TRAINING REPORT ON OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of Bachelors of Technology

In
Electronics & Communication Engineering By Name: AbhilashChandel Reg. Number: 11008960 Name and Location of Company: POWERGRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED, CHANDIGARH Period Training: 01/06/2013- 14/07/2013

Department of Electronics & Comm. Engg Lovely Professional University Jalandhar Delhi G. T Road (NH-1), Phagwara, Punjab, 144402, India
2013
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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I have completed my six weeks summer training at POWERGRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED from 3rd Juneto 11th Julyunder the guidance of MR. PRADEEP SINGH. I have worked with full dedication during these six weeks and my learning outcomes fulfill the requirements of training.

(Signature of Student) Name of Student:AbhilashChandel Registration Number: 11008960

Date: _________________

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to thank my respected parents, who always encouraged me and taught me to think and workout innovatively what so ever be the field of life.

I pay my greatest regards to all the employ members of POWERGRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED who provide me valuable guidance and all technical support, which was very essential for completion of the training.

I also wish to thanks Mr. PRADEEP SINGH (Manager Telecom) for their kind and continual support and constructive suggestions given during the course of this training which helped me a lot while going through the basic details of telecommunication.

I extend my fort right thanks to my friends for their moral support and encouragement throughout the training and report.

Thank you.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Title

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONS 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 How are the fiber optics used today..

Page No.
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CHAPTER 2 COMPANY PROFILE 2.1 Company Overview9 2.2 History9 2.3 About Powertel..10 2.4 Why Telecom10 2.5 Mission and Vision11 2.6 Our Networks 11 2.6 Growth Profile..12 CHAPTER 3IDENTIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION 3.1. Introduction 3.2. History 3.3. Evolution of Fibers. 3.4. Basic optical fiber communication system.15 3.5. Transmission Window16 3.6. Optical fibers 3.6.1. Introduction.17 3.6.2. Advantages..17 3.6.3. Disadvantages..18 3.6.4. Optical fiber construction and layers18 3.7. Classification of optical Fibers19 3.7.1. Based on material19 3.7.2. Based on number of modes.20 3.7.3. Based on refractive index21 13 14 14

3.8. Modes and Propagation of light in fiber 22 3.9. Benefits of OFC system.. 3.10. Advantage of Conventional Cables 3.11.Application of OFC.. 3.12 .Features.. 3.13. Drawbacks of OFC28 CHAPTER 4 IMPLEMENTATION OF OPTICAL FIBER CABLE 4.1. Introduction.. 4.2 Types of Optical Fiber cables32 4.2.1. Indoor Cables.. 4.2.2. Outdoor Cables 4.2.3 Cabling example 4.3 Colour coding 4.4 Joint of fibers . 4.5. Site Visit . 4.5.1. Fusion Splashing Machine. 4.5.2.Stripping of fibers. 37 37 37 38 4.5.3. Cleaning of fibers. 4.5.4. Cleaving of fibers. 4.6. VRLA 32 32 33 34 35 35 35 29 24 25 26 27

4.7. Lucent Wavestar Terminal 40 4.8. Equipment Required of OFC joint. 40 4.9. Test Equipment and Techniques 41 4.9.1. Optical Power Meter... 41 4.9.2. OTDR. 42 4.10. Network Architecture 45 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND REFERENCE 5.1. Conclusion. 46 5.2. Reference46
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CHAPTER 1 INDRODUCTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Fiber optic cable in essence, is a hair-like glass conduit that carries virtually any type of signal from one point to another at light speed. In case you are wondering why light traveling through fiber optic cable does not actually travel at true light speed, it is because the glass that makes up fiber optic cable is denser than the vacuum of outer space where light can travel without disruption. Needless to say, a fiber optic light signal is still much faster and far superior to a copper based signal, which is why it has become so popular in the cable television, telecommunications and computer networking. Unlike copper based signals, fiber signals are not affected by external power sources or surges and there is no need for shielding or grounding.

1.2. HOW ARE FIBER OPTICS USED TODAY?

Today, practically every communication network contains fiber optics. In most cases, fiber optics are used because of their convenience. Fiber optic cable allows network builders to divide their network into smaller service areas that prevent large numbers of customers from being affected in an outage. The result is better service and customer relations. Fiber optic cable also gives them a fast return path which they use for internet and telephone connections, thereby increasing their revenue potential. Local Area Networks (LANs) use fiber optics primarily in the backbone of the network, but the use of fiber optics to the desk is increasing. The LAN backbone often needs longer distance transmissions and more bandwidth than copper cable is capable of providing. Fiber easily offers the higher bandwidth needed to prepare the network for the much higher speeds projected for the near future. The use of fiber optics is not just limited to communication networks. Cable and telephone providers often use fiber for its distance capabilities. Distance is also an advantage to industrial plants that use vast amounts of fiber primarily for its noise immunity. Utilities also prefer fiber for noise immunity, security and high bandwidth properties. The military uses fiber because it's nearly tap-proof and impossible to jam. Fiber is even used by the aviation and aerospace industries because of its smaller size and weight.
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Fiber optics is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in the form of light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, fiber optics is not electrical in nature. A basic fiber optic system consists of a transmitting device that converts an electrical signal into a light signal, an optical fiber cable that carries the light, and a receiver that accepts the light signal and converts it back into an electrical signal.

CHAPTER 2 COMPANY PROFILE

2.1. COMPANY OVERVIEW
POWER GRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED (POWERGRID), the Central Transmission Utility (CTU), is engaged in Bulk Power transmission. Itsresponsibility include planning, coordination, supervision and control over inter-State transmission system and operation of National & Regional Power Grids. Company owns and operates about 1,01,379cktkms of transmission lines at 800/765kV, 400kV, 220kV & 132kV EHVAC & +500kV HVDC levels and 169 sub-stations with transformation capacity of about 1,68,063 MVA as on 30th Jun 2013. This gigantic transmission network, spread over length and breadth of the country, is consistently maintained at an availability of over 99%.

2.2. HISTORY
POWERGRID was incorporated in 1989 and based on its impeccable performance, Govt. Of India categorized it as the Miniratna CategoryI PSU w.e.f. Oct98. Further, recognizing the role of POWERGRID in the overall development of Indian power sector and its consistent performance as per benchmark parameters stipulated by Department of Public Enterprise (DPE) Navratna status was conferred to POWERGRID w.e.f. 1st May, 2008. POWERGRID was listed on Indian Bourses in Sept 2007 and the Company came with Follow on Public offer in November 2010. Presently Govt. of India holding is 69.42% and the balance 30.58% is held by Institutional Investors and public. POWERGRID is playing a strategic role in Indian Power Sector development by establishing & maintaining the power transmission infrastructure which carries around 50% of total power generated in the country. POWERGRID has been instrumental in providing an efficient, reliable and smooth grid operation and management in the country. Since 2009, the Grid Management and operation has been entrusted to Power System and Operation Corporation limited (POSOCO, a 100% wholly owned subsidiary of POWERGRID). POWERGRID is committed for Environment preservation and sustainable development. Though transmission projects are non-polluting, the Company developed a detailed corporate
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strategy document Environmental and Social Policy and Procedures (ESPP) in 1998 and has upgraded it from time to time through wide consultations with social bodies, local communities, Govt. agencies, etc. in line with the best International practices. The policy outlines the Companys approach and commitment to deal with environment and social issues, relating to transmission projects, and lays out management procedures and protocols to address the same. The policy and the initiatives taken by the Company for sustainable development of transmission system are applauded by the multilateral funding agencies like The World Bank & ADB and the same is applicable for all of its projects across the country. The Company has also been pro-active in bringing out the first Sustainability Report in power sector, for measuring, disclosing and being accountable to internal and external stakeholders. This has paved way for promoting excellence in organizational performance and towards achieving sustainable development.

2.3 .ABOUT POWERTEL

POWERGRID with its brand name POWERTEL in Telecom business is the only utility in the Country having overhead optic fiber network using Optical Ground Wire on power transmission lines. POWERGRID has an all India Broad Band Telecom Network of about 25000 Kms.

2.4. WHY TELECOME

Opportunity available to POWERGRID to explore telecom market through the convergence of power sector with telecom sector by making available low cost and high quality telecom infrastructure on its existing and planned transmission infrastructure

Explored telecom market liberalization and utilize the spare capacity of optical fibers available to POWERGIRD

It is an optimization of returns on assets and value creation through new initiative Telecom business has supplemented POWERGRIDs efforts in development of its information technology for core transmission business.

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Enabled POWERGRID to create additional economic value by stimulating the development of Indian Telecom Sector especially in the difficult terrain of North East Region and Jammu & Kashmir.

2.5. VISION AND MISSION

2.5.1 VISION World Class, Integrated, Global Transmission Company With Dominant Leadership in Emerging Power Markets Ensuring Reliability, Safety and Economy. 2.5.2 MISSION We will become a Global Transmission Company with Dominant Leadership in Emerging Power Markets with World Class Capabilities by:

World Class: Setting superior standards in capital project management and operations for the industry and ourselves

Global: Leveraging capabilities to consistently generate maximum value for all stakeholders in India and in emerging and growing economies.

Inspiring, nurturing and empowering the next generation of professionals. Achieving continuous improvements through innovation and state of the art technology.

Committing to highest standards in health, safety, security and environment

2.6. OUR NETWORKS

Company owns and operates about 1,01,379cktkms of transmission lines at 800/765kV, 400kV, 220kV & 132kV EHVAC & +500kV HVDC levels and 169 sub-stations.Also the transformation capacity of about 1,68,063 MVA as on 30th June 2013. This gigantic transmission network, spread over length and breadth of the country, is consistently maintained at an availability of over 99%.

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2.7. GROWTH PROFILE POWERGRID

Figure.2.1 Growth Profile

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CHAPTER 3 OPTICAL FIBERS COMMUNICATION

3.1. INTRODUCTION
It is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending light through an optical fiber. The light forms an electromagneticcarrier wave that is modulated to carry information. Optical fibers are arguably one of the worlds most influential scientific developments from the latter half of the 20th century. Normally we are unaware that we are using them, although many of us do frequently. The majority of telephone calls and internet traffic at some stage in their journey will be transmitted along an optical fiber. Why has the d evelopment of fibers been given so much attention by the scientific community when we have alternatives? The main reason is bandwidth fibers can carry an extremely large amount of information. More indirectly, many of the systems that we either rely on or enjoy in everyday life such as banks, television, and newspapers as (to name only a very limited selection) are themselves dependent on communication systems that are dependent on optical fibers.

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3.2. HISTORY
The use of visible optical carrier waves or light for communication has been common for many years. Simple systems such as signal fires, reflecting mirrors and, more recentlysignaling lamps have provided successful, if limited, information transfer. Moreover asearly as 1880 Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech using a light beam. The photo phone proposed by Bell just for years after the invention of thetelephone modulated sunlight with a diaphragm giving speech transmission over adistance of 200m.However, although some investigation of the optical communication continued in theearly part of the 20th century its use was limited to mobile, low capacity communicationlinks. This was due to both the lack of suitable light sources and the problem that lighttransmission in the atmosphere is restricted to line of sight and severely affected bydisturbances such as rain, snow, fog dust and atmospheric turbulence. A renewed interest in optical communication was stimulated in the early 1960s with theinvention of the laser. This device provided a coherent light source, together with the possibility of the modulation at high frequency.The proposals for optical communication via optical fibers fabricated from glass to avoiddegradation of the optical signal by the atmosphere were made almost simultaneously in1966 by Kao and Hock ham and Wert. Such systems were viewed as a replacement for coaxial cable system, initially the optical fibers exhibited very high attenuation and weretherefore not comparable with the coaxial cable they were to replace. There were also problems involved in jointing the fiber cables in a satisfactory manner to achieve low lossand to enable the process to be performed relatively easily and repeatedly in the field.In coaxial system the channel capacity is 300 to 10800 and the disadvantages of thecoaxial system are digging, electrical disturbance, in winter cable contracts and breaksmutual induction. The coaxial cable loss is 0.3db per every km.

3.3. EVOLUTION OF FIBRE

1880 Alexander Graham Bell 1930 Patents on tubing 1950 Patent for two-layer glass wave-guide

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 1960 Laser first used as light source 1965 High loss of light discovered 1970s Refining of manufacturing process 1980s OF technology becomes backbone of long distance telephone networks in NA.

3.4. BASIC FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Fiber optics is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in the form of light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, fiber optics is not electrical in nature. A basic fiber optics system consists of a transmitting device that converts an electrical signal into a light signal, an optical fiber cable that carries the light, and a receiver that accepts the light signal and converts it back into an electrical signal. The complexity of a fiber optic system can range from very simple (i.e., local area network) to extremely sophisticated and expensive (i.e., long distance telephone or cable television trucking). For example, the system shown in Figure 4.1 could be built very inexpensively using a visible LED, plastic fiber, a silicon photo detector, and some simple electronic circuitry. The overall cost could be less than $20. On the other hand, a typical system used for long-distance, high-bandwidth telecommunication that employs wavelength-division multiplexing, erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, external modulation using DFB lasers with temperature compensation, fiber Bragg gratings, and high-speed infrared photo detectors could cost tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars.

Figure.3.1. Block diagram of optical fiber communication

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Figure.3.2.Another block diagram of OFC

3.5. TRANSMISSION WINDOWS

Optical fiber transmission uses wavelengths that are in the near-infrared portion of the spectrum, just above the visible, and thus undetectable to the unaided eye. Typical optical transmission wavelengths are 850 nm, 1310 nm, and 1550 nm. Both lasers and LEDs are used to transmit light through optical fiber. Lasers are usually used for 1310- or 1550-nm singlemode applications. LEDs are used for 850- or 1300-nm multimode applications. There are ranges of

wavelengths at which the fiber operates best. Each range is known as an operating window. Each window is centered on the typical operational wavelength, as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 3.1: Fiber Optic Transmission Windows

Window 800-900 nm 1250-1350 nm 1500-1600 nm

Operating Wavelength 850 nm 1310 nm 1550

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3.6.OPTICAL FIBERS
3.6.1. INTRODUCTION An optical fiber(or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. It has two main component layers: A Core &A Cladding. Light is kept in the core of optical fiber. Cladding is for the protection of fiber.

Figure.3.3. Optical Fiber 3.6.2. ADVANTAGES Thinner than other tubes. Less expensive High Carrying Capacity. Provides a very large Bandwidth Less signal distortion Non- flammable Light Weight

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3.6.3. DISADVANTAGES Expensive over short distance. Very high Installation charges& demands high skills. Adding additional nodes is difficult

3.6.4. OPTICAL FIBER CONSTRUCTION AND LAYERS Core: Thin Glass Center of the fiber where light travels. Cladding: Outer Optical material surrounding the core. Buffer Coating: Plastic coating that protects the fiber.

Figure.3.4. Optical Fiber Construction

The Core & the lower refractive index Cladding , are typically made of high quality silica glass, though they can be both made of plastic as well.

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Fiber Optic Layers

Consists of three concentric sections

Plastic Jacket

Glass or plastic Cladding

Fiber Core

Figure.3.5. Layers of optical fibers

3.7. CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Optical fibers are classified into three types based on the material used, number of modes and refractive index. 3.7.1. Based on the materials used 1. Glass fibers: They have a glass core and glass cladding. The glass used in the fiber is ultrapure, ultra transparent silicon dioxide (SiO2) or fused quartz. Impurities are purposely added to pure glass to achieve the desired refractive index. 2. Plastic clad silica: This fiber has a glass core and plastic cladding. This performance though not as good as all glass fibers, is quite respectable. 3. Plastic fibers: They have a plastic core and plastic cladding. These fibers are attractive in applications where high bandwidth and low loss are not a concern.

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3.7.2. Based on the number of modes 1. Single Mode fiber: When a fiber wave-guide can support only the HE11 mode, it is referred to as a single mode wave-guide. In a step index structure this occurs when the wave-guide is operating at v<2.4where v is dimensionless number which relates the propagating in the cladding. These single mode fibers have small size and low dopant level (typically 0.3% to 0.4% index elevation over the lading index) .In high silica fibers the wave-guide and the material dispersion are often of opposite signs. T h i s f a c t c a n b e u s e d conveniently to achieve a single mode fiber of extremely

l a r g e bandwidth. Reduced dopant level results in lower atte nuation than in multimode fibers. A single mode wave guide with its large and fully definable bandwidth characteristics is an obvious candidate for long distance, high capacity transmission applications.

Figure .3.6. Single mode fiber Index of refraction

2. .Multimode fiber:

It is a fiber in which more than one mode is propagating at the system operating wavelength.Multimode fiber system does not have the information carrying capacity of single modefibers. However they offer several advantages for specific systems.The larger core diameters result in easier splicing of fibers. Given the larger cores, higher numerical apertures, and typically shorter link dis tances, multimode systems can use lessexpensive light sources such as LEDs .Multimode fibers have numerical apertures thattypically range from 0.2 to 0.29 and have core size that range from 35 to100 micro-meters.

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Figure.3.7.Mutimode Fiber 3.7.3. Based on refractive index

1. Step index fiber:

The step index (SI) fiber consists of a central core whose refractive index is n1, surrounded by a lading whose refractive index is n2, lower than that of core.Because of an abrupt index change at the core cladding interface such fibers are called stepindex fibers.

Figure.3.8.Step index fiber

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2. Graded index fibers:

The refractive index of the core in graded index fiber is not constant, but decreases graduallyfrom its maximum value n1 to its minimum value n2 at the core-cladding interface. The rayvelocity changes along the path because of variations in the refractive index.The ray propagating along the fiber axis takes the shortest path but travels most slowly, asthe index is largest along this path in medium of lower refractive index where they travelfaster. It is therefore possible for all rays to arrive together at the fiber output by a suitablechoice of refractive index profile.

4.8. MODES AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN FIBERS:

Figure.2. Graded index fibers

Index of refraction

Figure.3.9.Graded index fibers

3.8. MODES AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN FIBERS

Also crucial to understanding fibers is the principle of modes. A more in -depth analysis of t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f l i g h t a l o n g a n o p t i c a l f i b e r r e q u i r e s t h e l i g h t t o b e t r e a t e d a s a n electromagnetic wave (rather that as a ray).

Figure 3.10 Modes

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The solid line is the lowest order mode shown on figure 4. It is clear that according to the ray model the lowest order mode will travel down a given length of fiber quicker than the others. The electromagnetic field model predicts the opposite thatthe highest order mode will travel quicker. However, the overall effect is still the same if a signal is sent down the fiber as several modes then as it travels along the fiber the pulse will spread out, this can lead to the pulses merging and becoming indistinguishable.

Figure 3.11: Propagation of light in fibers The propagation of light is as shown in figure 5. When light ray enters the core with an angles trikes the surface of cladding whose refractive index is less than that of core. As theincidence angle on surface of the cladding is greater than or equal to critical angletotalinternal reflection takes place. Hence the ray is reflected back into the core in theforward direction. This process continues until it reaches other end of the cable.

3.9. ELECTRIC-FIELD WITH IN FIBER CLADDING

One other significant point should be noted from the electromagnetic field model. The model predicts that the EM field does not suddenly d r o p t o z e r o a t t h e c o r e - c l a d d i n g boundary it instead decays as negative exponential within the cladding as shown in the figure 3.12.This is crucial for various technologies relating to fibers. This method of signal transmission has benefits in terms of security for the signal to betapped the fiber must be broken (since effectively no energy escapes from the fiber) and this can easily be detected (when no

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signal reaches the other end of the fiber!).

Figure 3.12 - The Electric Field within the Fiber Cladding

This is one of themany advantages of the medium. But mainly two factors, attenuation and dispersion of light,have to be considered while transmitting the light over large distances.We use repeaters and regenerators to reduce the attenuation and dispersion.

3.10 .BENEFITS OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Some of the innumerable benefits of optical fiber communication system are:

Immense bandwidth to utilize Total electrical isolation in the transmission medium

Very low transmission loss, Small size and light weight, High signal security, Immunity to interference and crosstalk, Very low power consumption and wide scope of system expansion etc.

These are the main advantages that have made optical fiber communication system such an indispensable part of modern life.

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3.11. ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL CABLES

3.11.1. Wide Bandwidth: Optical fibers offer greater bandwidth due to the use of light as carrier. The frequency range used for glass fiber communication extends from 2*e14Hz to 4*e14Hz. Hence optical fibers are suitable for high speed, large capacity telecommunication lines. 3.11.2. Low Loss: I n a c o a x i a l c a b l e a t t e n u a t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h f r e q u e n c y. T h e h i g h e r t h e f r e q u e n c y o f information signals the greater the loss, whereas in an optical fiber the attenuation is i n d e p e n d e n t o f f r e q u e n c y . T h e y o f f e r a l o s s o f 0 . 2 d B m / k m , a l l o w i n g r e p e a t e r separation upto 50Km or more.

3.11.3 Non conductivity: Optical fibers are non-conductive and are not effective by

s t r o n g e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c interference such as lighting. These are usable in explosive environment.

3.11.4 Small diameters and less weight: Even multi fiber optical cables have a small diameter and are light w e i g h t , a n d f l e x i b l e optical fiber cables permit effective utilization of speech and can also be applicable to long distance use are easier to handle and install than conventional cables.

3.11.5 Security: Fiber optic is a highly source transmission medium. It does not radiate energy that can be r e c e i v e d b y a n e a r b y a n t e n n a , a n d i t i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o t a p a f i b e r a n d v i r t u a l l y impossible to make the tap undetected.

3.11.6 .Safety: Fiber is a dielectric and does not carry electricity. It presents no sparks or fire hazards. It does not cause explosions, which occur due to faulty copper cable.

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3.12 APPLICATION

OF

OPTICAL

FIBER COMMUNICATION:-

TRUNK NETWORK
The trunk or toll network is used for carrying telephone traffic between major conurbations. Hence there is generally a requirement for the use of transmission systems which have a high capacity in order to minimize costs per circuit. The transmission distance for trunk systems can very enormously from under 20 km to over 300 km, and occasionally to as much as 1000 km. Therefore transmission systems which exhibit low attenuation and hence give a maximum distance of unrepeated operation are the most economically viable. In this context optical fiber systems with their increased bandwidth and repeater spacing offer a distinct advantage. 1. JUNCTION NETWORK: The junction or interoffice network usually consists of routes within major conurbations over distances of typically 5 to 20 km. However, the distribution of distances between switching centers (telephone exchanges) or offices in the junction network of large urban areas varies considerably for various countries. 2. MILITARY APPLICATION: In these applications, although economics are important, there are usually other, possibly overriding, considerations such as size, weight, deploy ability, survivability (in both conventional and nuclear attack and security. The special attributes of optical fiber communication system therefore often lend themselves to military use. 3. MOBILES: One of the most promising areas of military application for optical fiber communication is within military mobiles such as aircraft, ships and tanks. The small size and weight of optical fibers provide and attractive solution to space problems in these mobiles which are increasingly equipped with sophisticated electronics. 4. COMMUNICATION LINKS: The other major area for the application of optical fiber communication in the military sphere includes both short and long distance communication links. Short distance optical fiber systems may be utilized to connect closely spaced items of electronics equipment in such areas as operations rooms and computer installations. These operate over distances from several centimeters to a few hundred meters at transmission rates between 50 bauds and 4.8 kbits-1.

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5. CIVIL APPLICATION: The introduction of optical fiber communication systems into the public network has stimulated investigation and application of these transmission techniques by public utility organizations which provide their own communication facilities over moderately long distances. For example these transmission techniques may be utilized on the railways and along pipe and electrical power lines. 6. TELECOMMUNICATION: Optical point-to- point cable link between telephone substations. 7. LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN's): Multimode fiber is commonly used as the "backbone" to carry signals between the hubs of LAN's from where copper coaxial cable takes the data to the desktop. Fiber links to the desktop, however, are also common. 8. CABLE TV: As mentioned before domestic cable TV networks use optical fiber because of its very low power consumption. 9. CCTV: Closed circuit television security systems use optical fiber because of its inherent security, as well as the other advantages mentioned above.

3.13. FEATURE
The fiber optics has become a preferred medium due to its some important features like: The bandwidth of the fiber and light beam is extremely wide. It is possible to handle signals which turn on and off at gigabit per second rates (1 gigabit, gbit =1000Mbitts). The fiber itself is very thin and not expensive. The thinness means that it is easy to handle, and many fibers can be put in the trenches or narrow conduits. The light sigma-l is absolutely immune to electrical noise from any sources. Even if there are sources of electrical noise directly touching the cable, the electric fields of the noise source cannot affect the light beam in the fiber.

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 The signal in the cable is secure from unauthorized listeners. It is relatively hard to tap into the cable without being noticed, and the entire light signal is confined within the fiber. No light escapes to the outside where someone else could see it. Since there is no electricity or electrical energy in the fiber, it can be run in hazardous atmospheres where the danger of explosion from spark may exist. Also, the fiber itself is immune to many types of poisonous gases, chemicals, and water.

3.14.DRAWBACKS OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

The use of fibers for optical communication does have some drawbacks in practice. Hence to provide a balance picture these disadvantages must be considered. They are The fragility of the bare fibers; The small size of fibers and cables which creates some difficulties with splicing and forming connectors; Some problems involved with forming low loss T- couplers; Some doubts in relations to the long term reliability of optical fibers in the presence of moisture; An independent electrical power feed is required for any electronic repeaters; New equipment and field practice are required; Testing procedures tend to be more complex.

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CHAPTER 4 OPTICAL FIBER CABLES

4.1. INTODUCTION
In most applications, optical fiber must be protected from the environment using a variety of different cabling types based on the type of environment in which the fiber will be used. Cabling provides the fiber with protection from the elements, added tensile strength for pulling, rigidity for bending, and durability. When optical fibers are to be installed in a working environment their mechanical properties are of prime importance. In this respect the unprotected optical fiber has several disadvantages with regard to its strength and durability. Bare glass fibers are little and have small cross sectional areas which make them very susceptible to damage when employing normal transmission line handling procedures. It is therefore necessary to cover the fibers to improve their tensile strength and to protect them against external influences. The functions of the optical cable may be summarized into four main areas. These are as follows:Fiber Protection. The major function of the optical cable is to protect against fiber damage and breakage both during installation and throughout the life of the fiber. Stability of the fiber transmission characteristics. The cabled fiber must have good stable transmission characteristics which are comparable with the uncabled fiber. Increases in optical attenuation due to cabling are quite usual and must be minimized within the cable design.

Cable strength. Optical cables must have similar mechanical properties to electrical transmission cables in order that they may be handled in the same manner. These mechanical properties include tension, torsion, compression, bending, squeezing and vibration. Hence the cable strength may be improved by incorporating a suitable strength member and by giving the cable a properly designed thick outer sheath.

Identification and jointing of the fibers within the cable.

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This is especially important for cables including a large number of optical fibers. If the fibers are arranged in a suitable geometry it may be possible to use multiple jointing techniques rather than jointing each fiber individually.

Figure 4.1.Optical Fiber

Figure 4.2.Optical Fiber (a)

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(b)

(c) 4.2. TYPES OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE

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In general, fiber optic cable can be separated into two types: indoor and outdoor. 4.2.1. Indoor Cables Simplex cablecontains a single fiber for one-way communication Duplex cablecontains two fibers for two-way communication Multi fiber cablecontains more than two fibers. Fibers are usually in pairs for duplex operation. A ten-fiber cable permits five duplex circuits. Breakout cabletypically has several individual simplex cables inside an outer jacket. The outer jacket includes a zipcord to allow easy access Heavy-, light-, and plenum-duty and riser cable Heavy-duty cables have thicker jackets than light-duty cable, for rougher handling. Plenum cables are jacketed with low-smoke and fire-retardant materials. Riser cables run vertically between floors and must be engineered to prevent fires from spreading between floors. 4.2.2.Outdoor Cables Outdoor cables must withstand harsher environmental conditions than indoor cables. Outdoor cables are used in applications such as: Overheadcables strung from telephone lines Direct burialcables placed directly in trenches Indirect burialcables placed in conduits Submarineunderwater cables, including transoceanic applications Sketches of indoor and outdoor cables are shown in Figure 4.2

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Figure 4.2

a) Indoor simplex and duplex cable (Courtesy of General Photonics)

b) Outdoor loose buffer cable (Courtesy of Siecors)

4.2.3. Cabling Example Figure 4.3 shows an example of an inter building cabling scenario.

Figure 4.3Inter building cabling scenario (Courtesy of Siecor)

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4.3COLOUR CODING
Individual fiber in a multi-fiber cable are often distinguished from one another by colourcoded jackets or buffers on each fiber. The identification scheme used by Corning Cable Systems is based on EIA/TIA-598, "Optical Fiber Cable Colour Coding." EIA/TIA-598 defines identification schemes for fibers, buffered fibers, fiber units, and groups of fiber units within outside plant and premises optical fiber cables. This standard allows for fiber units to be identified by means of a printed legend. This method can be used for identification of fiber ribbons and fiber subunits. The legend will contain a corresponding printed numerical position number and/or colour for use in identification. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Blue Orange Green Brown Slate White Red Black Yellow Violet Rose Aqua Blue with black tracer Orange with black tracer Green with black tracer Brown with black tracer Slate with black tracer White with black tracer Red with black tracer Black with yellow tracer Yellow with black tracer Violet with black tracer Rose with black tracer Aqua with black tracer

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4.4. JOINT OF FIBER

Optical fiber links, in common with any line communication system, have a requirement for both jointing and termination of the transmission medium. The number of intermediate fiber connections or joints is dependent upon the link length, the continuous length of the fiber cable that may be produced by the preparation methods and the length of the fiber cable that may be practically installed as a continuous section on the link. It is therefore apparent that fiber to fiber connection with low loss and minimum distortion (i.e. modal noise) remains an important aspect of optical fiber communication system. Before optical fibers splicing and joining are done certain preparations are made with fiber or fiber cables as case may be to achieve best results at the end surface. First of all the protective plastic that covers the glass cladding is stripped from each fiber end, which is then cleaved with a special tool, producing a smooth and flat end. 1. Fiber splices: these are semi-permanent or permanent joints which find major use in most optical fiber telecommunication system (analogous to electrical soldered joints).

2. Demountable fiber connectors or simple connectors: these are removable joints which allow easy, fast, manual coupling and uncoupling of fibers (analogous to electrical plugs and sockets).The above fiber to fiber joints are designed ideally to couple all the light propagating in one fiber into the adjoining fiber. By contrast fiber couplers are branching devices that split all the light from main fiber into two or more fibers or, alternatively, couple a proportion of the light propagating in the main fiber into main fiber.

4.5. SITE VISIT

In site visit, we learned how to join two optical fibers. There we saw many optical fiber cables, Fusion Splicing Machine (FSM), 12 V VRLA battery, Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR), Splashing Machine, cable tie, protection sleeve, Fiber cleaver (FC 6s), isotropic alcohol gel, patch cord.

4.5.1. FUSION SPLICING MACHINE

Fusion splicing is the act of joining two optical fibers end-to-end using heat. The goal is to fuse the two fibers together in such a way that light passing through the fibers is not scatteredor reflected back by the splice, and so that the splice and the region surrounding it are almost as strong as the virgin fiber itself. The source of heat is usually an electric

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arc, but can also be a laser, or a gas flame, or a tungsten filament through which current is passed.

Figure.4.4. Fusion Splicing Machine The process of fusion splicing normally involves using localized heat to melt or fuse the ends of two optical fibers together. The splicing process begins by preparing each fiber end for fusion.

Figure 4.5.Kit use for joining fibers

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4.5.2. Stripping the fiber

Stripping is the act of removing the protective polymer coating around optical fiber in preparation for fusion splicing. The splicing process begins by preparing both fiber ends for fusion, which requires that all protective coating is removed or stripped from the ends of each fiber. Fiber optical stripping is usually carried out by a special stripping and preparation unit that uses hot sulphuric acid or a controlled flow of hot air to remove the coating. There are also mechanical tools used for stripping fiber which are similar to copper wire strippers. Fiber optical stripping and preparation equipment used in fusion splicing is commercially available through a small number of specialized companies, which usually also designs machines used for fiber optical recoating.

4.5.3. Cleaning the fiber

The bare fibers are cleaned using alcohol and wipes.

4.5.4. Cleaving the fiber

The fiber is then cleaved using the score-and-break method so that its endface is perfectly flat and perpendicular to the axis of the fiber. The quality of each fiber end is inspected using a microscope.

Figure.4.6. Fiber Cleaver

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In fusion splicing, splice loss is a direct function of the angles and quality of the two fiberend faces. The closer to 90 degrees the cleave angle is the lower optical loss the splice will yield.

4.6.5. Splicing the fibers

Figure 4.7 Fiber spliced, still unprotected Current fusion splicers are either core or cladding alignment. Using one of these methods the two cleaved fibers are automatically aligned by the fusion splicerin the x,y,z plane, then are fused together. Prior to removing the spliced fiber from the fusion splicer, a proof-test preformed to ensure that the splice is strong enough to survive handling, packaging and extended use. The bare fiber area is protected either by recoating or with a splice protector. A splice protector is a heat shrinkable tube with a strength membrane.

4.6. Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery (VRLA)

A VRLA battery(valve-regulated leadacid battery) more commonly known as a sealed battery is a leadacid rechargeable battery and also known as recombinant batteries.Because of their construction, VRLA batteries do not require regular addition of water to the cells, and vent less gas than flooded lead-acid batteries. The reduced venting is an advantage since they can be used in confined or poorly ventilated spaces. The name valve regulated does not wholly describe the technology. These are really recombinant batteries, which mean that the oxygen evolved at the positive plates will largely recombine with the hydrogen ready to evolve on the negative plates, creating water and preventing water loss.

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VRLA batteries are commonly further classified as: 1. Absorbent glass mat battery 2. Gel battery

Figure.4.8.12v VRLA BATTERY (a)

Figure .4.9 VRLA BATTERY (b)

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4.7. Lucent Wavestar terminal

Figure.4.10. Lucent Wavestar terminal

Up to 80 wavelengths separated by 100 GHz = 0.8 nm at 1550 nm,each carrying 10 Gb/s

for a total of 800 Gb/sec. This system has been replaced with models offering well in excess of 1 Tb/s.

4.8. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR OFC JOINT

1) Optical fiber fusion splicer specification ( splashing machine ) AC input 100 to 240v, frequency 50/60Hz DC input 12v/aA 2) Fiber cutter It converts irregular shaped fiber end into smooth & flat end. 3) Chemicals used in OFC joint HAXENE : To remove jelly from the fiber ACETONE : For cleaning the OFC ISO PROPENOT: For smoothness of optical glass. 4) Sleeve: - To enclose fiber joint.
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5) Tool Kit 6) Joint kit. Joint encloser Buffer Adhesive tap 7) Generator /12V Battery 8) Cotton clothes for fiber cleaning

4.9Test Equipment and Techniques

4.9.1 Optical Power Meters (Optical Multi-meter)

Figure.4.11.Optical Power Meter - Logical Structure

The simplest and most basic piece of equipment used in the field is the opticalpower meter. This is shown in Figure 2 and requires very little explanation. Different models have different connector types and are specialized to either multimode or single-mode fiber. There is always a wavelength switch to adjust the power readings for the particular wavelength being received. Also there is usually a range switch which determines the range of signal power expected - although this last function can be automatically determined by the meter itself.

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4.9.2 Optical Time-Domain Reflectometers (OTDRs)

Figure.4.12. OTDR Display Schematic The Optical Time-Domain Reflectometers enables us to look at a fiber link from inside the fiber. In reality it is just a radar system for looking at fiber. High intensity pulses are sent into the fiber from a specialized laser and when the pulse returns its strength is displayed on an oscilloscope screen in the form of a trace. A schematic of such a display is shown in Figure 3. Important considerations are as follows: 1. Reflections from within the Fiber In the trace you see reflections coming from all along the fiber itself. This isthe result of Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh scattering was mentioned in the chapter on optical fiber as the major limiting factor in fiber attenuation. This scattering occurs backwards towards the transmitter and we can receive it and display the result. 2. Faults and Joints etc. Every time there is a discontinuity or imperfection in the fiber the effect canbe seen in the trace. Such events can be the presence of a connector or a splice or some more serious imperfection such as a crimp in the cable due to poor installation. In the schematic above we can see the reflections from the beginning and end of the fiber as well some imperfections in between. 3. Noise Floor At the end of the fiber you see a characteristic large (4%) reflectionfollowed by the signal dropping to the noise floor.

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4. Measurable Parameters From an OTDR you can quickly determine the following characteristics ofthe fiber link under test: The length of the fiber

This is not as precise as it sounds. What you can calculate is the length of the fiber itself. Most long distance cables employ loose tube construction and the fiber length is between 5% and 10% longer than the cable itself. The attenuation in dB of the whole fiber link and the attenuation ofseparate sections of fiber (if any). The attenuation characteristics of the basic fiber itself. The locations of connectors, joints and faults in the cable

These locations are measured from the beginning of the fiber and can be as accurate as a few meters. Advantages The major advantage of the OTDR is that tests can be done from one endof the link and you don't need access to the other end. This means youdon't need two people to do the test and you save the problem of coordinating between people. Also the testing is much quicker. So even simple tests which could be performed with a basic optical source at one end of the link and a power meter at the other are often performed with an OTDR.

Characteristics OTDRs today are extremely sophisticated devices and come with manyoptions. They can be large fixed laboratory instruments or small portable ones about the size of a laptop computer. Different models are available for multimode and single-mode fibers. Of course different models have different levels of sensitivity (and price). There is always a range of options for the user to control such as wavelength used for the test, timescales, pulse duration etc. Many modern OTDRs come with additional functions such as optical power meter or laser source so that a good OTDR often has all of the function needed by a technician in the field. In addition many OTDRs offer computer output so that you can collect OTDR data in the form of digital readings and analyze it later on a computer.

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Figure.4.13. OTDR Operational Logic

The principle of operation of a typical OTDR is shown in Figure 4. In the figurea circulator has been used to enable transmission and reception of the pulse from the single strand of fiber under test. Other means of signal splitting/combining are used but circulators offer the least attenuation. As might be expected the big problem with an OTDR is that the returning signal is very low level especially on long distance fiber sections. We can't use signal pulses of too high a power for many reasons and so pulses of 10-20 mW are typically sent. The problem of low return power is addressed in two ways: 1. A very sensitive APD detector is used. As noted elsewhere in this bookdetectors double in sensitivity every time you halve the digital bit rate. Thus an APD becomes very sensitive indeed at the very low pulse rates used. The penalty for using APDs is additional noise but this is mitigated by the averaging process. 2. A boxcar averager circuit is used to average many thousands of returning pulses. The averaging process removes a large amount of noise. (Most of the noise comes from the APD and its associated circuitry.) In some (very sensitive, long distance) OTDRs the averaging time can be of the order of several minutes! The averager provides logarithmic scaling of its output so that the vertical scale on the display can be displayed in dBm.

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4.10.Network architecture

Figure.4.14. Network architecture Many-layered network from internet browser on your laptop wirelessly connected to a coffee-shop (application layer = top) to bursts of light on fiber (Physical layer = bottom). At the lowest, physical layer, the network is mainly static, point-to-point links. Circuit switching of the physical optical network is starting. Packet switching at the physical optical layer is a research topic.

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CHAPTER 5
5.1. CONCLUSION
We are currently in the middle of a rapid increase in the demand for data bandwidth across the Earth. For most applications optical fibers are the primary solution to this problem. They have potentially a very high bandwidth, with many of the bandwidth limitations now being at the transceivers rather than being an intrinsic property of the fiber allowing easy upgrading of systems without relaying cable This is creating a surge in the deployment of fiber both in backbones of networks and in topologically horizontal cabling, which in turn is supporting and propelling the industry into further research. With the adoption of new techniques such a s D W D M , solation transmission, and ultimately the purely optical network, we h a v e a medium that will satisfy our communication needs for the foreseeable future.

5.2. REFERENCES
G. P. Agrawal, Fiber-Optic Communication Systems, 3rd ed.(Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2002) R. Ramaswami and K. Sivarajan, Optical Networks 2nd ed.(Morgan, San Francisco, 2002). G. E. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill,New York, 2000). G. P. Agrawal, Lightwave Technology: Components and Devices (Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2004). G. P. Agrawal, Lightwave Technology: Telecommunication Systems(Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2005). WWW.POWERGRID.CO.IN

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