Give a brief summary of mainstream theories of

child development
The reasons for studying children are as broad and complex as the
field itself. It is recognized that through the study of children we
may come to understand adult behavior better. As John Milton
commented in Paradise Lost: ‘The childhood shows the man as the
morning shows the day’. Gabriel Compayre, a French educationalist
who observed and wrote about children department over a hundred
years ago, also believed that information concerning the child’s
early years would serve to illuminate later development:’ if
childhood is the cradle of humanity, the study of childhood is the
cradle and necessary introduction to all future psychology’.
From a somewhat different perspective, Charles Darwin believed
that the child was the link between animal and human species. The
birth of his own son William Erasmus (nicknamed ‘Doddy’) on 27
December 1839 prompted Darwin to being a diary description of the
development of his son ‘a baby biography’. By observing the
development of the infant, Darwin believed some understanding
could be reached of the species itself. Darwin argued that emotional
expression was basically a physiological matter and that expressive
gestures were largely universal and innate:
Everyone who has had much to do with young children must have
seen how naturally they take to biting when in passion. It seems
instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, who snap their little jaws
as soon as they emerge from the egg.
During the medieval period the child did not account for much in the
eyes of society, as a Sixteenth century rhyme (cited in Schorsch,
1979:23) indicates:
Of all the months the first behold.
January two-faced and cold
Because its eyes ways are cast
To face the future and the past.
Thus the child six summers old
Is not worth when all is told.
(Hobbes, 1931: 257) the implication of Hobbes’ argument is that
children have no natural rights and no rights by social contract,
because they lack the ability to make formal contracts with other
members of society and cannot understand the consequences of
such contracts.
Later in the same century, John Locke, arguing from different
perspective, considered children to be under the jurisdiction of their
parents until they were capable of fending for themselves. Unlike
Hobbes, Locke believed that the both adult and children possessed
certain natural rights, which needed protection.
Maturationist theory was advanced by the work of Amold Gessell.
They believed that the development is a bilological process that
occurs automatically in the predictable, sequential stages over time.
(Environmentalist theories) John Watson, B. F. Skinner and Albert
Bandura contributed a lot in environmentalist perspective of
development. They believe that child’s environment shapes learning
and behavior, in fact human behavior and learning are thought of as
reactions to the environment.
(Constructivist theories) Although the work of Jean Piaget, Maria
Montessori and Lev Vygotsky varies greatly but they are consistent
in their belief that learning and development occurs when young
children interact with the environment and the people around them.
Constructivists view young children as active participants in the
learning process. In addition, constructivists believe young children
initiate most of the activities required for learning and
development.
Jean Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development of
children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive
process and abilities. In Piaget’s view, early cognitive development
involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into
changes in mental operations. According to Piaget there are four
cognitive developmental stages between infancy and adolescence
and in each stage thinking level is different. ( Sensorimotor : in this
stage the knowledge of infant is limited to their sensory perception
and motor activities, behaviors are limited and simple –
preoperational : this is the stage between ages two and six,
language development is basic part of this stage, children do not
understand concrete logic, can’t mentally manipulate information
and need help from other people. – Concrete Operational : this stage
begins from age seven to approximately age eleven. By the time
children gain understanding of mental operations, think logically
about concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract
concepts – Formal Operational : this stage starts from age twelve
and ends at adulthood, during this time people develop ability to
think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought,
deductive reasoning and systematic planning also emerge during
this stage)
Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg modified and expanded upon
Piaget’s work to form a theory that explained the development of
moral reasoning. Piaget defined a two stage process of moral
development where as Kohlberg theory of moral development
outlined six stages with three different levels.
Level 1. Preconventional morality
Stage 1- obedience and punishment: The early stage of morality
development is especially common in young children. At this stage
children see rules as fixed and obeying the rules is important to
avoid punishment.
Stage 2- individualism and exchange: At this stage children account
for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they
serve individual needs.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
Stage 3- interpersonal relationship: Often referred to the “good
boy- bad boy” orientation, this stage of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an
emphasis on conformity, being nice and consideration of how
choices influence relationships.
Stage 4- maintaining social order: people being to consider society
as a whole when making judgments. The focus on maintaining law
and order by following rules, doing one’s duty and respecting
authority.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
Stage 5- social contract and individual rights: At this stage people
being account for different values, opinions and beliefs of other
people. Rules and laws aur important for maintaining a society but
members of society should agree upon these standards.
Stage 6 – universal principles: final level is based ethical principles
and abstract reasoning. Follow internalizes principles of justice and
even they conflict with laws and rules.
One of the main factors of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the
development of “ego identity”. Ego identity is conscious sense of
self that we develop through social interaction. Erikson says our ego
identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interaction with others.
According to Erikson there are certain stages of life if these stages
are handled well the person will be referred as ego strength or ego
quality and the person will feel the sense of mastery, where as if
any stage is poorly managed than the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy. Erikson believes people experience a conflict
in each stage, that serves as a turning point of development people
may either develop psychological quality of failing to develop that
quality. Stages are given below,
Psychosocial stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust, 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and
doubt, 3: Initiative vs. Guilt, 4: Industry vs. Inferiority, 5: Identity vs.
Role Confusion, 6: intimacy vs. Isolation, 7: Generativity vs.
Stagnation, 8: Integrity vs. Despair.
Attachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an
exchange of comfort, care and pleasure. The roots of research on
attachment began with Freud’s theories about love. According to
Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five.
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development is one of the best
known, but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that
personality develops through a series of childhood stages during
which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focus on
certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy was described
as the driving force behind behavior. If these psychosexual stages
are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If
certain issues are not resolves at the appropriate stage, fixation can
occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual
stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain
“stuck” in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the
oral stage may be over-dependent on other and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, and drinking etc.
But another researcher is usually credited as the father of
attachment and that is John Bowlby. He devoted widespread
research to the concept of attachment, describing it as a” lasting
psychological connectedness between human beings”. Bowlby
shares the psychoanalytic view that early experiences in childhood
have an important influence on development and behavior later in
life. Our early attachment styles are established in childhood
through the infant/ caregiver relationship. In addition to this he
believes that it is an aid for survival. “The propensity to make
strong emotional bonds to particular individuals (is) basic
component of human nature.”
References:
1. Notes provided
2. PHILLIP SLEE AND ROSALYN SHUTE (Child Development)
3. Attachment theory.
4. www.funderstanding.com