Workshop Manual PDF

Workshop practice (FE)
Experiment no:-01 Aim: To study different types of electronic components.
Theory:
The term passive component refers to the any device or component, which does not introduce gain or does not have directional function. Such components conduct s current in both directions and therefore known as bilateral devices. Most commonly used passive components/elements are 1) Resistors 2) Inductors 3) Capacitors 1) RESISTORS : A resister is electrical component, which has been manufactured with specified amount of resistance. A resistor can conduct current in both directions. The resistors are mainly used for two purposes, namely to controlling the flow of current & providing the desired amount of voltage in electric or electronic circuit. Resistor Specifications: The resistors are specified in terms of their resistance values, tolerance, power rating and thermal stability. CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTORS:a) Fixed Resistors i) Carbon Composition Resistors ii) Thin Film Resistors - Carbon Film Resistor - Metal Film Resistor iii) Thick Film Resistors - Metal Oxide Film Resistors - Bulk Property Film Resistors Cermet Film Resistors iv) Wire Wound Resistors b) VARIABLE RESISTORS i) ii) iii) Variable Wire Wound Potentiometers Trimmers
FIXED RESISTORS: Fixed resistors are those whose values do not change with variation in applied voltages, temperature & light intensity. Such resistors are available in various shapes and sizes with both axial and radial leads. Fixed resistors are of following types. i) Carbon Composition resistors These resistors are made by mixing carbon powder and insulating binders to produce the desired value of resistance.
Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT ) Page 1

The resulting resistance values are within 10 % of desired value, however the 5 % tolerances are also obtained through special techniques. Usually a resistance element is a simple rod of carbon powder, which is enclosed in a plastic case for insulation and mechanical strength as shown in below fig.
Carbon composition resistors are available in resistance values ranging from 1 to 22 M and power rating of 1/8,1/4,1/2,1Watts. ii) Thin film resistors These resistors are made by depositing vary thin layer of conducting material on an insulated rod, tube or plate made of ceramic or glass. Thin film resistors are again divided into following two types - Carbon film resistors:
Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )
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They are cheaper than carbon composition resistor. They have good stability, wide operating frequency range and low noise. - Metal film resistors: These resistors are made by depositing a thin layer of metal on ceramic or glass rod. The metal film is spiral cut to the spiral resistance. iii) Thick film resistors These resistors are made by technique similar to the thin film resistors. Thin film resistors are of following three types; - Metal oxide film resistors: These are manufactured by oxidizing tin chloride on heated glass substrate. The resulting resistors have low noise and good temperature stability. They are available in high voltage ratings and high resistance values. - Bulk property film resistors: These are made of metal films, which are photo etched to provide close resistance tolerances ranging from } 0.1 % to 1 %. These resistors have extremely low noise. They have low temperature coefficient and can work at high frequencies. - Cermet film resistors: These are made by placing a coating of metal alloy along with insulating material on ceramic substrate. The combination is then fixed into ceramic metal called as Cermet. iv) Wire wound resistors These resistors are made by winding resistive wire such as nichrome (nicklet & chromium alloy) on ceramic film. The wire is then coated with an insulative material. The wire wound resistors are costly as compared to the other types of resistors. They have excellent electrical properties such as low noise, good stability etc. They cannot be used at high frequency applications due to inductance and capacitance present in resistors.
b) Variable resistors: These resistors, like fixed resistors are used to control current flow and provide desired amount of voltage in electric or electronic circuit. The resistance values of variable linear resistors can be varied from 0 to the specified value Variable resistors are of following three types. 1.Variable wire wound resistors: - These resistors are made of nichrome wire wound around a ceramic core and covered with an isolative coating. A window is left in insulting cover, which exposes the resistive wire as shown in fig (a). An adjustable tap B rides along the exposed wire, which makes the electrical contact with the wire. Fig (b) is the schematic symbol of variable wire wound resistor
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2. Potentiometer: - It is a three terminal variable resistor as shown in fig (a). Its outer terminals are fixed and middle terminal is variable. The variation is provided by wiper connected to a control shaft. When control shaft is moved, the wiper moves over a resistive element. This movement provides continuous variation in resistance between the middle terminal and either outside terminal. - The name POTETIOMETER comes from the use of this device as a potential meter. 3. Trimmers: - These are used in electronics circuits to trim the circuit to the required operating conditions by inserting a small screw driver into a slot and turning one or more times. - The trimmers are available both in single and multi turns as shown in fig.
IDENTIFYING RESISTORS Most axial resistors use a pattern of coloured stripes to indicate resistance.SMT ones follow a numerical pattern. 4-band axial resistors:4 band identification is the most commonly used colour coding scheme on all resistors. It consists of four coloured bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a multiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value. Each colour corresponds to a certain

number, shown in the chart below. The tolerance for a 4-band resistor will be 2%,5%, or 10%.
The Standard EIA Colour Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows:
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INDUCTORS An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries (H). Typically an inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops helping to create a strong magnetic field inside the coil due to Faraday's law of induction.
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Inductors are one of the basic electronic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time. IDEAL & REAL INDUCTOR: An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does not dissipate or radiate energy. A real inductor may be partially modeled by a combination of inductance, resistance (due to the resistivity of the wire and losses in core material), and capacitance. TYPES OF INDUCTORS: The inductors are of two types namely Fixed & Variable inductor depending upon the type of core, whether it is fixed of variable.
a) Fixed Inductors: Air-core Inductor: This inductor is made of coils of wire wound on former made of simple cardboard. The aircore inductor has very low value of inductance. They are suitable for Radio Frequency (RF) applications
Iron-Core Inductor: This inductor is made of coils of wire wound on solid iron-core. The iron core is laminated to avoid eddy current loss. A laminated core consists of thin iron laminations pressed together, but insulated from each other. The iron-core inductors are very suitable for Audio Frequency (AF) applications.
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Ferrite-Core Inductor: This inductor is made of coils of wire wound on a ferrite-core. A ferrite is a magnetic material consisting of fine particles of iron, cobalt or nickel embedded in a insulator binder. Ferrite core has very low eddy current loss, therefore they are mainly used for high frequency applications.
CAPACITORS: The Capacitor are sometimes referred as a Condenser is an passive device, and one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential across its plates. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below.
Conclusion: In this experiment we studied different types of passive components and its symbols, construction ,working.
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Experiment no:- 02 Aim: To study the V-I characteristics of the forward and reverse biased junction diodes. Apparatus: 1. DC power supply. 2. Two Ammeter, Voltmeters. 3. Breadboard, Diode and 1K Resistor. Theory:
The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.
The general from of the current - voltage c/cs of a diode is shown in Figure (l). A current flow in the forward direction is very large compared with that in the reverse direction and such a device is very useful as a rectifier. The diode is in the forward direction when an external battery is connected with Positive terminal to the (p) region and negative terminal to the region (n). The reverse current through the diode varies greatly with temperature and with the semiconductor materiel used
The primary function of the diode is the rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher potential is connected to the anode lead), it will pass current. When it is reverse biased (the higher potential is connected to the cathode lead), the current is blocked. The current I in the forward direction can be expressed in the following exponential relationship
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The characteristic curves of an ideal diode and a real diode are seen in Figure 1-2.
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The operation of diodes (as with other semiconductor devices) is often described by a special graph called a "characteristic curve". These graphs show the relationship between the currents and voltages associated with the different terminals of the device. An understanding of these graphs helps in understanding how the device operates. For diodes the characteristic curve is called an I/V curve because it shows the relationship between the voltage applied between the anode and cathode, and the resulting current flowing through the diode.
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Conclusion: In this experiment we studied V-I Characteristics of P-N junction diode.
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Experiment No.03 Aim: To study electronic measurement instrument . Apparatus: CRO ,probes, power supply etc. Theory: The CRO is very useful & versatile lab instrument used for display management and analysis of waveforms and other phenomenons in electrical & electronics circuit. These are very fast x-y plotters displays input signal Vs time. The stylus of this plotter is an luminous spot which moves over the display area in response to input voltage. The heart of oscilloscope is cathode ray tube(CRT). The rest of instrument consists of circuitry necessary to operate the CRT . Cathode Ray tube(CRT): The CRO consists of CRT which is heart of CRO and some additional circuit to operate CRT. Fig 14.20) shows the schematic diagram of CRO along with its control circuitry. A CRT essentially consists of three basic components: Electron gun: This produces a sharply focused beam of electrons, accelerated to a very high velocity. The deflection system: this system deflects the electrons, both in the horizontal and vertical planes electro statically in accordance with waveform to be displayed. The Fluorescent screen: on this screen the beam of electrons impinges to produce a spot of visible light. These 3 essential components of a CRT are put inside a highly evacuated, funnel shaped glass envelop. The large end of this tube is coated on the inside with a phosphor material. This material fluoresces when high velocity electron strikes it, converting the energy of the electrons into visible light. Hence the names Fluorescent screen.
When the electron beam strikes the screen, besides giving out visible light, secondary emission electrons are also released. These electrons are collected by the conductive coating

deposited on the inside surface of glass bulb. The coating is usually an aqueous solution of graphite, known as aaquadog.This is electrically connected to final anode, as shown in fig 14.20). The electron gun gets its name because it fires electrons at a very high speed, like a gun which fires high speed bullets. Electrons are emitted from the indirectly heated cathode. The control grid is a nickel cylinder surrounding the cathode. It has a small hole in the far end, opposite to cathode. The only way the emitted electrons can get pass the grid is through this small hole. It controls the number of electrons passing through it. Since brightness of spot on the face of the screen depends upon the beam intensity ,it can be controlled by changing ve bias on the control grid. These electrons are accelerated by the high potential applied to accelerating anode. The accelerating and focusing anodes are cylindrical in form, with small opening located in centre of each cylinder ,these holes permits the electrons to pass through. This electron beam passes through deflection system consisting of two pairs of parallel plates as shown in fig a),the y-deflection plates are placed horizontally in the tube. Any voltage applied to this set of plates moves electron beam up or down. The bright spot on screen will move along y-axis. The x-deflection plates are kept vertically. Any voltage applied to this set of plates moves the spot to the left or right. If plate H1 is positive, relative to plate H2,spot moves to the left, as the electron beam is attracted by positive plate and repelled by negative plate and vice versa.
Front Panel Controls on CRO: [20 MHZ Dual trace 201] 1) Power ON/OFF :Push Button switch for supplying power to instrument. 2) X5 :Switch when pushed inwards gives 5 times magnification of x-signal. 3) XY :Switch when pressed cuts off the time base and allows access the external horizontal signal to be fed through CH-2. 4) CH1/CH2 TRIG1/TRIG2: Switch when out selects and triggers CH-1and when pressed, selects and triggers ch-2.
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5) MONO/DUAL :Switch selects the dual operation. 6) ALT/CHOP/ADD :Switch selects alternate/chopped in DUAL mode. If MONO is selected ,switch enable addition or subtraction of channel. 7) TIME/DIV Switch selects the Dual Operation. 8)AT/NORM :Switch selects Auto/Normal position. Auto is used to get trigger level can be varied from +ve to ve peak with LEVEL control. 9) LEVEL :Controls the trigger level from peak to peak amplitude of signal. 10) TRIG IN :Socket provided to feed external trigger signal in EXT mode. 11)CAL OUT :Socket is provided for square wave output of 200mv,used for probe compensation. 12) HOLD OFF :control hold of time between sweeps. 13) X-pos :control horizontal position of trace. 14) EXT. :Switch when pressed allows external triggering signal to be fed from socket marked TRIG INP. 15) VARIABLE: controls time speed between 2 steps of TIMES/DIV switch. 16) LINE :Switch when pressed displayed signal gets synchronized with mains line frequency. 17) ALT :selects alternate trigger made from CH-1 and CH-2. 18)+/- :switch selects the slope of triggering, whether +ve going or ve going. 19)INV CH-2 :switch when pressed inverts the CH-2 . 20)INTENS:controls brightness of trace. 21) TR: controls alignment of trace with graticules. 22)Focus: sharpness of trace. 23)CT :switch when pressed start component testing operation. 24)DC/AC/GD:I/P coupling switch for each channel . In AC signal is coupled through 0.1 MFD capacitor. 25) CH 1(Y) & CH 2(X): probe connectors serve as I/P

connection for CH-1 & CH- channel-2 I/P connector also serve as horizontal external signal . 26) CT-IN:To test components in CT mode. 27) volts/div :switch selects the sensitivity of each channel. 28) Y pos 1 & 2:control provided for vertical deflection of trace for each channel.
Procedure: Study the front panel controls on CRO. Provide the various types of I/P signals to CH-1 & CH-2 by using signal generator (sine wave, square wave etc.) Verify the frequency of given signal and frequency of waveform showing on CRO.
Conclusion: We have studied the inner as well as outer controls on CRO and observed various types of waveforms on CRO.
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Experiment no:- 04 Aim: To study electronic hand tools. Hand Tools Precision Hand Tools for all types of industries including Bio-Medical Manufacturing & Research, Electronics Assembly, Military Manufacturing & Consumer Electronics. Offering the most advanced styles of tweezers, forceps, cutters, pliers and custom designed tools for unique applications. Practical also stocks a broad range of brushes, probes, scissors, blades and vacuum pick-up tools including screwdrivers, wrenches, wire strippers, lead forming tools, hex keys, and crimpers. Maintaining the highest quality while providing innovative solutions for electronic production hand tools. Practical Tools distributes products from many outstanding manufactures like Cooper hand tools, Excelta precision tweezers, Lindstrom cutters, Wera screwdrivers and bits, Ideal Industries wire strippers, Gordon Brush, and Menda probes. Additional manufactures include Swanstrom, Botron, Xcelite, Erem, CHP, and Crescent wrenches
Wire Clipping Nipper Tool VT100 Wire nippers are smaller and more accurate than standard wire cutters. Micro Cutting Nippers VT100 tool is ideal for flush cutting, clipping, and nipping, small diameter wires and component leads close to the surface of circuit boards. Precision flush cutting nippers help you clip leads as close to the board surface as you need. See our similar wire cutter & stripper tool VT109 . Specifications

wire nipper tool length: 130mm (5.1 inch) made of hardened carbon steel wire nipper handles have anti-slip rubber grips
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Diagonal Cutter Wire Clipper HQ Miniature Diagonal Cutters are small, light and accurate. Ideal for cutting, clipping, and nipping, small and medium diameter wires and component leads. With soft foam handle covers. Diagonal cutter wire clippers are a must to have in every electronics tool box. Features

made of carbon steel, hardened black oxide finish
Specifications
tool length: 4.3 inches (10.9 cm)
Low Cost Wire Stripper with Cutter Wire stripper tool VTSTRIPL is a low cost general purpose wire stripper with a built in wire cutter. Automatically adjusts to any wire diameter from 24 AWG to 10 AWG. (0.2mm2 to 6mm2). Maximum wire stripping length is 1inch (25mm) from the end of the wire. If you need to cut the wire you just stripped, there's a handy wire cutter jaw located right beneath the wire stripper tool. Specifications
made of stamped metal and ABS tool length: 6.5 inch (16.6cm) strips wires from 24 to 10 AWG (0.2mm2 to 6mm2)
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Wire Strippers for (AWG 22 - 8) Wire
Wire stripper tool 200-003 is a professional wire stripper with precision blades to strip Teflon, PVC, and silicone wire insulation. A simple nick, kink, or scratch left on wire conductors by cheap sub-standard wire strippers, creates weak stress points on electrical wire. This reduces the reliability of the wire and can lead to electrical failure. Wires break at their weakest point when subjected to vibrations and other environmental factors. Industries that demand the highest reliability of electrical systems or products, require the use of professional grade wire strippers such as these, which are designed to prevent nicks, scratches, or damage to the wire conductors. The smooth action and precision blades cut the wire insulation only, without nicking or damaging the underlying conductor. Intended for wire sizes from 22 to 8 AWG (American Wire Gauge). [0.33mm2 to 8.36mm2] An included depth bracket may be optionally attached to the wire stripper jaws. This "wire depth bracket" can be adjusted to achieve a specific and repeatable strip length each time. Specifications

tool length: 6.7 inch (17cm) strips wires from 22 to 8 AWG (0.33mm2 to 8.36mm2) o blade holes accept 8, 10, 12, 14-16, 18-20, and 22 AWG wire sizes includes a bracket attachment for optionally setting wire depth (strip length) wire stripper tool made of aluminium and steel components actual colour of plastic handle covers may vary
Crimp Tool VTCT is 4 Tools in 1 4 in 1 crimping tool for fast-on connectors. The VTCT is a crimp tool for crimper terminals, a screw cutter, a wire cutter, and a wire stripper all in one. Specifications
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crimp tool length: 8.1 inch (20.6cm) crimper jaw detents for 1.5, 2.5, and 6mm terminals ignition terminal detent wire cutter screw cutter holes used to shear 5 machine screw sizes: o 2.6mm, 3mm, 3.5mm, 4mm, 5mm, & ISO wire stripper for 6 diameters: o 0.75, 1.0, 1.5, 2.5, 4.0, & 6.0 wire cutter stripper tool made of steel components
Open Your iPhone-4 Case with TS1 Size Pentalobe Screwdiver Pentalobe screwdriver size TS1 can be used to easily open the case of iPhone-4 to effect your own repairs. Also great for tweeking precision optical instruments, cameras, computers, phones, and more. Specifications

suitable to open case of iPhone 4 size TS1 included suction cup: handy to open iPhone 4 iPhone is a trademark of Apple Computer, Inc. ideal for precision adjustments of TV sets, optical instruments, cameras, computers, and more Dimensions: o shaft: 1 19/64" o total length: 4 23/32"
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Experiment no:- 05 Aim: To study Basic Soldering methods.
Introduction: Nearly all components used in modern computer systems are solderless plug-in modules. Computer service and support technicians wont have much use for a soldering iron these days. However, soldering remains to be a difficult to master skill and a technician does need to know how to recognize good soldering from bad. From splicing wires to repairing joints on solder lugs, there are some situations where nothing but a reliable solder connection will do. Soldering is not new skill either its been around for hundreds of years. Whats different now is that soldering is being applied to sophisticated electronic circuits rather than the metalwork, tubing, and jewellery of yesteryear. Soldering techniques have also changed to meet the requirements of the ever-shrinking form factors used in emerging technologies. If youre new to soldering, this lesson will teach you some valuable techniques. Even if youve soldered before, this lesson will help you polish your skills making you an even better technician. Its important that you read through this section before you do the exercises. You should also refer to this information as you do the exercises if you have any questions. Be sure to study the material very carefully including any reference to safety. Soldering irons can cause serious burns if handled incorrectly.
Soldering has two major advantages over other electrical connections:

1. It is an excellent physical connection. Solder fills in the pores of a metal surface, becoming part of the surface. A good solder connection is as strong as the metal surface itself. 2. More importantly, it is an excellent electrical connection. Properly applied solder has virtuallyno electrical resistance.This is especiallyimportant in low voltage applications.
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Solder is an alloy of two different elements: tin and lead. From the earliest times, solder was made from these metals because they both melt at relatively low temperatures and maintain good physical strength. In soldering, only the solder becomes a liquid. It flows over a surface that remains a solid. When the solder cools, it is joined to that surface. Liquid solder actually mixes with the molecules of a metal surface and imbeds itself into every pore. This mixing is called WETTING. Since no surface is truly smooth, there are always plenty of pores. This gives soldered connections a great amount of physical strength. The INTERFACE area of wetting is where solder has intermixed with molecules of both the wire and the surface. It is this low resistance interface that makes solder a good electrical connection.
What are the Proper Soldering Tools?

The right tools can make any job easier. To choose the right tool for your particular soldering needs, lets first examine the way heat is transferred to the work.
When the soldering tip touches the connection, the connection becomes a HEAT SINK which draws heat away from the iron. The amount of heat absorbed depends on the: 1. Size of the surface to be soldered. 2. Surface area touched by the iron. 3. Condition of the soldering iron tip. 4. Amount of pressure applied. The size of iron you need depends on the size of the object you want to solder. This is because the bigger the soldered connection, the more heat it will soak up and the more it

will lower the temperature of the tip. If the iron is too small or the connection too large, its possible to bring the temperature below the melting point of solder. On the other hand, too large an iron may damage heat-sensitive components. Soldering guns are best uses for heavyduty applications. There are many reasons why soldering guns should not be used for electronics work: 1. A soldering gun is much heavier than an iron because it contains a bulky transformer. If youre soldering for hours at a time, a gun can be tiresome. 2. The trigger action of a gun requires a few seconds of heat-up time for each connection. For repetitive soldering, this wait is too long. 3. The tip may be too wide for precision work on circuit boards. 4. The gun shape is clumsy for intricate work. 5. The biggest disadvantage is excessive heat. A soldering gun can easily damage components. A soldering iron is rated by wattage, which is directly related to its operating temperature. A 25- to 35-watt soldering iron develops a tip temperature of 650 F, which is the proper temperature for circuit boards. Some larger irons can produce up to 1000 F, and this temperature can permanently damage semiconductors. Even at 650 F, most components can only tolerate heat for under 10 seconds. So, for 90% of your electronics work, a 25 to 35-watt iron is the right size.
Heres a common soldering iron. This tool uses AC line voltage to produce heat in a coil, which is shielded within the housing. From there, heat is drawn into the tip, the part of the iron that contacts the connection. The heat at the tip should be at least 100 F above the melting point of solder.
The tip of an iron is usually a copper rod which conducts heat efficiently. This rod is often ironclad and sometimes has a gold, silver, or nickel-plating to prolong tip life and increase
soldering iron tips are usually removable and they should be replaced when they become pitted or the plating wears away. There are many shapes and sizes available. So, if you will be doing specialized soldering, you may want an iron with an interchangeable tip.
Cleaning the Soldering Iron:

As you solder, the irons tip picks up wax, grease, dirt and burned flux.Additionally, the hot tip simply oxidizes even when its not in use.Since this debris that collects on the tip is a heat insulator, it makes soldering frustrating and slow. Contaminants on the tip will also flow from the tip into the solder joint making it less reliable. There is a good rule of thumb that will make your soldering easier and quicker.

Clean the tip every time you reach to use it:
Theres another reason for cleaning your iron. Besides picking up dirt, the tip will oxidize as does any other metal surface. This condition is aggravated with a soldering iron because the heat accelerates oxidation and an oxide layer is another heat insulator that can prevent quick, efficient soldering.
What is a Bad Solder Joint?

Making a good solder connection is extremely important because, in electronics, a bad connection is almost useless. To help you see the difference between a good and bad connection, lets first examine the causes of a bad one. A connection may fail when the iron is too small or the soldered item too large. This is because the solder may seem to melt, but it may only be in the plastic temperature range. The solder wont be truly liquid and wont flow or bond properly. The solution is to use a larger iron or leave the iron on the connection longer. But be careful dont scorch your components by applying too much heat.
To solder a good connection, follow these steps...

1. Be sure not to nick the wire if you are stripping wire insulation. Damage to the wire will create a weak spot and the connection can fail no matter how well you have soldered it. Anchor your work so it doesnt move while the solder is cooling. If youre working with alug terminal, hook the wire lead around the terminal. Bend wires slightly on circuit board connections. If youre soldering components with two or more wire leads leave room for heat expansion. It very important that you make a good physical connection before applying solder. 2. Always clean your iron before applying solder. Wipe the tip clean on a wet rag or sponge. 3. Place the soldering iron tip against both the wire lead and the surface so both reach approximately the same temperature. Heat the connection for 2 to 3 seconds before applying solder. 4. Touch the solder to the side of the connection opposite the soldering iron. The heat will be drawn through the work to reach the solder. Let a small amount of solder flow onto the work. Let solder flow only until the connection is covered. 5. Heat the connection only long enough to melt the solder thoroughly. Solder should flow evenly over wire leads and the surface before you remove the iron.

6. Notice that this connection is smooth and shiny, and that the solder blends smoothly with the terminal. Dont use too much solder. The solder should conform to the contours of the joint and not be ball-shaped. 7. Remove excess flux from the joint using a commercial flux cleaner. Unsoldering and Repairing Circuit Boards Circuit board repair may be the most important skill in soldering. To repair circuit boards, the defective components must first be removed. The simplest way to remove a bad component is to melt the solder and pull out the component. But this method has several disadvantages: 1. Repeated heating and melting of solder can damage components or circuit board foil. 2. Anchored or bent wires leads are difficult to pull from terminals while you are also holding a soldering iron. 3. When the component is removed, the terminal or circuit board hole will still be closed by the remaining solder. Therefore, the best repair method is to remove the solder completely before you remove the component. There are several tools available to help you do this easily.
Manipulating both the soldering iron and the vacuum bulb at the same time can be quite a feat. So, the high-vacuum SPRING LOADED PLUNGER has been developed. With this convenient tool, you simply compress the spring plunger. When the solder melts, you press a button, which releases the spring. This creates a powerful vacuum and the solder is sucked into the cylinder. Usually, all the solder is removed in one operation.
Soldering Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Components:

Once you have repaired a circuit board by removing a faulty component, follow these steps to re-solder a functioning component. As always Clean your iron before applying solder. Wipe the tip on a wet rag or wet sponge. 1. Push the component lead through the hole so the lead comes up on the foil side of the circuit board. Bend the lead slightly so it is anchored and will not move while you are soldering. Place the tip against both the wire lead and the foil so that both reach approximately the same temperature. Heat the connection for about 2 seconds before applying solder. The solder iron should not be in contact with the foil for more than 5 seconds at a time. Otherwise the glue that holds the foil on the circuit board will soften and the foil pattern will lift from the PCB. 2. Touch the solder to the side of the connection opposite the soldering iron. The heat will be drawn through the work to reach the solder. 3. Heat the connect-ion only long enough to melt the solder thoroughly. Let a small amount

of solder flow evenly over the wire lead and the foil before you remove the iron. Let solder flow only until the connection is covered and let cool. 4. Clip off the excess lead at the top of the solder well using diagonal cutters.
Soldering guns and irons are even hotter than the solder. If you handle equipment carelessly, you may injure yourself or someone else. So, to protect your vision, wear safety glasses. And always treat solder and soldering tools with respect. With a bit of caution and practice, you can make soldering a safe and very useful skill. Review: Soldering is the process of bonding together two or more metals by heating them, melting a tinlead alloy called solder onto them, and letting it harden. The basic purpose of soldering, in electronics, is to provide a good electrical connection that is strong physically. Molecules actually mix with the molecules of the metals being joined, at their surfaces. This surfacearea mixing of the two metals is called wetting. A solder alloy with a 60-40 tin-lead mixture is used most commonly for electronic work because it has a very low melting point and it solidifies quickly. But before solder will adhere to a metal, the oxide layer must be removed from the metals surface by a chemical called flux. For electronic and electrical work, most of the solder has this flux built right into it. And of the several types available, only rosin-core solder can be used. Use 60-40, rosin-core solder for all your electronic and electrical soldering. The type of soldering iron you use depends on your application. To solder a large wire to a large metal terminal, for example, you would need a large soldering iron. To solder small electronic components to a circuit board, you should use a pencil iron. Soldering irons are rated in terms of wattage, an electrical characteristic that tells how much power they will consume. Usually, a 25-35 watt pencil iron is a perfect size for circuit boards, and it will handle most other jobs very well too. A soldering gun can be another useful soldering tool, but you have to know its advantages and its limitations. Its principal advantage is its off-on, instant-heat feature. Its biggest limitation is that its high heat could destroy small components. To transfer heat effectively from the soldering iron to a wire or connection, always keep the tip clean and tin it at regular intervals. If you let any dirt or burned flux collect on it, this will greatly reduce the amount of heat that it can transfer to the connection. To make

consistently good connections, you should clean the tip each time you pick up the iron to use it. Tin the tip regularly by thoroughly cleaning it and then coating it with a layer of solder. This will minimize the formation of oxide on the tip. Actually, soldering is a fairly simple process. With a little bit of practice, you should be able to make consistently good solder connections and complete each one in only 3 or 4 seconds. The soldering process is described here in the following four steps: 1. Wipe the tip of the iron clean. 2. Place the tip against both the lead and the terminal (or foil). 3. Apply the solder, at the other side of the connection, to the junction point of the lead and the terminal (or foil). 4. Leave the tip on the connection only long enough to thoroughly melt the solder.
Conclusion :
When soldering Its really all about transferring heat. Therere a few things you have to pay close attention to make sure theres a good transfer of heat during soldering. First There has to be a good physical connection between the things youre trying to solder together. A good physical connection allows both the wire and terminal to reach high temperatures at the same time. Heat up both the wire and the terminal by touching them both at the same time. Use about the same amount of pressure as if you were writing with a pencil. Applying solder a second or two after youve applied heat will allow the solder to flow through the joint. The joint should look smooth and shiny and contain only enough solder to do the job. There should be only a small space between the end of the insulation and the terminal about the diameter of the wire itself.
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Experiment no:- 06 Aim: To study the symbols & truth table of logic gates.
Introduction: .
The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic gates perform the basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion, Exclusive-OR, Exclusive-NOR. Fig. below shows the circuit symbol, Boolean function, andtruth. It is seen from the Fig that each gate has one or two binary inputs, A and B, and one binary output, C. The small circle on the output of the circuit symbols designates the logic complement. The AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates can be extended to have more than two inputs. A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if the binary operation it represents is commutative and associative.
AND GATE:
A basic AND gate consists of two inputs and an output. If the two inputs are A and B, the output (often called Q) is on only if both A and B are also on. The relationship between the input signals and the output signals is often summarized in a truth table, which is a tabulation of all possible inputs and the resulting outputs. For the AND gate, there are four possible combinations of input states: A=0, B=0; A=0, B=1; A=1, B=0; and A=1, B=1. In the following truth table.
A Y= A.B B
Truth table.
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
A AND B 0 0 0 1
OR GATE:
A basic OR gate consists of two inputs and an output. If the two inputs are A and B, the output (often called Q) is OFF only if both A and B are also OFF. The relationship between the input signals and the output signals is often summarized in a truth table, which is a tabulation of all possible inputs and the resulting outputs.
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A Y= A+B B A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 A OR B 0 1 1 1 Truth table.
NOT GATE:
A basic NOT gate consists of one inputs and an output. The output (often called Q) is OFF only if A is ON. The relationship between the input signals and the output signals is often summarized in a truth table, which is a tabulation of all possible inputs and the resulting outputs. Truth table.
A 0 1
A 1 0
NAND GATE:
A NAND gate consists of two inputs and an output. If the two inputs are A and B, the output (often called Q) is OFF only if both A and B are also ON. The relationship between the input signals and the output signals is often summarized in a truth table. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y=A NAND B 1 1 1 0
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NOR GATE:
A NOR gate consists of two inputs and an output. If the two inputs are A and B, the output (often called Q) is ON only if both A and B are also OFF. The relationship between the input signals and the output signals is often summarized in a truth table. Truth table. A 0 0 1 1
X-OR GATE:
B 0 1 0 1
A NOR B 1 0 0 0
A X-OR gate consists of two inputs and an output. If the two inputs are A and B, the output (often called Q) is ON only if both A and B are not same. The relationship between the input signals and the output signals is often summarized in a truth table. Truth table. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 0 1 1 0
X-OR GATE:
A X-OR gate consists of two inputs and an output. If the two inputs are A and B, the output (often called Q) is ON only if both A and B are same. The relationship between the input signals and the output signals is often summarized in a truth table.
Truth table. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 1 0 0 1
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List of ICS:
SR NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NAME OF GATE AND OR NOT NAND NOR X-OR X-NOR
IC NO. 7408 7432 7404 7400 7402 7486 74266
Conclusion:-In this experiment we studied different types of gates & their truth table.
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Experiment no:- 07 Aim: To study different types of printers.
Introduction: A device that prints text or illustration on paper. There are many different types of printers, in terms of the technology utilize. The purpose of a printer is to product the result of prosing on sheets of paper. You can print out information that is in the see on your computer onto paper. There are different kinds of printer depending on their speed and print quality. The job of a printer is to put on a paper what you monitor. All school and colleges, whether they have client-server network, peer to peer network stand alone PCs require printing facility for the pupils, teachers and staff. The lack of knowledge and information available can lead to the wrong type of printer being purchased. Not only does this result in underperformance, in that it will not perform all the functions required, but it can also result in higher running and maintenance costs. Selecting and maintaining a suitable printer for a school is harder than it looks.
Printer types:
There are many types of printers but they fall into one of the two categories. 1. impact printer 2. non-impact printer Impact printers include all printers that work by striking an ink ribbon. Daisy wheel dot matrix and line printers are impact printers are impact printers. Non impact printers include laser printers and ink jet printers. The important difference between impact and non impact printer is that impact printers are much noisier. 1. impact printer Impact printers use a print head containing a number a number of metal pins, which strike an inked ribbon placed between the print head and the paper.Some print heads have only 9 pins to make the dots to build up a character; some have 24 pins which produced a better resolution.With this type of printer something strikes paper and ribbon together to form a character, like a typewriter.
Advantage:
1. Less expensive 2. Can make multiple copies with multipart paper.
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Disadvantages:
1. Noisy! 2. Print quality lower in some types. 3. Poor graphics or none at all. Impact printers can be classified in two categories: 1. Line printer 2. Serial printer Line printers are much faster costlier device compared to serial printer.Thus serial printers are generally used with small microcomputers and line printers are used with larger system.
1. Line printer
Modern line printer include a microprocessor for the purpose of control. The number of lines measures the speed of line printer. It can print in a minute (line per minute [1 pm] ) line printers in the range of 300 to1400 Lpm are very common.
2. Serial printer
The printer head of a serial printer can print only one character at a time. Serial printer can print a maximum of 74 t o132 character in a line. The print head of a serial printer is generally capable of moving left to right as well as right to left .So that bidirectional printing is possible Two common varieties of serial printers, namely dot- matrix and daisy wheel printers.
Dot matrix printer :

Creates characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon. Each pin makes a dot, and combination of dots form characters and illustrations. Dot matrix printers are still available for purchase but are now mainly used for specialized data-processing work like the printing of multi-part invoices, forms and bar codes. They have been superseded by inkjet and laser printers for general purpose printing tasks. They are impact printers and are inexpensive to operate since they use a cheap printer ribbon rather than expensive ink cartridges. A major advantage of these printers is that multiple carbon copies can be made printing a document.

Impact printers such as dot-matrix printers, have largely been superseded by non-impact models. Both types of printer create images and transferring the ink to the paper.
Daisy wheel printer:

The print head of daisy wheel printer is a daisy shaped flat disk or plastic or metal.The daisy wheel printers are slower compared to dot metrics printers. The usual speed in the range of 25 to 60 cps.Molded metal characters like those in a type writer are mounted on extensions attach to rotating wheel and are printed on to the paper by means of hammer and print ribbon.These results in a great deal of movement and noise during the printing of documents so printing is slow (less than 90 cps). The standard of print is similar to that produced by an electric type writer.As the characters on the wheel are fixed using a different wheel can only change the size and font.However this is very rarely done.Characters are fully formed on the "petals", like type writer keys.
The main types of non-impact printer are:

1. Thermal printer 2. Laser printer 3. Ink jet printer 4. Monochrome laser printer 5. Color laser printer 6. Photo printer
1. Thermal printer
Thermal printer paper tends to darken over time due to exposure to sunlight and heat. The standard of print produce is poor. Thermal printers are widely used in battery-powered equipment such as portable calculators. Characters are formed by heated elements being placed in contact with special heat sensitive paper forming darkened dots when the elements reach a critical temperature. Thermal printer used in fax machine.
Disadvantage:
Relatively slow and requiring special paper.
2. Laser printer
Laser printers use a laser beam and dry powdered ink to produce fine dot matrix pattern. This method of printing can generate about 4 pages of a4 paper per minute. The standard of print is very good and laser printers can also produce very good quality printed graphics image. A photoconductive drum is initially charged and then a high intensity laser beam is used to discharge selected areas on the drum. These discharged areas correspond to whiter areas of the printed document. Toner is attracted to parts of the drum with a high charge. The drum rotates and transfers the toner to the paper; which has an even greater electrical charge. Finally a heater fixes the toner onto the paper.
3. Ink jet printer

These are the slowest but most affordable type of printers. They are suitable for users who want to print color graphics in addition to regular text printing. Ink-jet printers work by shooting tiny streams of colored dyes through microscopic holes in a print head on to paper. High-end ink-jet printers reach resolution of up to 4800X 1200 dots per inch. This makes them suitable for printing high quality graphics and photos, but at a considerably slower speed than a laser printer. Since ink-jet printers are generally slow, they are more suitable as strand-alone then as network printers. If printing is done over a network, that is through a printer that is attached to a network, the print server on a network will put all the print requests into a queue. The printer will then be served these print requests one by one from the queue, depending on the memory available within the printer. Normally smaller ink-jet printers have a limited memory and slow at offloading the queued pages from the print server. This makes them less suitable for printing over a network. The cost of most of these printers ranges from 35 to 650 pounds. The more expensive models are network models. Ink cartridges for these printers usually cost from 7 to 25 pounds. The real cost of an ink-jet printer comes not from the unit itself but from the high cost of replacing ink cartridges. Therefore, they are best suited for schools where the usage of the printer is not going to be very high.
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4. monochrome laser printer

for most schools, these printers offer the best balance between price, print quality and speed. Laser printers are more economical than ink-jets if you need to print a lot of text document. Monochrome laser printers are faster, produce much better text quality and are less expensive to maintain than ink-jet printers. Laser toner cartridges are expensive but, due to the large number of pages a single cartridge can print, cost much less than ink-jet cartridges on a perpage basis. Monochrome laser printers are well suited to schools that have moderate to high printing volumes. Most of these printers cost from 125 to 300 pounds. However larger networkenabled models would cost considerably more. Their toner cartridges, usually cost from 25 to 100 pounds. The other alternative is to go for a color laser printer. If color is important to you, but not in large volume, you can also purchase a color ink-jet printer in addition to the monochrome laser printers. Since you will not need to print in black with the ink-jet the cartridges will last much longer and this would save your money over the longer term. However you would need to purchase an ink-jet printer that has separate cartridges for each to take advantage of this saving.
5. colour laser printer

Colour laser printers are well suited to schools that need to make a sizeable number of colour print outs. At high printing volumes, a laser printer would be cheaper overall to operate than an ink-jet printer in spite of the high initial cost of purchasing the laser printer. Most of these printers cost from 350 to 500 pounds. Low-end laser printers generally print one sized paper have a only on e paper feeding tray of small capacity print at a slower speed, and produce lower print quality the high end printers print multiple sized papers, have multiple paper feeding trays, and attain a high speed and quality. These models are also likely to have builtin network ports. The toner cartridges of colour laser printers usually cost from 35 to 125 pounds.
6. Photo printer
photo printers are designed specifically for printing photos and can pit photos of a quality approaching that of a professional photofinisher. They generally use ink-jet technology and are priced similarly to high-end ink-jet models. When buying such a printer, look for capabilities like good overall colour reproduction. Contrast ability to render detail. Consistency across the page, image longevity and most important no smudging. The best photo printers use six colours instead of the usual four, thus making it easier to mix a colour. However the cost per page will also be higher for such printers. Conclusion: In this experiment we studied different types of printers.
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Experiment no:- 08
Aim: To Study of computer fundamentals.
Introduction: Definition : A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve Mathematical, Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of devices that function together as a system. It performs the following three operations in sequence. 1. It receives data & instructions from the input device. 2. Processes the data as per instructions. 3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form. Data : It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols. Ex : Names of students and their marks in different subjects listed in random order. Information : It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner. Ex : When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and average marks are calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information. Program : Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task. Advantages of computers :
1. High speed : Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than
human beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds. 2. Accuracy : Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.
3. Storage : Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any
instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds. 4. Automation : Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically ( which increases the productivity). 5. Diligence : Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy without getting tired. 6. Versatility : Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks. 7. Cost effectiveness : Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing costs. Limitations of computers : 1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the instructions are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result. 2. Computers cannot think. 3. Computers cannot learn by experience. Generations of computers : Generation Component used
First Generation (1946-1954 ) : Transistors Second Generation (1955-1965) : Vacuum tubes Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT ) Page 38

Third Generation (1968-1975 ): Integrated Circuits (IC) Fourth Generation ( 1976-1980) : Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSI) Fifth Generation (1980 till today ) : Ultra Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI) Micro Processor (SILICON CHIP) ANATOMY OF COMPUTERS The computer system consists of three units: 1. Input device 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Output device
The various functions of these units can be summarized as: Unit Function 1.Input device computer in a coded form : Reads information from input media and enters to the
2.CPU (a) Memory unit : Stores program and data (b) Arithmetic Logic unit : Performs arithmetic and logical functions (c) Control Unit : Interprets program instructions and controls the input and output devices 3. Output device : decodes information and presents it to the user Central Processing Unit: It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program. It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is known as the brain of the computer. The CPU consists of storage or memory unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and control unit. (a). Memory Unit: It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data, program instructions, internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an appropriate output device. It consists of thousands of cells called storage locations. These cells activate with off on or binary digits(0,1) mechanism. Thus a character either a letter or numerical digit is stored as a string of (0,1) Binary digits ( BITS). These bits are used to store instructions and data by their combinations. (b) Arithmetic and Logical Unit(ALU): It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true or false, male or female are performed. Once data are fed into the main memory from input devices, they are held and transferred as needed to ALU where processing takes place. No process occurs in primary storage. (c).Control Unit : It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is stored correctly and the program instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the data are selected from the memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input and output devices of a system .
Conclusion: In this experiment we studied different types of input devices, output devices, and function of central processing unit.
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Experiment no:-01 Aim: To study different types of electronic components.

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Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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The Standard EIA Colour Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows:

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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Conclusion: In this experiment we studied V-I Characteristics of P-N junction diode.

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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made of carbon steel, hardened black oxide finish

tool length: 4.3 inches (10.9 cm)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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Experiment no:- 05 Aim: To study Basic Soldering methods.

Soldering has two major advantages over other electrical connections:

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

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What are the Proper Soldering Tools?

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Cleaning the Soldering Iron:

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What is a Bad Solder Joint?

To solder a good connection, follow these steps...

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Soldering Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Components:

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Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)

Prepared by Mr. S.S.SHAH (Dept. of. Electronics PVPIT )

Workshop practice (FE)