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FLUID MECHANICS
CHAPTER 1:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FLUID
NIMA SHOJAEE (nimashojaee@yahoo.com)
Study of fluids at rest, in motion, and the effects of fluids on boundaries. fluid statics (fluids at rest) momentum and energy analyses (fluids in motion) viscous effects and all sections considering pressure forces (effects of fluids on boundaries). A substance which moves and deforms continuously as a result of an applied shear stress. Note: The definition also clearly shows that viscous effects are not considered in the study of fluid static.
Fluid:
Liquids (hard to compress) gases (easy to compress, and fully expands to fill its container. There is thus no free surface.)
In general, liquids are called incompressible fluids and gases compressible fluids. Ideal fluid:
a non-existent, assumed fluid without either viscosity or compressibility.
perfect fluid:
A fluid with compressibility but without viscosity.
NIMA SHOJAEE (nimashojaee@yahoo.com)
FLUID MECHANICS
International system of units (SI) SI, developed from the MKS system of units and makes it a rule to adopt only one unit for each of the various quantities used in such fields as science, education and industry. system of units which There are seven fundamental SI units, namely:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass second (s) for time ampere (A) for electric current kelvin (K) for thermodynamic temperature mole (mol) for mass quantity candela (cd) for intensity of light.
Absolute System In the absolute system of units the length, mass and time are respectively expressed by L, M and T Key Point: In the B.G. system of units, the mass unit is the slug and not the lbm and 1 slug = 32.174 lbm. Therefore, be careful not to use conventional values for fluid density in English units without appropriate conversions, e.g., w = 62.4 lb/ft3
Fluids are aggregations of molecules, widely spaced for a gas, closely spaced for a liquid. The distance between molecules is very large compared with the molecular diameter. Continuum:
variation in properties is so smooth that the differential calculus can be used to analyze the substance. We shall assume that continuum calculus is valid for all the analyses in this lesson.
There are two different points of view in analyzing problems in mechanics. The Eulerian method of description
is concerned with the field of flow. In the eulerian method we compute the pressure field p(x, y, z, t) of the flow pattern, not the pressure changes p(t) which a particle experiences as it moves through the field.
Pressure: Pressure is the (compression) stress at a point in a static fluid. 1 atm =2116 lbf/sqft = 101,325 Pa Temperature: Temperature T is a measure of the internal energy level of a fluid. It may vary considerably during high-speed flow of a gas. If temperature differences are strong, heat transfer may be important, but our concern here is mainly with dynamic effects.
Density is highly variable in gases and increases nearly proportionally to the pressure level.
Density in liquids is nearly constant; the density of water (about 1000 kg/m3) increases only 1 percent if the pressure is increased by a factor of 220. Thus most liquid flows are treated analytically as nearly incompressible.
The density of water at 4C and 1 atm (101 325 Pa, standard atmospheric pressure) is 1000 kg/cum or 62.4 lb/ft3. The heaviest common liquid is mercury, and the lightest gas is hydrogen.
Specific Gravity Specific gravity, denoted by SG, is the ratio of a fluid density to a standard reference fluid, water (for liquids), and air (for gases):
Specific Volume
The reciprocal of density, i.e. the volume per unit mass
Recommendation:
In working with problems with complex or mixed system units, at the start of the problem convert all parameters with units to the base units being used in the problem, e.g. for S.I. problems, convert all parameters to kg, m, & s; for BG problems, convert all parameters to slug, ft, & s. Then convert the final answer to the desired final units. NIMA SHOJAEE (nimashojaee@yahoo.com)
FLUID MECHANICS
Shear Stress
FLUID MECHANICS F t
Side view Force F causes the top plate to have velocity U. What other parameters control how much force is required to get a desired velocity? If this parameter increases, what does F do?
F=
mAU t
FLUID MECHANICS
AU F = t
F = A
dimension of
N s m2 N 2 m
U = t du = dy
rate of shear
FLUID MECHANICS
Reynolds Number the primary parameter correlating the viscous behavior of all newtonian fluids is the dimensionless Reynolds number:
where V and L are characteristic velocity and length scales of the flow. kinematic viscosity:
Temperature has a strong effect and pressure a moderate effect on viscosity. The viscosity of gases and most liquids increases slowly with pressure. Since the change in viscosity is only a few percent up to 100 atm, we shall neglect pressure effects in this course. Gas viscosity increases with temperature. Two common approximations are the power law and the Sutherland law:
Liquid viscosity decreases with temperature and is roughly exponential better fit is the empirical result
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid Viscosity
Fundamental mechanisms
Gases - transfer of molecular momentum increases as temperature increases. Viscosity __________ Viscosity __________ increases as pressure increases. Liquids - cohesion and momentum transfer
___
FLUID MECHANICS
Inner cylinder
du = dy
AU F = t
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution Scheme
1. Restate the goal 2. Identify the given parameters and represent the parameters using symbols 3. Outline your solution including the equations describing the physical constraints and any simplifying assumptions 4. Solve for the unknown symbolically 5. Substitute numerical values with units and do the arithmetic
Check your units! Check the reasonableness of your answer
FLUID MECHANICS
AU F = t
Outer cylinder
2r 2 h F = t
P = F r
2 2 r 3 h P= t
FLUID MECHANICS
Surface Tension
0.080 0.075 0.070 0.065 0.060 0.055 0.050 0 20 40 60 80 100 Temperature (C) Surface molecules
NIMA SHOJAEE (nimashojaee@yahoo.com)
2 p = R
FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS
is the pressure at which a liquid boils and is in equilibrium with its own vapor. If the liquid pressure is greater than the vapor pressure, the only exchange between liquid and vapor is evaporation at the interface.
Boiling
If the liquid pressure falls below the vapor pressure, vapor bubbles begin to appear in the liquid. For example at 100 deg centigrade water at normal atmospheric pressure will boil.
Cavitation
When the liquid pressure is dropped below the vapor pressure due to a flow phenomenon.
NIMA SHOJAEE (nimashojaee@yahoo.com)
FLUID MECHANICS
Vapor Pressure
8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 10 20 30 40 Temperature (C)
water
liquid
What is vapor pressure of water at 100C? 101 kPa Cavitation! When absolute pressure returns to exceed vapor pressure
NIMA SHOJAEE (nimashojaee@yahoo.com)
In gas flow, one must be aware of compressibility effects (significant density changes caused by the flow). Compressibility becomes important when the flow velocity reaches a significant fraction of the speed of sound of the fluid. The speed of sound a of a fluid is the rate of propagation of small disturbance pressure pulses (sound waves) through the fluid.
2.
3. 4.
A streakline is the locus of particles which have earlier passed through a prescribed point. A timeline is a set of fluid particles that form a line at a given instant.
NIMA SHOJAEE (nimashojaee@yahoo.com)
FLUID MECHANICS
x = + y = z =
x y z x
E E +
y z
E +
x y
E E
z
E
FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS