Chapter 7

Curved Spacetime and General

Covariance
In this chapter we generalize the discussion of preced-
ing chapters to extend covariance to more general curved
spacetimes.
143
144 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
7.1 Covariance and Poincar Transformations
Lorentz covariance makes it manifest that the principles of spe-
cial relativity (constant speed of light and invariance under Lorentz
transformations) are obeyed by a set of equations.
Poincar transformations: (six Lorentz transformations plus
the four possible uniform translations in space and time). Invari-
ance under Poincar transformations physics does not depend
on choice of coordinate system origin, orientation, . . . , con-
servation laws such as those for energy and angular momentum.
Covariance with respect to Poincar transformations is still in-
sufcient to deal with gravity. We seek a more general covari-
ance that embraces the possibility of non-inertial coordinate sys-
tems.
General Covariance: a physical equation holds in a grav-
itational eld provided that
It holds in the absence of gravity (agrees with the
predictions of special relativity in at spacetime).
It maintains its form under a general coordinate
transformation x x

(possibly between accelerated

frames).
7.2. CURVED SPACETIME 145
7.2 Curved Spacetime
The deection of light in a gravitational eld suggests
that gravity is associated with the curvature of spacetime.
Thus, let us consider the more general issue of covariance
in curved spacetime.
7.2.1 Curved Spaces and Gaussian Curvature
Gauss demonstrated that for 2-surfaces there is a single invariant (Gaus-
sian curvature) characterizing the curvature. For a 2-D coordinate
system (x
1
, x
2
) having a diagonal metric with non-zero elements g
11
and g
22
, the Gaussian curvature K is
K =
1
2g
11
g
22
_

2
g
22
(x
1
)
2

2
g
11
(x
2
)
2
+
1
2g
11
_
g
11
x
1
g
22
x
1
+
_
g
11
x
2
_
2
_
+
1
2g
22
_
g
11
x
2
g
22
x
2
+
_
g
22
x
1
_
2
__
,
which is generally
Position-dependent
An intrinsic quantity expressed entirely in terms of the metric
for the space and its derivatives
146 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
For orthogonal coordinates (x, y),
2K(x
0
, y
0
) =
1
R
x
(x
0
)R
y
(y
0
)
,
where R
x
(x
0
) is the radius of curvature in the x direction and R
y
(y
0
)
is the radius of curvature in the y direction, both evaluated at a point
(x
0
, y
0
).
EXAMPLE: For the special case of a 2-sphere, R
x
= R
y

R and
K =
1
R
2
where R is the radius of the sphere, which is constant.
7.2. CURVED SPACETIME 147

R
r
C = 2r
S
x
z
y
Figure 7.1: Measuring the circumference of a circle in curved space.
Consider the 2-sphere of Fig. 7.1, dened by
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= R
2
,
Let us use the circumference of a circle relative to that for at space
to measure deviation from atness.
We may dene a circle in the 2-dimensional space by marking
a locus of points lying a constant distance S from a reference
point, which we choose to be the north pole in Fig. 7.1
The angle subtended by S is S/R and r = Rsin(S/R). Then the
circumference of the circle is
C = 2r = 2Rsin
S
R
= 2S
_
1
S
2
6R
2
+. . .
_
.
148 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE

R
r
C = 2r
S
x
z
y
If the space were at, the circumference of the circle would just
be 2S, so the higher-order terms measure the curvature. But for
S 0 we have that K = 1/R
2
. Substituting R
2
= 1/K in
C = 2r = 2Rsin
S
R
= 2S
_
1
S
2
6R
2
+. . .
_
.
and solving for the Gaussian curvature K,
K =
Lim
S0
3

_
2S C
S
3
_
.
Thus, we may nd the Gaussian curvature for an arbitrary 2-D
surface by measuring the circumference of small circles.
This example has been for 2-D space. Later we shall generalize
the Gaussian curvature parameter for a two-dimensional surface
to a set of parameters (elements of the Riemann curvature tensor)
that describe the curvature of 4-dimensional spacetime.
7.2. CURVED SPACETIME 149
Notice in this and various other discussions that we often
use the mental crutch of embedding a surface in a higher-
dimensional space in order to more easily visualize our
arguments. It is important to emphasize that the intrinsic
curvature properties of a space can be determined entirely
by the properties of the space itself, without reference to a
higher-dimensional embedding space.
150 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
7.2.2 Distance Intervals in Curved Spacetime
In curved spacetime the interval between two events may be expressed
as
ds
2
= g

(x)dx

dx

.
The metric tensor g

(x) in a curved spacetime generally has a more

complicated form than that for Minkowski space, and is a function of
the spacetime coordinates.
7.3. COVARIANT DERIVATIVES AND PARALLEL TRANSPORT 151
Tangent point
Tangent
point
Figure 7.2: Tangent planes and vectors in curved spaces.
7.3 Covariant Derivatives and Parallel Transport
Covariant derivatives have a geometrical interpretation associated with
comparison of vectors located at two different spacetime points. The
comparison issue becomes critical for the calculation of derivatives
because, by denition, constructing the derivative of a vector requires
taking the difference of vectors at two different points within the
space.
In curved spaces we must rst ask the general question
of how to dene a vector at some spacetime point. The
answer is that we do not dene a vector on the curved
space itself, but rather on the plane tangent to the point on
the curved surface (called the tangent space), as illustrated
in Fig. 7.2 for the simple case of a sphere.
152 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
Since we are dealing with Riemannian spaces for which
a locally Euclidean coordinate system can be constructed
around an arbitrary point, it is always possible to dene
such a tangent space.
Tangent point
Tangent
point
While the image of the preceding gure is conceptually
useful, it is important to appreciate that dening the tan-
gent space by a local at coordinate system at a point is
an intrinsic process with respect to the original manifold
and does not require embedding in a higher-dimensional
manifold.
7.3. COVARIANT DERIVATIVES AND PARALLEL TRANSPORT 153
Tangent point
Tangent
point
Parallel transport of vectors is necessary to compare two vectors at
different points (e.g., to dene derivatives).
For a at space the tangent space corresponds with the space
itself and we can just move one vector, keeping its orientation
xed with respect to a global set of coordinate axes, to the posi-
tion of the other vector and compare.
On a curved surface this issue is more complicated because the
tangent plane also rotates between two points (see the gure
above).
154 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
A
B
(a) Rotation of vector by
parallel transport
(b) Path dependence of
parallel transport
Figure 7.3: (a) Parallel transport of a vector in a closed path on a curved surface.
(b) Demonstration that parallel transport is path dependent.
Natural notion of parallel transport:keep the vector parallel to it-
self in innitessimal steps; see Fig. 7.3 (space locally euclidean).
As Fig. 7.3 illustrates, parallel transport of vectors on a curved
surface is generally path-dependent. Hence parallel transport in
curved spaces is not unique and requires a prescription.
The apparent rotation of a vector when parallel transported around
a closed path is a measure of the curvature of the space. (On a 2D
surface the rotation is proportional to the Gaussian curvature.)
7.3. COVARIANT DERIVATIVES AND PARALLEL TRANSPORT 155
Parallel transport in
flat space
Parallel transport in
curved space
V + V
V
V
V V
V = 0
Figure 7.4: Illustration of comparing vectors transported on at and curved sur-
faces.
In comparing vectors V

(x) and V

(y) at two spacetime points, there

are two contributions to any difference V

(see Fig. 7.4):

V

= dV

..
Diff in same coordinates
+ V

..
Change of tangent space
,
For at space V

= 0 and we obtain the familiar

V

= dV

= (

)dx

(covariant deriv = partial deriv).

For curved space we may expect V

between innitesimally sepa-

rated x and y to be linear in V

and dx

,
V

dx

,
where

is the Christoffel symbol. Therefore,

V

=dV

+V

= (

)
. .
Covariant derivative
dx

(curved space)
=

dx

(at space)
156 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
We will see later that

is also called the afne connection or the con-

nection coefcient, or the metric connection, or just
the connection.

can be constructed from the metric tensor and

its derivatives.

can be chosen to vanish in a space with constant

metric.

does not follow from the differential geometry

of the manifold but is an additional imposed struc-
ture that species how tangent spaces at different
points are related (connected).
The Riemann curvature tensor describing the local
intrinsic curvature of the spacetime may be con-
structed from the afne connection.
Thus the afne connection (Christoffel symbol) is central
to dening the covariant derivative, to implementing par-
allel transport of tensors, and to measuring quantitatively
the curvature of a manifold.
7.4. ABSOLUTE DERIVATIVES 157
7.4 Absolute Derivatives
Absolute derivatives (intrinsic derivatives) closely related
to covariant derivatives.
Covariant derivatives dened over an entire manifold
in terms of ordinary partial derivatives plus correc-
tion terms to cancel non-tensorial character.
Absolute derivatives dened only along paths in
manifold in terms of ordinary derivatives plus cor-
rection terms to cancel non-tensorial character.
Using DA/Du to denote the absolute derivative along a path parame-
terized by u
DA

Du
=
dA

du

dx

du
(Covariant vectors)
DA

Du
=
dA

du
+

dx

du
(Contravariant vectors)
(Generalizations for higher-order tensors similar to that discussed ear-
lier for covariant derivatives.)
158 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
Parallel Transport of Vectors: For euclidean (pseudo-
euclidean) manifold, parallel transport of a vector along a
path parameterized by u means that length and direction of
vector (referenced to a universal coordinate system) dont
change, implying that components satisfy
dA

du
= 0 (Flat space).
For a more general Riemannian (pseudo-Riemannian)
manifold this generalizes to
DA

Du
= 0 (Curved space),
7.5. GRAVITATIONAL FORCES 159
7.5 Gravitational Forces
Free Particle: Aparticle moving solely under the inuence
of gravitation is commonly termed a free particle in gen-
eral relativity, because we shall nd that the effect of the
classical gravitational force will be replicated by particles
propagating with no forces acting on them, but in a curved
spacetime.
Equivalence Principle: in a freely-falling coordinate system labeled
by coordinates

, the special theory of relativity is valid and the

equation of motion is given by (assume unit mass)
d
2

d
2
= 0,
(the special relativistic generalization of Newtons second law). The
proper time interval d is
d
2
=

and the Minkowski metric is dened by

= diag(1, 1, 1, 1),
which by equivalence is valid in the coordinates

.
160 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
Introduce another arbitrary coordinate system x

(not necessarily in-

ertial). The freely-falling coordinates

are functions of the new

coordinates,

(x), and by the chain rule

d
2

d
2
=
d
d
_
d

d
_
=
d
d
_
_
_
_
Chain rule
..

dx

d
_
_
_
_
. .
Derivative of product
= 0

d
2
x

d
2
+
d
d
_

_
dx

d
= 0

d
2
x

d
2
+

x

_
dx

d
. .
Chain rule
dx

d
= 0

d
2
x

d
2
+

2

dx

d
dx

d
= 0.
Multiply by x

. .

d
2
x

d
2
+
x

. .

dx

d
dx

d
= 0
to obtain the geodesic equation,
d
2
x

d
2
+

dx

d
dx

d
=0

(afne connection)
7.5. GRAVITATIONAL FORCES 161
The identical notation

for the afne connection and

the Christoffel symbol is deliberate. Their difference is
a tensor (though neither is a tensor alone) that vanishes
in an inertial coordinate system and thus in all coordinate
systems.
The proper time interval in this coordinate system is
d
2
=

dx

. .
chain rule
dx

. .
g

dx

dx

.
Thus, the proper time interval may be written as
d
2
= g

dx

dx

,
where the metric tensor is dened by
g

.
Clearly g

.
162 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
Much of the mathematics of general relativity lies in the
discipline of differential geometry. However,
The afne connection is not strictly part of differen-
tial geometry since it is not a natural consequence of
differential structure on the manifold, and is in fact
not even a tensor.
The afne connection is an augmentation of differ-
ential geometry that gives shape and curvature to a
manifold; it is a dened rule for parallel transport on
curved surfaces.
The afne connection generally is not unique be-
cause we can dene many notions of parallel trans-
port for a curved surface.
Nevertheless, we shall see that under conditions that
are assumed to be satised in general relativity the
afne connection is uniquely determined by the met-
ric tensor.
7.6. THE LOCAL INERTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM 163
7.6 The Local Inertial Coordinate System
We now demonstrate explicitly that the afne connection

at a xed point X in an arbitrary coordinate system x

denes the local inertial coordinates

at the point X.
Multiply

=
x

.
through with

/x

and utilize
x

to give the differential equation

.
This has a power series solution near the point X

(x) =

(X) +

(X)
x

(x

)
+
1
2

(X)
x

(x

)(x

) +. . .
Thus,

and the partial derivatives /x at the point

X determine the local inertial coordinates

up to order
(xX)
2
. Sufcient, since the inertial coordinates are valid
only in the vicinity of the point X.
164 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
Strictly, the local inertial coordinates

are determined
only up to an arbitrary Poincar transformation. Since
in the absence of gravitational forces the laws of physics
are invariant with respect to Poincar transformations, no
physical observables are inuenced by this ambiguity.
7.7. THE AFFINE CONNECTION AND THE METRIC TENSOR 165
7.7 The Afne Connection and the Metric Tensor
We have seen from the preceding derivation that
The afne connection

determines the gravitational force

through the geodesic equation; thus, it may be viewed as the
gravitational eld.
The metric tensor determines the properties of the interval d
through
d
2
= g

dx

dx

,
Now we show that, in fact, g

alone determines the full

effect of gravitation because

can be expressed in terms

of the metric tensor and its derivatives. Thus, we shall
show that
The metric tensor may be viewed as the grav-
itational potential.
166 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
Let us rst differentiate
g

.
with respect to x

:
g

=

2

.
But we have already shown that the inertial coordinates

obey the
differential equation

.
Inserting this in the preceding equation we obtain
g

. .
g

. .
g

,
where
g

.
has been used.
7.7. THE AFFINE CONNECTION AND THE METRIC TENSOR 167
We may solve this equation for the connection

by observing that
if we switch the indices and
g

(original)
g

( )
g

( )
Taking the sum of the rst two and the difference of the last
g

+
g

=g

+g

+g

+g

.
But both

and g

are symmetric in their lower indices so this

reduces to
g

+
g

= 2g

.
Multiplying this by g

, where
g

= g

and g

, we obtain nally

=
1
2
g

_
g

+
g

_
=
1
2
g

_
g
,
+g
,
g
,
_
.
168 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
Therefore the connection, and hence the gravitational
eld, are entirely determined by the metric tensor and its
derivatives: in general relativity, the metric tensor is the
source of the gravitational eld.
7.7. THE AFFINE CONNECTION AND THE METRIC TENSOR 169
Table 7.1: Equations of geodesic motion
Case Variational principle Equation of motion
Flat spacetime
_
(

dx

dx

)
1/2
= 0
d
2
x

d
2
= 0
General spacetime
_
(g

(x)dx

dx

)
1/2
= 0
d
2
x

d
2
=

dx

d
dx

d
The equations of geodesic motion are con-
trasted for at spacetime and for a general
curved spacetime in Table 7.1.
170 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
7.8 Uniqueness of the Afne Connection
The afne connection is an additional feature imposed on
the differential structure of a manifold through a denition
that generally is not unique. However,
If a manifold has both a metric and a connection de-
ned for it, one usually makes certain compatibility
demands that constrain the connection.
If the manifold has a metric tensor, the divergence of
a vector eld and the metric are said to be compatible
if the inner (scalar) product of two arbitrary vectors
is preserved under parallel transport.
In proving preceding results we have assumed symmetry
of the connection in its lower indices. The torsion tensor
is dened by
T

=
tensor
..

..
not tensor

..
not tensor
and measures the deviation from symmetry in the lower
indices.
7.8. UNIQUENESS OF THE AFFINE CONNECTION 171
The connection dened on a manifold with metric g

is
unique and determined completely by the metric if
1. The manifold is torsion-free: T

= 0.
2. The covariant derivative (dened in terms of the con-
nection) of the metric tensor vanishes everywhere,
D

= 0,
which is sufcient to ensure that the scalar product
of vectors is preserved under parallel transport.
In this case the connection is termed a metric connection.
The previous result that

=
1
2
g

_
g

+
g

_
determines the afne connection uniquely in
terms of the metric tensor is a consequence
of the assumptions (1) and (2) above. These
assumptions are then justied after the fact by
the concordance of the resulting theory and
observations.
172 CHAPTER 7. CURVED SPACETIME AND GENERAL COVARIANCE
7.9 Weak-Field Limit of the Connection
In various applications such as ascertaining the relation-
ship between general relativity and classical Newtonian
gravity, or in the investigation of gravitational waves, it
is useful to have approximate expressions for the connec-
tion coefcients that are valid in the limit of weak, slowly-
varying elds.
For example, if we assume that the metric in that case dif-
fers only slightly from the constant Minkowski metric

and can be expressed as

g

+h

(x),
then you are asked to show in an Exercise that

=
1
2
g

_
g

+
g

_
gives

0

1
2

_
h
0
x

h
0
x

00

1
2

h
00
x

for weak, slowly-varying elds.

7.10. ONWARD TO EINSTEINS THEORY OF GRAVITATION 173
7.10 Onward to Einsteins Theory of Gravitation
Einsteins theory of gravitation is a covariant relationship
among mass, density, and curvature that implements the
principles of equivalence and general covariance. We now
have the tools to construct that theory.