. Paul is used to learning languages. - Paul has learnt languages before, so

he's good at it. Carol has never studied a foreign language, so she's not used to it. - Carol doesn't have previous experience learning a foreign language. Get used to

Get used to is used for the process of acquiring experience and ability. In the beginning we are less experienced, then we get used to something we go through a process of gaining experience. For example: I wasn't used to living abroad, but I got used to it. - I didn't have experience living abroad, but I grew in experience until I was happy living abroad. I didn't like bananas, but I got used to them. - In the beginning I didn't like bananas, but after a while I learnt to like them. To

In the structure be / get used to, to is a preposition, not part of the toinfinitive. For example: I'm used to cooking for myself. OK I'm used to cook for myself. Incorrect - "to cook" is a to-infinitive and can't be used here. Be used to Be used to + noun phrase or verbing (in this pattern used is an adjective and to is a preposition). If you are used to something, you have often done or experienced it, so it's not strange, new or difficult for you. The opposite of be used to is be not used to.

I am used to getting up early in the morning. I don't mind it. He didn't complain about the noise nextdoor - he was used to it.

I am not used to the new system yet.

Get used to Get used to + noun phrase or verbing (in this pattern used is an adjective and to is a preposition). If you get used to something, you become accustomed to it. It is the process of becoming used to something. I got used to getting up early in the morning. After a while he didn't mind the noise in the office - he got used to it.

Exercises: Choose the correct answer. I'm not used to ____ up this early. get getting I used to ____ a lot. read reading You'll have to get used to ____ on the right when you live there. drive driving I didn't use to ____ it, but I do now. like liking I found it hard to get used to ____ in such a hot country. live living

8. INDIRECT SPEECH.

Teachers explanation. When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb say in this tense, indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in a past tense, then the tense changes to another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even further into the past. If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speakers exact words (direct speech), but reported (indirect) speech. Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported speech. The structure is a little different depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request. Students explanation. Indirect speech is speech which tells you what someone said, but does not use the person's actual words: For example: They said you didn't like it I asked him what his plans were Citizens complained about the smoke.

Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect speech. With indirect speech, the use of that is optional.

Direct Speech simple present He said, I go to school every day. simple past He said, I went to school every day. present perfect He said, I have gone to school every day. present progressive He said, I am going to school every day. past progressive He said, I was going to school every day. future (will) He said, I will go to school every day. future (going to) He said, I am going to school every day.

Indirect Speech simple past He said (that) he went to school every day. past perfect He said (that) he had gone to school every day. past perfect He said (that) he had gone to school every day. past progressive He said (that) he was going to school every day. perfect progressive He said (that) he had been going to school every day, would + verb name He said (that) he would go to school every day. present progressive He said (that) he is going to school every day.

past progressive He said (that) he was going to school every day Direct Speech auxiliary + verb name He said, Do you go to school every day? He said, Where do you go to school? imperative He said, Go to school every day. infinitive He said to go to school every day. Indirect Speech simple past He asked me if I went to school every day.* He asked me where I went to school.

Note than when a Yes/No question is being asked in direct speech, then a construction with if or whether is used. If a WH question is being asked, then use the WH to introduce the clause. Also note that with indirect speech, these are examples of embedded questions.

The situation changes if instead of the common said another part of the very to say is used. that case the verb tenses usually remain the same.

Direct Speech simple present + simple present He says, I go to school every day. present perfect + simple present He has said, I go to school

Indirect Speech simple present + simple present He says (that) he goes to school every day. present perfect + simple present He has said (that) he goes to school

every day. past progressive + simple past He was saying, I went to school every day.

every day. past progressive + simple past He was saying (that) he went to school every day. past progressive + past perfect He was saying (that) he had gone to school every day.

future + simple present He will say, I go to school every day.

future + simple present He will say (that) he goes to school every day.

Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used.If the verb said is used, then the form of the modal, or another modal that has a past meaning is used.

Direct Speech can He said, I can go to school every day. may He said, I may go to school every day. might He said, I might go to school every day.

Indirect Speech could He said (that) he could go to school every day. might He said (that) he might go to school every day.

must He said, I must go to school every day. have to He said, I have to go to school every day. should He said, I should go to school every day. ought to He said, I ought to go to school every day.

had to He said (that) he had to go to school every day.

should He said (that) he should go to school every day. ought to He said (that) he ought to go to school every day.

While not all of the possibilities have been listed here, there are enough to provide examples of the main rules governing the use of indirect or reported speech. For other situations, try to extrapolate from the examples here, or better still, refer to a good grammar text or reference book. Some other verbs that can be used to introduce direct speech are: ask, report, tell, announce, suggest, and inquire. They are not used interchangeably.

Exercises.

1. He told me: "We have been dancing all the time." He told me (that) .

2. Mum asked me: "Have you seen my daughter?" Mum asked me .

3. He asked me: "Who has cleaned the pool?" He asked me .

4. Marilyn said: "I always eat cornflakes in the morning." Marilyn said (that) 5. He told her: "Give up smoking!" He told her . .

6. Father said: "Mum is tired now." Father said (that) .

7. Phil asked me: "Were you at the party, too?" Phil asked me .

8. He said: "I have been waiting for you for an hour." He said (that) .

9. Ann asked Kate: "Did you really write this story?" Ann asked Kate 10.Tim asked: "Who has taken my ruler?" Tim asked . .

9. ENBEDDED QUESTIONS.

Teachers explanation. An embedded question is a question included in another question or statement. Embedded questions feel less abrupt, and so have a softening effect. For example: A: What time is it? (simple question) B: Sorry. I don't know the time. (simple statement) A: Do you know what time it is? (embedded question in a question) B: Sorry. I don't know what time it is. (embedded question in a statement) Embedded questions in statements and questions follow the same pattern. This is true for both wh-questions and yes/no embedded questions. main question/statement | interrogative | subject | verb | object/complement For example: A: Do you know | what | time | it | is? B: I don't know | what | time | it | is. A: Do you know | if | it | is | 2:00? B: I don't know | if | it | is | 2:00. Notice the sentence structure following the interrogative (question word). Because embedded questions are noun clauses, they follow the structure of a statement and not a question. In other words, always use: subject + verb + object/complement. Do you know | what | time | is | it? (incorrect) I don't know | what | time | is | it. (incorrect)

Students explanation.

Embedded questions are questions within another statement or question. They function as noun clauses and as such should generally follow statement, not question, order. For example: What time is it? I know what time is it. I know what time it is.

(question order) Where did she go? (Incorrect) I don't know where did she (Statement order: S+ V) go. (Question) I don't know where she (Incorrect) went. (Correct) What does he do for a (Question) living? (Incorrect) I wonder what does he do. (Correct) I wonder what he does. (Question) Who is she? (Incorrect) Can you tell me who is (Correct) she? Can you tell me who she is? When using adjectives as complements, it is okay to use question order for embedded questions: For example: Who's hungry? (Question) I wonder who is hungry. (Okay) In some cases, depending on the focus of the sentence, question order may be used: Who is the doctor? I know who the doctor is. Who is a doctor? I know who is a doctor (and who is not).

An embedded question is a question that is included in another sentence. Question Who is your teacher? What time is it? When is Jim going home? Embedded Question Could you tell me who your teacher is? Do you know what time it is? I don't know when Jim is going home.

Note! the shift in the verb when you embed an information question: 1. Who is your teacher? Could you tell me who your teacher is? 2. What time is it? Do you know what time it is? 3. When is Jim going home? I don't know when Jim is going home. Use normal sentence order, not question order, with embedded questions. Embedding yes/no questions

Use if or whether to embed questions that are answered with yes or no. Question Are you hungry? Embedded yes/no Question I asked you if you were hungry.

Do you want to stay at Would you please ask Duane if he wants to stay the party? at the party? Am I going? Stan doesn't know whether I'm going. Stan doesn't know whether I'm going or not.

You didn't tell me whether you were in the Army. Were you in the Army? You didn't tell me whether you were in the Army or not.

Notice that if is usually used with only one alternative: I asked you if you were hungry. Would you please ask Duane if he wants to stay at the party? Whether usually provides for more than one alternative. Stan doesn't know whether I'm going. Stan doesn't know whether I'm going or not. You didn't tell me whether you were in the Army. You didn't tell me whether you were in the Army or not. The same is true in information questions:

Question Do you want the red dress or the blue one?

Embedded Question I don't know whether you want the red dress or the blue one.

Does Reggie plan to Dad asked whether Reggie planned to stay in stay in school or get a school or get a job. job? Using an infinitive in an embedded question

English speakers often use an infinitive after the question word in an embedded question. Question Embedded Question

How do you change the ink in the I don't know how to change the copier? ink in the copier. Should I call Mr. Abbey now or wait until later? Where should we meet Carole in the morning? I don't know whether to call Mr. Abbey now or wait until later. Ask Carole where to meet her in the morning.

Indirect Questions

Indirect questions are like indirect speech. When a question is in the present tense, it is in the past when it is embedded in a sentence. If it is in the past, it must be in the past perfect when it is embedded in a sentence.

Question

Embedded Question

Do you like your job? She asked me if I liked my job. Did you like your last She asked me if I had liked my last job. job?

10. ATTACHED QUESTIONS.

Teachers explanation. In most languages, tag questions are more common in colloquial spoken usage than in formal written usage. They can be an indicator of politeness, emphasis, or irony. They may suggest confidence or lack of confidence; they may be confrontational or tentative. Some examples showing the wide variety of structure possible in English are: Open the window, will you? She doesn't really want that, does she? You'd better stop now, hadn't you? So you thought it would be a good idea to reprogram the computer, did you? It's quite an achievement, isn't it, to win a Nobel prize! Oh I must, must I? I just adore Beethoven, don't you? I'm coming with you, all right? You've been there, right? Easier said than done, eh? You went there, no? English tag questions, when they have the grammatical form of a question, are atypically complex, because they vary according to four factors: the choice of auxiliary, the negation, the intonation pattern and the emphasis.

Students explanation. Tag questions (or: question tags) are a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment (the "tag"). Auxiliary

The English tag question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a pronoun. The auxiliary has to agree with the tense, aspect and modality of the verb in the preceding sentence. If the verb was in the perfect tense, for example, the tag question uses has or have; if the verb was in a present progressive form, the tag is formed with am, are, is; and if the sentence has a modal verb, this is echoed in the tag. For example: He's read this book, hasn't he? He read this book, didn't he? He's reading this book, isn't he? He reads a lot of books, doesn't he? He'll read this book, won't he? He should read this book, shouldn't he? He can read this book, can't he? Negation

English tag questions may contain a negation, but need not. When there is no special emphasis, the rule of thumb often applies that a positive sentence has a negative tag and vice versa. For example: She is French, isn't she? She's not French, is she?

These are sometimes called "balanced tag questions". However, it has been estimated that in normal conversation, as many as 40%-50%[1] of tags break this rule. "Unbalanced tag questions" (positive to positive or negative to negative) may be used for ironic or confrontational effects: Do listen, will you? Oh, I'm lazy, am I? Jack: I refuse to spend Sunday at your mother's house! Jill: Oh you do, do you? We'll see about that! Jack: I just won't go back! Jill: Oh you won't, won't you? Patterns of negation can show regional variations. In North East Scotland, for example, positive to positive is used when no special effect is desired: For example: This pizza's fine, is it? (standard English: This pizza's delicious, isn't it?) Note! the following variations in the negation when the auxiliary is the I form of the copula: England (and America, Australia, etc.): Clever, aren't I? Scotland/Northern Ireland: Clever, amn't I? nonstandard dialects: Clever, ain't I?

Intonation

English tags can have a rising or a falling intonation pattern. This is contrasted with Polish, French or German, for example, where all tags rise. As a rule, the English rising pattern is used when soliciting information or motivating an action, that is, when some sort of response is required. Since normal English yes/no questions have rising patterns (e.g. Are you coming?), these tags make a grammatical statement into a real question: For example: You're coming, aren't you? Do listen, will you?

The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The statement itself ends with a falling pattern, and the tag sounds like an echo, strengthening the pattern. Most English tag questions have this falling pattern. For example: He doesn't know what he's doing, does he? This is really boring, isn't it? Sometimes the rising tag goes with the positive to positive pattern to create a confrontational effect: For example: He was the best in the class, was he? (rising: the speaker is challenging this thesis, or perhaps expressing surprised interest) He was the best in the class, wasn't he? (falling: the speaker holds this opinion) Be careful, will you? (rising: expresses irritation) Take care, won't you? (falling: expresses concern) Sometimes the same words may have different patterns depending on the situation or implication. You don't remember my name, do you? (rising: expresses surprise) You don't remember my name, do you? (falling: expresses amusement or resignation) Your name's Mary, isn't it? (rising: expresses uncertainty) Your name's Mary, isn't it? (falling: expresses confidence)

Emphasis

English tag questions are normally stressed on the verb, but the stress is on the pronoun if there is a change of person. For example: I don't like peas, do you? I like peas, don't you?

Exercises:
1. You wanted that, .......... ? a) would you b) didn't you c) wouldn't you 2. He saw that .......... ? a) is he b) won't he c) didn't he 3. You know that's right .......... ? a) would you b) don't you c) didn't you 4. He wil be coming .......... ? a) did he b) doesn't he c) won't he 5. After all this time you'd think he'd have forgotten .......... ? a) didn't you b) wouldn't you c) don't you

11. PASSIVE VOICE.

Teachers explanation. A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence.

Students explanation. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action. For example: My bike was stolen. In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows: For example: A mistake was made. In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone Form of Passive

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples of Passive

Tense

Subject

Verb writes

Object a letter.

Simple Present

Active: Passive:

Rita A letter Rita A letter Rita A letter Rita A letter Rita A letter

is written wrote was written has written has been written will write will be written can write can be written

by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita.

Simple Past Active: Passive: Present Perfect Future I Active: Passive: Active: Passive: Hilfsverben Active: Passive:

Examples of Passive

Tense

Subject

Verb is writing

Object a letter.

Present Progressive

Active: Passive:

Rita A letter Rita A letter Rita A letter Rita A letter

is being written was writing was being written had written had been written will have written will have been written would write would be written would have written would have been written

by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita.

Past Progressive Past Perfect

Active: Passive: Active: Passive:

Future II

Active: Passive:

Conditional I Active: Passive: Conditional II Active: Passive:

Rita A letter Rita A letter

a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

Subject

Verb wrote

Object 1 a letter

Object 2 to me.

Active: Passive: Passive: .

Rita A letter I

was written was written

to me a letter

by Rita. by Rita.

As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. Thats why it is usually dropped. Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive. For example: They build houses. Houses are built. Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive. For example: he says it is said Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know). For example: They say that women live longer than men. It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common. For example: They say that women live longer than men. Women are said to live longer than men. The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped). Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence

Exercises: Rewrite the sentences using Passive voice. Example: Peter writes a letter. _________________ Answer: A letter is written. or A letter is written by Peter. 1) Julia rescued three cats. . 2) The students handed in the reports. . 3) Maria crashed into the blue car. . 4) Alex learned the poem. . 5) Steven has forgotten the book. . 6) The mechanic has not repaired the DVD recorder. . 7) They play handball. . 8) Sue puts the rucksack on the floor. . 9) The girls had lost the match. . 10) The teacher is not going to open the window. .

12. SUBJUNCTIVE.

Teachers explanation. The subjunctive is a special kind of present tense, using an infinitive that has no s in the third person singular. It is often used when talking about something that somebody must do. The subjunctive is a formal construction. It is more commonly used in American English than in British English, and more often in the written form than in the spoken form. It was used much more frequently in old English, but many of these forms have now disappeared in modern English.

Students explanation. The subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English. Structure of the Subjunctive

The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the past tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"):

be (past) I were you were he, she, it were we were you were they were

be (present) I be you be

all other verbs (past & present) I work you work

he, she, it be he, she, it work we be we work you be you work they be they work

Use of the Subjunctive

We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody:

wants to happen hopes will happen imagines happening

For example: The President requests that you be present at the meeting. It is vital that you be present at the meeting. If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy. The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:

the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest + that the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital + that

For example: The manager insists that the car park be locked at night. The board of directors recommended that he join the company. It is essential that we vote as soon as possible. It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the weekend.

Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does not matter whether the sentence is past or present. For example: Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation. Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation. Present: It is essential that she be present. Past: It was essential that she be present.

Verbs used with the Subjunctive

Other verbs that are commonly used with the subjunctive are: advise, ask, beg, decide, decree, desire, dictate, insist, intend, move, order, petition, propose, recommend, request, require, resolve, suggest, urge, and vote.

Exercises:
Fill in the blanks below with the correct form of the verb in parentheses 1. It's important that she (remember) to take her medicine twice a day.

2. I suggest that Frank (read) doesn't want the wheels to fall off while he is riding down a hill

the directions carefully before assembling the bicycle. He

3. Mrs. Finkelstein demanded that the heater (repair) freezing.

immediately. Her apartment was

4. It's vital that the United States (focus) What we do now will affect our country for generations to come.

on improving its public education system.

5. The monk insisted that the tourists (enter) shoes.

the temple until they had removed their

6. I am not going to sit here and let her insult me. I demand that she immediately (apologize)

for what she just said.

7. Judy asked that we (attend)

her graduation ceremony next week.

8. Was it really necessary that (sit) I rehearsing for the play? It was really

there watching you the entire time you were

boring watching you repeat the scenes over and over again.

9. It is important to remember that Janine (think) not agree to the changes you have made in the organization of the company.

very differently from you. She may

10. It's a little difficult to find the restaurant. I propose that we all (drive) that nobody gets lost along the way

together so

13. CAUSATIVES.

Teachers explanation. The causative is a common structure in English. It is used when one thing or person causes another thing or person to do something. The causative has the meaning of 'someone causes someone to do something.

Students explanation. There are two basic causative structures. One is like an active, and the other is like a passive. These examples use the causative verb "have":

I had John fix the car.

(I arranged for the car to be fixed by John -- I caused him to fix it.)

I had the car fixed.

(I arranged for the car to be fixed by someone. We don't know who, so this is like a passive.)

The active causative structure This is the basic structure of the active form, along with some more examples:

Subject

Causative verb

Agent

Action verb

Object

Susan

had

her brother

do

her homework.

The police

had

the suspect

stop

his car.

We

had

the carpenter

fix

our window.

The passive causative structure In the passive form, there is usually no agent. The action verb is in the past participle, and the object comes before it: Subject Causative verb Object Action verb

We

had

our door

fixed.

Yukiko

had

her hair

cut.

Sanjay

had

the windows

cleaned.

Other causative verbs

All the examples above use the causative verb "have". However, many other verbs can be used in causatives. In the active form, som of these verbs require the action verb to have "to" before it. For example:

Verb

Meaning

Form of Action Verb

Examples

make

force, compel

plain form

The robbers made us lie on the floor. [No passive form]

get

same as "have"

"to" form

I got Jae Won to pick me up in the car. She got her hair cut.

let

allow

plain form

I'll let you borrow my bike. [No passive form]

Exercises: Use the following verbs in the appropriate tense to fill in the blanks: let make have get 1. Sam really wanted a dog, but his parents wouldn't ______________ him have a pet. 2. I can't believe she _____________ you look at her vacation pictures again last night. We have to look at those stupid pictures every time we go to her house. 3. I don't know how you convince your children to clean up their rooms. I couldn't _____________________ my children to clean up their rooms if my life depended on it. 4. Professor Yu _____________________ each of her students write an essay describing their future goals in life. 5. Professor Yu _____________________ her students use a dictionary while they were taking the test. 6. Debbie's husband hates the opera. But after days of nagging, she finally ______________ him to go see the new production of La Boheme. 7. Sally ___________________ me take off my shoes before I went into her house. She said she wanted to keep the carpet clean. 8. Rebecca Smith requested a copy of that expense report, so I ____________ the courier take one over to her last week. 9. Diane thinks television is a waste of time, so she won't ______________ her children watch TV. 10. Susie _____________________ her son take out the trash before he went to the park to play soccer.

14. INVERTED WORD ORDER.

Teachers explanation. In Natural word order, the subject parts come before the verb, and the predicate parts come after the verb. In Inverted word order, a sentence must have a helping verb or other predicate words that modify the verb at the beginning of the sentence. The three most common ways to begin a sentence with predicate words are listed below. 1. Adverb 2. Helping Verb 3. Prepositional Phrase Inverted word order If a clause begins with a negative adverb, inverted word order must usually be used, with the subject following the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, or the first auxiliary. In the case of the Simple Present or Simple Past of any verb other than the verb to be, the auxiliary to do must be used.

Students explanation. Inversion is used in statements to give emphasis, especially when the statement begins with a negative word or idea: For example: Under no circumstances can your money be refunded. Only when I had been there for a year did I begin to feel at home. Not only did I lose all my clothes and jewellery, but my chequebook, passport and visa card went too.' Inversion is, of course, necessary after neither, nor and so: I don't like dried fruit.' 'Neither do I. Matthew's got chicken pox, so has his brother

Stucture of inverted word order. Simple form of

negative adverb + or adverb phrase

verb to be or + first auxiliary

subject

Never before Little Seldom

was did had

I we they

so eager to reach home. think we would meet again. tasted such a delicacy.

Following are other examples of this type of construction. The negative adverbs and adverb phrases are printed in bold type, and the subjects of the verbs are underlined. For example: Seldom was he at a loss for words. Scarcely had we left the house, when it began to rain. Not for many years was the true story known. No sooner did the bell ring than the children ran out of the school.

In the first example, the subject he follows was, the Simple Past of the verb to be. In the succeeding examples, the subjects we, story and bell follow the auxiliaries had, was and did, respectively. In this type of inverted construction, if there is used as an introductory word, there follows the Simple Past or Simple Present of the verb to be, or the first auxiliary.

For example: Seldom were there more than five ducks on the pond. Rarely had there been more swans on the lake than there were that day.

In the first example, there follows were, the Simple Past of the verb to be. In the second example, there follows the auxiliary had, of the verb had been. It should be noted that the expression so ... that can also be used with inverted word order. Forexample: So exhausted were we that we fell asleep at the table. In this example, the subject we follows the verb were.

15. GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES.

Teachers explanation. Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. They can follow adjectives and other verbs. Gerunds can also follow prepositions. A gerund (often known as an -ing word) is a noun formed from a verb by adding -ing. See also Nouns/Gerund. Not all words formed with -ing are gerunds. An infinitive is to + the verb. When a verb follows a verb it either takes the gerund or infinitive form. Some verbs can take either the gerund or the infinitive with no loss of meaning. For example: With the verb start - "It started to rain." or "It started raining." Both sentences have the same meaning. Sometimes the use of the gerund or infinitive changes the meaning of the sentence. For example: With the verb remember - "I remembered to do my homework". or "I remembered doing my homework." In the first sentence (I remembered to do my homework), the person speaking remembered they had some homework first and then carried out the action and did it. In the second sentence (I remembered doing my homework.), the person speaking carried out the action (their homework) first and then remembered doing it. Other verbs only take one or the other, unfortunately there is no rule as to which form the verb takes. The same is true when the verb follows an adjective.

Students explanation. Here is a brief review of the differences between gerunds and infinitives. Gerunds are formed with ING: walking, talking, thinking, listening Infinitives are formed with TO: to walk, to talk, to think, to listen Gerunds and infinitives can do several jobs: Both gerunds and infinitives can be the subject of a sentence: For example: Writing in English is difficult. To write in English is difficult. Both gerunds and infinitives can be the object of a verb: For example: I like writing in English. I like to write in English. But... Only gerunds can be the object of a preposition: We are talking about writing in English. It is often difficult to know when to use a gerund and when to use an infinitive. These guidelines may help you: Gerunds are often used when actions are real, concrete or completed: I stopped smoking. (The smoking was real and happened until I stopped.) Infinitives are often used when actions are unreal, abstract, or future:: I stopped to smoke. (I was doing something else, and I stopped; the smoking had not happened yet.)

Verbs that are normally followed by the gerund

acknowledge | admit | adore | anticipate | appreciate | avoid | celebrate | confess | contemplate delay | deny | describe | detest | discuss | dislike | dread | endure | enjoy fancy | finish | imagine | involve | keep | justify | mention | mind | miss | omit | postpone | practise quit | recall | recommend | regret | report | resent | resume | risk | suggest | tolerate | understand For example: I adore reading your books. They anticipated winning the election. I detest going to discos. We postponed making any decision in the meeting. I quit smoking. Do you recall seeing someone like that?

Verbs which are normally followed by the infinitive

afford | agree | appear | arrange | ask | attempt | care | choose | claim | come | consent dare | decide | demand | deserve | determine | elect | endeavour | expect | fail | get | guarentee hate | help | hesitate | hope | hurry | incline | intend | learn | long | manage | mean | need offer | plan | prepare | pretend | promise | refuse | resolve | say | seem | tend | threaten | want | wish

For example: I can't afford to go to the pub. He agreed to practice more. You should learn to express yourself.

Verbs which can be followed by the gerund or infinitive

Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or infintive With no change in meaning begin | continue | hate | like | love | neglect | prefer | start | try For example: He began to learn English when he was eight. He began learning English when he was eight. I hate to leave early. I hate leaving early. With a change in meaning forget | remember | stop For example: I forgot to feed the cat. (The cat is hungry - he has not been fed) I forgot feeding the cat. (The cat is ok - I fed him and then forgot about it)

The gerund (-ing form) must be used when a verb comes after a preposition: against | at | after | by | on | instead of | talk about | tired of | without For example: I am against smoking in public places. She is good at speaking English. I went home after leaving the party. You can improve your English by using the Internet. We need to keep on going. You should tell the truth lying all the time. Both gerunds and infinitives can be nouns, which means they can do just about anything that a noun can do. Although they name things, like other nouns, they normally name activities rather than people or objects. Here are five noun-uses of gerunds and infinitives (and one additional nonnoun use, the adjective complement, that we throw in here, free of charge).

Exercises:
Choose the correct form (infinitive with or without to or gerund).

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

We go Let it He dreams of They enjoy It is not easy My friend is afraid of Jane is good at He wanted I am crazy about .

every week.

an actor. . good friends.

. a new computer game. . to my party.

10. You must

Infinitive or Gerund? - Which is correct? 1. When you come to the crossroads - stop there. Remember to stop at the crossroads. Remember stopping at the crossroads. Both possibilities are correct. 2. Yesterday she read the first pages of her new book. She began to read her new book. She began reading her new book. Both possibilities are correct. 3. I was talking to Marc. But when my boyfriend came in, I could not talk to Marc anymore. I stopped to talk to him. I stopped talking to him. Both possibilities are correct. 4. We might go to England next year. We intend to spend our holiday in England. We intend spending our holiday in England. Both possibilities are correct.

16. TOO / SO / EITHER / NEITHER.

Teachers explanation. Too is an adverb meaning "excessively" or "also." We use so and neither to indicate similarity between or among people. We use so with affirmative sentences and neither with negative sentences. Either is an English pronoun, adjective, and conjunction, meaning one, or the other, of two choices.

Students explanation. "Too" is used in expressions like "too chubby" and "too expensive". (It gives the idea of "in excess" or "more than it should be".) Occasionally, there is some confusion over the words "too" and "to". The word "too" has two uses. "Too" can be used to express the idea of "in excess" or "more than it should be". For example: My Labrador eats too much and is too chubby. (eats more than it should and is chubbier than it should be) Karen cannot reach Southampton in an hour; it is too far. (in excess of what she can achieve in a hour) I need to talk to you. Do not leave it too late. ("to talk" - infinitive verb; explained in Section 1 / "to you" preposition; explained I tried to catch you, but I was too slow. "Too" is used in expressions like "I can do it too". (It means the same as "as well" or "also".)

Using "too" to mean "as well" or "also" is extremely common For example: I have been there too. (I have been there as well. / I have also been there.) [picture] We use so and neither to indicate similarity between or among people. We use so with affirmative sentences and neither with negative sentences. For example: I have a red car, so does Jane. Tom likes red wine, so do I. Lisa cant speak French, neither does Carl. Anna wont come tomorrow, neither will John and Frank. A frequent difficulty in English usage concerns the permissibility of using either to refer to more than one alternative. Generally, either refers to exactly two alternatives. For example: Has either of you two seen Harry? She can write with either hand or 'each': There's a lifeguard station at either end of the beach.