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• Microprocessors
• Memory
• Semiconductor Memory
• Memory Controller
• Magnetic Memory
• Optical Disks
Microprocessors
Intel 8085
• 8 bit microprocessor, implemented in NMOS Technology.
• 40 Pin LSI chip. 3, 5 and 6 MHZ are employed.
• 80 basic instructions and 246 opcode.
• 8 bit data bus and 16 bit address bus.
Intel 8086
• 16 bit microprocessor, implemented in HMOS Technology.
• 40 Pin LSI chip. 5, 8 and 10 MHZ are employed.
• 16 bit data bus and 20 bit address bus lines corresponds to 1MB
memory.
• 16 low order address lines are multiplexed with data line and 4
high order address linesNotes
arebymultiplexed
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Microprocessors
Intel 80386
• 32 bit microprocessor.
• 386Sl version developed for laptop computers.
• Designed to consume low power.
• 32 bit data bus and 32 bit address bus.
Intel 80486
• 32 bit microprocessor, implemented in CHMOS Technology.
• It contains 32 bit CPU, a floating point processor, 8 Kb or 16 KB
cache. 168 pin grade array or 196-lead plastic quad flat package.
• Different versions of 486 works between 25 – 100 MHz clock.
• Can directly address 4 GB memory.
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Microprocessors
Pentium with Multimedia extension (MMX)
• Operating frequency 200 MHz.
• Two cache 16 KB each.
• The MMX pipeline uses intensive parallel processing of data.
• The Celeron, Pentium II and Pentium III also uses MMX.
Pentium IV
• 32 bit microprocessor and 64 bit on Pentium –4 HT
microprocessor.
• Operating frequency up to2.8 GHz.
Memory
• The semiconductor memory is employed as main memory or
primary memory of the computer.
• RAM ROM IC are used as the main memory of computer.
• The magnetic and optical memory are used as secondary memory.
• Secondary memory is employed for bilk storage or mass storage
of programs data and other information.
• Backup memory is used to store the copy of the important
programs such as OS, compliers etc. floppy disk CDs and
magnetic disks are used as back up memory.
• The cache memory is placed in between CPU and the main
memory. It is semiconductor memory, and is faster than main
memory. Write through and write back cache schemes are used in
computers. Notes by 'santhosh K.V' for 6
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Memory
• The diagrams shown below represents the memory hierarchies as
per the speed of operation.
C
Primary Secondary
P
Memory Memory
U
C
P Cache Primary Secondary
U MEM Memory Memory
Semiconductor Memory
• Semiconductor are of two types: Random access Memory RAM
and Read only memory ROM.
• The read write memory is commonly called RAM.
RAMs
• RAM is volatile memory, the information exist in the memory till
the power is on.
• Two types of RAM are: Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
• Static RAM stores information as long as power is on.
• In case of Dynamic RAM the the information stored is lost in very
short time (few milliseconds). Hence these are to be refreshed
periodically.
• For this purpose RAM controller are used.
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Semiconductor Memory
• Static RAM uses Flip flops whereas Dynamic RAM uses gates
with capacitor so it requires less transistors per memory.
• Extended Data Output RAM (EDO-RAM): any memory access
stores bytes of data into latches. Latches holds next 256 bytes of
information.
• SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM): these RAM chips uses the same
clock rate as the CPU, so it remains ready to transfer data when
needed by the CPU.
• DRAM (Dual-Ported RAM: allows to access two memory
locations simultaneously, also called video RAM (VRAM or
WRAM windows RAM)
• SIMM & DIMM: single inline & double inline modules are small
printed ckt cards on which several DRAM chips are placed. 9
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Semiconductor Memory
ROMs
• ROM is non-volatile memory, the information exist in the
memory even if the the power goes off. Used fro permanent
storage of data. They are cheaper as compared to RAM.
• PROM: programmable ROM. Its content can be decided by the
user. The user can store permanent programs using PROM
programmer.
• EPROM: in erasable PROM stored data can be erased by
exposing it it to high intensive SW ultraviolet light.
• EEPROM: electrically erasable PROM can be erased and
reprogrammed on board easily on a byte by byte basis.
• Flash memory: it is EEPROM but uses one transistor per cell.
• Nonvolatile RAM: high speed RAM & EEPROM are packed in
one chip to form non volatile RAM.
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Memory Controller
• A dynamic RAM (DRAM) requires refreshing ckt to refresh the
content, for this purpose DRAM controllers are evolved.
Intel 8203: 64K DRAM controller capable of directly addressing and
driving up to 64 devices without external drivers. Provides
multiplexed address, address strobes, refresh logic, and refresh /
access arbitration.
Intel 8207: is dual port DRAM controller. It interfaces 16K, 64K and
256K DRAMs. Can directly address 2 MB without any external
drivers. A dual port interface permits two different busses to
access memory independently.
Intel 82C08: CHMOS DRAM controller. Can interface 64K and
256K DRAMs. Can directly address 1MB. Capable of performing
the task of memory refreshing employing battery backup.
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Magnetic Memory
• It is permanent type memory. It is non-volatile. Used as secondary
and backup memory.
• Data is stored on the magnetic coating film by electrical pulses of
suitable polarity to the magnetizing coil of a read /write head.
• Two techniques: longitude recording (magnetic region is oriented
parallel to the disk surface along the track) and Vertical recording
( the magnetic regions are vertical to the disk surface).
Magnetic Memory
• The number of bytes stored in each sector is same. So all tracks
store same number of data.
• These disks are semi random devices. Track is selected in random
fashion but data is written or read in serial fashion.
• The time required to move the R/W head to the addressed sector
is access time (time to move head to the track is seek time + time
required to bring the starting position of the sector is latency
time).
• Disk Controller (DC) are required to convert instruction received
from software to electrical pulses to operate disk.
• DC also issue commands to perform R/W operation. Data
separation error detection also taken care by DC
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Magnetic Memory
Hard Disk:
• On line storage device connected permanently to computer.
• Made up of Aluminum. With thin coating of magnetic material over
it.
• Read write head and disks are kept in sealed, air filtered enclosure
• To increase capacity several hard disks are mounted on common
drive to constitute disk pack.
RAID Systems:
• Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) system disks
operate in parallel and stores the same information.
• Improves the storage reliability by eliminating the risk of data lost.
• Large files is stored in many disks by breaking the file into groups.
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Optical Memory
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Monitor
• Printer
• Software
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Keyboard
• Programs and data are entered into a computer through Keyboard.
• It is similar to a typewriter. It contains alphabets, digits, special
characters and some control Keys.
• When a key is pressed a signal is produced which is detected by
keyboard encoder and encoder sends a binary code to the
computer.
• The binary code may be an ASCII EBCDIC or Hex code.
• The binary code send by encoder is taken from a look up table.
• Computers use standard keyboards having Qwerty type layout.
• For faster typing keys are arranged to give a different layout
known as Dvorak layout.
• Construction of keys can be Mechanical Keyswitch, Capacitive
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Keyswitch or Hall Effect Keyswitch.
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Mouse
• A mouse is a pointing device. It is used to select a displayed menu
on option on the CRT.
• It is held in on hand and moved across a flat surface.
• Movement is detected by the two rotating wheels on the underside
of the mouse.
• The pulses transmitted by the mouse (generated by shaft encoder
for every incremental movement of the wheel) determine the the
distance moved.
• The mechanical mouse explained above picks up drift.
• An Opto-mechanical mouse has been developed.
• It contains a ball which rolls on two shafts. The shafts turn optical
shaft angle encoders to convert motions to electrical signals.
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Monitor
• A CRT (Cathode Ray Tube ) display unit or monitor is a
commonly used out put device.
• It can display the data information received from computer in
alphanumeric character and graphs.
• Though CRT is basically O/p device but it can perform limited
input operations when used in conjunction with light pen.
• The CRT is similar to TV screen. It is vacuum tube . An electron
beam is produced and directed towards the front of the CRT.
• A coating of phosphor material is made up in the inner side of
screen. It emits light when struck by an electron beam.
• To produce colour display three phosphor red blue and green are
used. Three different beams for each colour is produced in such a
way that these beams struck the corresponding colour phosphor
dot arranged in a specialNotes
manner.
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Monitor
• Raster Scan and Vector display methods are used in the CRT to
produce the out put.
• In raster scan method the electron beam is first directed at the top
left hand corner and then it is moved along the first horizontal
scan line.
• When it reaches right hand side the beam is turned of and retrace
rapidly left side to the starting point of second line and traces the
second line in same manner.
• In the last line scan when beam reaches in the right hand side
bottom corner then it goes back to starting point (top left hand).
• In vector scan (random scan) method deflecting plates are used to
deflect the beam left or right and up or down.
• The beam can be directed to any point on the screen.
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Monitor
• A character is displayed on the screen by light dots. A matrix of
dots is used for this purpose.
• The size of the dot-matrix may be 5x7, 7x9 or 7x12.
• Character generator ROM, stores the dot pattern for the each
character.
• The ASCII or EBCDIC codes of the character to be displayed are
stored in a display RAM or video RAM.
• According to the character to be displayed the content of RAM
changes.
• A row counter and a character counter are employed to address
the ASCII code of character in the display.
• A CRT controllers contains the necessary electronic CKT to
control CRT display. Several controller ICs like Intel 8275, 8276,
822706 etc. are available.
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Printers
• Printers are commonly used out put device. These are classified
as: Character Printer, Line Printer and Page Printer.
• The other classification based on the technology on
manufacturing are: Impact printer (uses electromechanical
mechanism that causes hammers or pins to strike against against
a ribbon to print) and Non-impact printer (uses thermal,
chemical, electrostatic, laser beam, inkjet technology for printing)
• A character Printer prints one character of text at time. They are
low speed printers. Character to be printed are sent serially to the
printer.
• In a dot matrix impact type character printers a character is
printed by printing selected number of dots from a matrix of dots.
• The line printer prints one line at time.
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Printers
• An ink jet printers uses dot matrix approach to print text and
graphics. Most printers use multiple jets vertically aligned on a
cartridge.
• A solid colour printer use inks which are solid ar room
temperature. At the time of printing inks are melted and flow to
the reservoirs in the print head.
• Laser jet printers are page printers in which entire page is
processed at a time.
• They use laser beam to produce an image of the page containing
text graphics on a photo sensitive drums.
• The drum is coated with negatively charged photoconductive
material.
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Software
• A program is sequence of instruction.
• A set of programs written for a computer is called software.
• Software are of two types
System software: the software needed to execute the user’s program
is system S/W. It consist of operating system, assembler,
complier, interpreter, debugging programs text editors etc.
Application software: the programs written for specific operations
makes the application software. Programs like sales order,
inventory, pay bills are examples of application S/W.
• A program which is prepared by programmer to solve certain
problem is known as User’s program.
• The operating system is collection of programs that controls the
overall operation of a computer.
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Software
• The software which are helpful to users in developing, writing,
debugging and documenting programs are referred as utility
programs.
• There are two types of utility programs file management and
program development.
• The firm ware is used for the S/W stored in read only storage
device. These programs are never expected to change.
• The way of writing the programs in a computer system depends
upon the programming language used. Programming language is
tool for writing the application program.
• Language are of two types: Low level Language and High Level
Language.
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Software
• A language in which each statement is directly translated into
single machine code is known as Low level language.
• Examples of low level language are machine level and the
assembly languages of various processors.
• High level languages are written in form which is easy to
understand and normally in the English like statement.
• The instruction written in HL language are called statement. The
statement more clearly resembles English and mathematics as
compared to mnemonics in assembly language.
• Machine language: programs written in the form of 0s and 1s is
called machine language programs.
• There is a specific binary code for each instruction. These binary
code differs from computer to'santhosh
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Software
• Each microprocessor has its own instruction set and
corresponding machine codes.
• To solve the difficulty in writing programs in machine language
assembly language have developed.
• In assembly language the programs are written in alphanumeric
symbol code known as mnemonics.
• The programming in assembly language is easier and fester as
compared to machine language programming.
• Assembler: A program which translate an assembly language
program into a machine language program is called assembler.
• An assembler which runs a computer for which it produces object
code (machine code) is called self assembler.
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Software
• A cross assembler is an assembler that run on a computer other
than for which it produces machine codes.
• One-Pass Assembler: an assembler which reads the assembly
language program only once.
• Two-Pass Assembler: an assembler which reads the assembly
language program twice.
• The computation time of assembly language program is les as
compared to High Level Language.
• Assembly language programs runs faster to produce the desired
result as compared to High Level Language.
• Assembly language programs can not used on any other computer
as compared to High Level Language.
• Assembly language program contains more instruction as
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compared to High Level Language.
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Software
• A complier is a program which translate a high level language
into machine language.
• It is more intelligent than an assembler.it check for all kinds of
limits, ranges, errors etc.
• Its program execution time is more.it has low sped and low
efficiency of memory utilization.
• If a complier runs on computer for which it produces the object
code, then it is called self or resident complier.
• If a complier runs on computer other than that for which it
produces the object code, then it is called cross complier.
• An Interpreter is a program which translates statements of a high
level language into machine codes.
• It translate one statement at a time.
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• A complier is faster than an interpreter.
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Software
Programming language generations
• First Generation, 1GL: machine languages is known as first
generation Language.
• Second Generation, 2GL: an assembly language is second
generation Language. Assembly language is machine oriented. It
is very close to the hardware of the CPU.
• Third Generation, 3GL: High Level Languages are the third
generation Language. These are procedure-oriented languages.
The programmer must tell what to do as well how to do.Fortran,
Pascal, Cobol and C are examples of these languages.
• Fourth Generation, 4GL: Non-procedural or object oriented
languages are the fourth generation Language. In this language
programmer has to tell only what to do.Java, C++, ORACLE and
SYBASE are example ofNotesthese languages.
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• Operating Systems
• MS-DOS
• UNIX
• WINDOWS
• Utility Programs
r 's Test
e
m h Shell Processing
r am enc
og k b
ds
r Pipes
an
P or Kernel Type
W m
m
Co
settling
Hardware
Editors
Terminal
Device Driver
Drivers Memory manager
Foreground Compiler
Background
USER
Unix to Unix
USER copy UCP
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WINDOWS
• It is designed for home use.
• It is a graphical user interface of Microsoft Corporation. The GUI
provides picture oriented interface.
• Windows presents programs, procedure, files, commands etc. as
graphical symbols.
• The different versions of Windows are Windows-3, Windows-3.1,
Windows-3.11, Windows-95, Windows-98, Windows-2000 or
Windows-Millennium, Windows-NT and Windows-XP.
• Windows 95 is a mixed 16 bit and 32 bit multitasking OS.
• Windows 98 is a faster and easy to use OS.it si a 32 bit operating
system.
• The internet online environment is more closely associated with
Windows 98 desktop computers.
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WINDOWS
• Windows 98 provides plug and play facility. It is also a
multitasking operating system.
• Windows-NT is 32 bit multi user OS. It provides multitasking
features. It can run on microprocessors of other companies other
than Intel’s.
• Windows supports TCP/IP/IPX/SPX data link control for
mainframes.
• Windows-NT provides Client server working mode, which is used
in networking of computing systems.
• The Windows XP embedded OS is used in devices such as hand
held computers, TV set-top-boxes and automated industrial
machines.
• Programming Languages
• Types of languages
• Function is rule or set of rules that assign one and only one value
of X to give value Y. For Y = f(X) here Y is a function of X.
Is A>B Stop
Decision Box Start/ Stop
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Algorithm and flow-chart
• Flow chart for average of three numbers.
Start
Get values
of X,Y, Z
Compute
SUM = X+Y+Z
Compute
AVE = SUM/3
• The C Languages
• Data types
• Assignment statement
• Data management
Structured TPS
DSS
C language
• Control Structure
• Array
1 3 5
2 4 6
The Multiplied or Output Matrix is
7 15 23
10 22 34
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