1 Free (Spatial) Vectors

1.1 Denition and basic properties

In Physics, one works with two kinds of quantities:
- scalars (numbers), such as mass, temperature etc.;
- vectors, possessing three characteristics: direction, orientation and length.
Example in this category include: displacement, force, velocity, acceleration,
momentum etc.
Besides their importance for physics, vectors are a key notion in geometry
modern geometry cannot even be imagined without them. Calculation of
distances, angles, areas and volumes in space are just a few of their applications,
which we will present in the following.
From now on, by "space", we shall mean the physical (ambient) space.
Consider two points , 1 in space. The bound vector

1 is the segment
1, for which we distinguish two orientations (senses): from to 1 and from
1 to . Usually, we denote bound vectors by an arrow. We denote

1 =

1;
the vector

1 is called the opposite of

1.
The direction of the bound vector

1 is formed by all the straight lines
which are parallel to the straight line 1.
The length (or the norm)

of the vector

1 is, by denition, the length

of the segment 1 :

= 1.
For a bound vector

1, the point is called the origin or the tail of the
vector, while 1 is called the head (tip, destination) of the vector.
The zero vector is, by denition, the vector

0 =

.
Denition 1 The free vector 1 is the set of all bound vectors which have
the same direction, the same orientation and the same length as the bound vector

1.
Thus, a free vector can be imagined as an oriented segment which is free to
move throughout the space, with the only condition that its direction, orienta-
tion and length should remain unchanged. All these positions of the oriented
segment dene the same free vector (and their coordinates will be the same).
In other words: if

1 and

C1 are two bound vectors with the same di-
rection, orientation and length, as bound vectors, they are dierent, but the
corresponding free vectors are equal to each other:

1 ,=

C1, 1 = C1.
1
We usually denote free vectors by a bar: a. A certain oriented segment

1
belonging to the free vector 1 is called a representative of the vector 1.
In the following, by "vector", unless elsewhere specied, we will always mean
a free vector.
1.2 Addition and scalar multiplication
The rst operations with vectors we are going to talk about are addition and
scalar multiplication.
We denote by c
3
the set of free vectors in space, by c
2
, the set of free vectors
in the plane and by c
1
, the set of vectors on the line.
Addition: by the parallelogram rule, or by the triangle rule:
Properties of vector addition:
0) the sum of two vectors in c
3
is again a vector in c
3
(the set c
3
is closed
under addition):
\ a,

/ c
3
: a + / c
3
;
1) vector addition is associative:
\ a,

/, c c
3
: (a + /) + c = a + (/ + c);
2) vector addition is commutative:
\ a,

/ c
3
: a + / = / + a;
3) the zero vector is a neutral element:
\ a c
3
: 0 + a = a + 0 = a;
4) any vector admits a symmetric with respect to addition (namely, the sum
between a vector and its opposite is always zero):
\ a c
3
, ( a) c
3
: a + ( a) = 0.
In brief, (c
3
, +) is an Abelian group.
Scalar multiplication: the vector c a is dened by:
- the same direction as a;
- length: [c[ a
- orientation of a if c is positive, and opposite to a, if c is negative.
2
scalar multiplication
Properties of scalar multiplication:
0) the result of scalar multiplication between a real number and a vector is
a vector:
\c R, \ a c
3
: c a c
3
;
1) distributivity w.r.t. addition of scalars:
\c, , R, \ a c
3
: (c + ,) a = c a + , a;
2) distributivity w.r.t. addition of vectors:
\c R, \ a,

/ c
3
: c( a +

/) = c a + c

/;
3) "associativity" (where the rst two factors are scalars and the third one
is a vector):
\c, , R, \ a c
3
: c(, a) = (c ,) a;
4) 1 is a "neutral element" for scalar multiplication:
\ a c
3
: 1 a = a.
The above properties of scalar multiplication are somehow similar to the
ones of multiplication in a ring, but the essential dierence here is that scalar
multiplication is not an internal operation on c
3
(since it involves a scalar and
a vector), but an external operation, formally denoted by
R
: Rc
3
c
3
.
Similar properties are obeyed by vectors in the plane c
2
or on the line c
1
.
1.3 Linear dependence and independence, frames
Imagine a person (an observer) trying to describe as precisely as possible the
motion of an object he/she sees. We all know that, in order to be able to
do this, one needs some reference frame (or simply, a frame), with respect to
which then one determines some numbers, called coordinates, which uniquely
characterize the position (velocity, acceleration etc.) of the moving object at
some moment of time. In geometry, in order to describe complicated shapes, we
cannot manage without the use of frames and coordinates.
But, what is a reference frame? How can we build it and, moreover, how
many vectors do we need for it and what are the relations between them?
Two vectors a,

/ are called collinear (linearly dependent) if they have the

same direction. Algebraically, it means that
a = `

/,
3
for some ` R. In the contrary case, the vectors a and

/ are called non-collinear,

or linearly independent.
Three vectors a,

/, c are called coplanar if their representatives having a

common origin lie in the same plane. This means that one of the three vectors
(for instance, c) can be "decomposed" in terms of a and

/ (by drawing, from
the tip pf c parallel lines to a and

/). From an algebraic point of view:
c = c a + ,

/,
for some c, , R.
In the contrary case, the three vectors are called non-coplanar, or linearly
independent.
linear dependence
More generally, : vectors
1
,
2
, ....,
n
are called linearly dependent if one of
them can be expressed as a linear combination of the other : 1 vectors. For
instance,

n
= c
1

1
+ c
2

2
+ ... + c
n

n
.
We will accept for the moment that, for a single vector , linear dependence
means = 0 (intuitively, the only vector which can be written in a non-
trivial way as a multiple of itself, c , is the zero vector) accordingly, linear
independence means ,= 0; a full justication of this denition will be given in
the Linear Algebra chapter.
The following theorem is sometimes called the Fundamental Theorem of
Analytic Geometry.
Theorem 2 1. On a straight line there exists one linearly independent
(nonzero) vector. Any two vectors are linearly dependent.
2. In a plane, there exist two linearly independent (non-collinear) vectors.
Any three vectors are linearly dependent.
3. In space, there exist three linearly independent (non-coplanar) vectors.
Any four vectors are linearly dependent.
4
Denition 3 A frame on c
i
(i = 1, 2 or 3) consists of a point O, together
with a maximal set E of linearly independent vectors in c
i
.
The point O is called the origin of the frame, while the set E is called a basis
for c
i
.
That is:
1) a frame on the line c
1
consists of a point O, together with a nonzero
vector;
2) in the plane c
2
, a frame means a point, together with two non-collinear
vectors;
3) in space (in c
3
), a frame consists of a point O, together with three non-
coplanar vectors.
The angles between the vectors entering a frame, as well as their lengths can
basically be arbitrary. Still, the most comfortable (and the most usual) choice
are the so-called Cartesian or orthonormal frames.
Denition 4 A Cartesian frame in c
3
consists of a point O, called the ori-
gin, and an orthonormal basis, i.e., a basis consisting of mutually perpendic-
ular ("orthogonal") vectors of length equal to 1.
1) On the line c
1
, a Cartesian frame is of the form O, i, with |i| = 1.
2) In the plane c
2
, a Cartesian frame means O, i,

,, with |i| = |

,| = 1
and i l

,.
3) In the Euclidean space c
3
, a Cartesian frame means O, i,

,,

/, with
|i| = |

,| =

= 1 and i l

,,

, l

/,

/ li.
In the following, we will discuss coordinates on c
3
. We will attach to the
basis vectors i,

,, / the coordinates:
i (1, 0, 0),

, (0, 1, 0),

/ (0, 0, 1);
for an arbitrary vector a:
a = a
1
i + a
2

, + a
3

/ (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) R
3
.
We denote
a(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
),
and call (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) the Cartesian coordinates of a c
3
.
If a represents the bound vector

O,
a(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = O,
then we say that the point has the Cartesian coordinates (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) :
(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) O(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
).
The vector

O is called the position vector of the point .
5
To any other bound vector a which has the same direction, orientation, and
length as

O (that is, for the whole free vector O) we attach the same coor-
dinates (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
).
Addition and scalar multiplication of vectors take place component-wise, i.e.
a(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
),

/(/
1
, /
2
, /
3
).
Proposition 5 If (r
A
, j
A
, .
A
), 1(r
B
, j
B
, .
B
), then
1(r
B
r
A
, j
B
j
A
, .
B
.
A
).
Example: If (2, 3, 4), 1(0, 1, 2), then:
O(2, 3, 4) = O = 2i + 3

, + 4

/,
O1(0, 1, 2) = O1 =

, + 2

/,
1(r
B
r
A
, j
B
j
A
, .
B
.
A
) = 1(2, 4, , 2).
Exercises:
1) Consider the points (1, 2, 0), 1(2, 3, 1), C(3, 4, 3). a) Determine the
vectors: O, O1, OC, 1, 1, C, 1C.
b) Calculate (in coordinates) and draw: 1+ 1, 1 + C, 1 + C +
1C, 1 1C, C 1C.
c) Calculate: 21, 3C.
2) Which of the following pairs of vectors are collinear: a) a(2, 1, 4) and

/(2, 2, 4), b) c(2, 3, 1) and

d(4, 6, 2)?
3) Which of the following vectors are coplanar: a) a(1, 2, 3) and

/(2, 3, 4); b)
a(1, 2, 3),

/(2, 3, 4), c(1, 1, 1); c) a(1, 2, 3),

/(2, 3, 4),

d(5, 0, 1)?
1.4 Dot (Scalar) Product of Free Vectors
Denition 6 Let a,

/ c
3
. The dot (inner, scalar) product a

/ is the number
a

/ = | a|

cos c,
where c is the smallest angle between the directions of a and

/ (= c (0, 180
o
)).
Properties:
1. the dot product is commutative: a

/ =

/ a, \ a,

/ c
3
2. it is distributive w.r.t. addition: a (

/ + c) = a

/ + a c, \ a,

/, c c
3
;
3. a (c

/) = (c a) / = c a

/, \ a,

/ c
3
, \c R.
4. if a and

/ are non-zero, then a

/ = 0 if and only is a is perpendicular to

/ : a l

/.
6
The expression in coordinates of the scalar product: If a(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
)
and

/(/
1
, /
2
, /
3
), then
a

/ = a
1
/
1
+ a
2
/
2
+ a
3
/
3
.
Applications:
1. The length (norm) of the vector a is
| a| =
_
a a =
q
a
2
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
2
3
.
2. The angle between a and

/ is computed as
cos c =
a

/
| a|

.
3. The unit vector (Romanian: "versor") which is collinear to a is
n:it( a) =
a
| a|
.
4. the length of the projection of a onto

/ is given by jr
b
a =
| a| cos c, this is,
jr
b
a =
a

.
Exercise 7 1. Let (1, 2, 3), 1(2, 4, 5), C(3, 0, 4). Determine:
a) the coordinates of the vectors 1, C, 1C.
b) the scalar products 1 C, 1 1C, C 1C;
c) the lengths of the sides of the triangle 1C.
d) the angles of the triangle 1C.
1. Show that the vectors a(2, 2, 1) and

/(2, 1, 2) are perpendicular.
2. Let (1, 2, 0), 1(1, 2, 1), C(3, 0, 1). Calculate 1 C,

cos(
\
1 C), jr
AC
1 and the unit vector of C.
1.5 The Cross (Vector) Product of Two Vectors
Denition 8 The cross product a

/ of a and

/ is a vector, characterized
by:
direction: perpendicular to both a and

/;
7
orientation: given by the right-hand rule (if the pointing nger of your
right hand indicates the orientation of the rst vector a and your middle
nger, the orientation of the second vector

/, then your thumb points as
a

/);
length:

= | a|

sinc, where c is the smallest angle between the

directions of a and

/.
the vector product
Properties:
1. the dot product is anticommutative: a

/ =

/ a.
2. it is distributive w.r.t. addition: a (

/ + c) = a / + a c.
3. a (c

/) = (c a) / = c a

/.
4. if a and

/ are non-zero, then a

/ = 0 = a is collinear to

/.
Expression in coordinates:
a

/ =

i

,

/
a
1
a
2
a
3
/
1
/
2
/
3

.
Application: The length of a

/ can be interpreted as the area of the

parallelogram having a and

/ as sides.
Consequently, the area of a triangle having a and

/ as sides is half of the
area of the parallelogram, this is:
/

=
1
2

.
Example: Let (1, 2, 0), 1(1, 2, 1), C(3, 0, 1). Calculate the area of the
triangle 1C.
8
Solution: We have: 1(0, 0, 1), C(2, 2, 1) and
1 C =

i

,

/
0 0 1
2 2 1

= 2i + 2

,.
The norm

1 C

is then

1 C

=
_
2
2
+ 2
2
= 2
_
2, which leads to
/
ABC
=
1
2

1 C

=
_
2.
Exercise 9 Let a(2, 1, 2),

/(3, 1, 4), c(2, 2, 5). a) Calculate the cross products
a

/, a c,

/ c. b) Determine the areas of the parallelograms built on a,

/ and
a, c respectively. c) Find a perpendicular vector to both a and

/, which has the
length equal to 2 units.
Exercise 10 Calculate by means of the cross product the area of the triangle
1C, where (1, 0, 0), 1(1, 0, 1), C(2, 3, 1) and the altitude (or height) from
.
Exercise 11 Find the area of the parallelogram built on the vectors : = 2 a+3

/,
: = a

/, where | a| = 1,

= 2,
[
( a,

/) =

6
. (Hint: calculate : : and take
into account that a a = 0,

/

/ = 0,

/ a = a

/).
1.6 Mixed triple product (Box product)
The mixed triple product (also called the box product or scalar triple
product) is dened as:
( a,

/, c) = a (

/ c).
Expression in coordinates:
( a,

/, c) =

a
1
a
2
a
3
/
1
/
2
/
3
c
1
c
2
c
3

.
Applications:
1. The absolute value of the box product is the volume of the paral-
lelepiped built on the three vectors:
\
parall
=

( a,

/, c)

.
The volume of the tetrahedron built on a,

/, c (as non-coplanar edges)

is
\
parall
=
1
6

( a,

/, c)

.
9
2. The box product zero if and only if the three vectors are linearly dependent
(coplanar).
3. The box product is positive if and only if the system consisting of the
three vectors a,

/, c is right-handed (i.e., c lies on the same side of the

plane ( a,

/) as the cross product a

/).
Exercise 12 1. Determine the mixed triple product of a(1, 2, 3),

/(2, 3, 4)
and c(3, 3, 5).
2. Find c R such that the vectors a(1, 2, 3),

/(2, 0, 2) and c(4, 4, c) are
coplanar.
3. Determine the volume of the tetrahedron 1C1, where (1, 2, 3),
1(1, 2, 4), C(2, 2, 4), 1(2, 3, 4), and the altitude from of the tetrahedron.
Hint: \
ABCD
=

1,

C,

1)

6
=
1
6
.
10