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Version 1,0 - July 2011 This work is protected by copyright. The use of the book is exclusively for private and personal use. All of the rights, as well as the translation, reprinting and reproduction of the book in its entirety or in part are reserved. Reproduction in any form is prohibited (photocopy, microlm or any other method) of any part of the work without authorization from its authors, nor is it to be used for teaching purposes (with the exception of paragraphs 53 and 54 typied under the German Law of Corporate Reorganization). Similarly, nor can the text be changed or divulged using electronic methods. This also applies to the recording of the work in electronic databases and digital media playback. In addition, the graphics of the work and treatment and structuring of the contents are also protected by copyright. The editor is not liable for the accuracy of the sources named in the book (i.e links to external websites and third parties). We do not guarantee that the content of the links used remains intact and has not changed. Proofreading: Green & Energy GmbH Content: Green & Energy GmbH Design: Lorenz Koll and Green & Energy GmbH Layout: Green & Energy GmbH Translation: Green & Energy GmbH

Table of Contents
Prologue Introduction A brief overview 1-How do you charge an electric car? 2-What is the lifespan of an electric car? 3-What is the range of an electric car? 4-What are the costs of an electric car? 5-Do governments promote the purchase of electric cars? 6-Is the electric car just another passing fad? 7-What are the levels of CO2 emissions from electric cars? 8-What kind of maintenance and repair do electric cars need? 9-Will the batteries be available in the long term? 10-How are electric car batteries recycled? Conclusion/ Summary Glossary of key terms related to electric-mobility The Authors 1 2 4 11 16 20 25 29 32 35 38 40 43 45 50 54

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Prologue
Today, the issue of electric mobility is more current than ever. After conducting many conversations with people who are not experts in the eld and having analyzed their needs, we realized that the general public lacks fundamental information about electric mobility and its modern use. This book was motivated by the desire to remove this decit in basic information, or at the very least, reduce it. It is not aimed at the scientic community and specialized public but rather for general readers who are interested in learning more about the subject. The authors are three scientists who have dedicated themselves to the issue both during and after their studies. They collectively decided to explain and share their knowledge on electric mobility, explaining it in a way that is simple to understand, removing any existing prejudices and refuting any misconceptions. This has been accomplished by avoiding the excessive use of puzzling technical vocabulary or the excessive use of data. A thorough reading of this book will provide you with a basic knowledge of electric mobility and give you the opportunity to learn about the advantages and current disadvantages and the possible solutions to these issues. This book is designed to give an independent view of the electrical performance of the cars and their various uses as well as to provide the reader with an informed understanding of the topic.

Introduction
What interests you about electric mobility? - A survey.
Before we started working on this guide it was important for us to know what questions were most important for the public. With this objective, we published a survey on the internet on various platforms. We eventually managed to encourage 4,000 people from different areas, countries and ages to participate in a survey. They were provided with a questionnaire consisting of 20 questions on electric mobility and, taking into account their interests and prior knowledge, were asked to prioritize their answers according to relevance and importance. The results of the survey are shown in the chart below.
How do you recharge an electric car? What is the lifespan of an electric car? How much autonomy does an electric car have? What are the costs of an electric car? Are there any governmental subsidies for electric cars? Is the electric car just another hype? What are the levels of CO2 emissions from electric cars? What kind of maintenance and repair do they need? Will the batteries be available in the long term? How do you recycle electric car batteries? 0% important unimportant 25% 97,0% 96,5% 95,5% 95,3% 88,6% 87,8% 87,1% 86,8% 83,9% 80,1% 50% doesnt matter 75% 100%

Figure 1: The ten most important questions about electric mobility

Number one on the list and therefore the question that generates the most interest is the question about how to recharge an electric car. The demand for information is also largely focussed around the life and autonomy of operating an electric vehicle. In turn, the survey frequently threw up questions about the price of the vehicles and the promotion of them in different countries. The participation of almost 4,000 respondents demonstrates the great interest in electric mobility and the number of people interested in learning more about the topic. The survey helped us to discover the ten most common questions about electric mobility.

A brief overview
Currently, car dealers mainly feature cars with a conventional combustion engine. However, as this book will attempt to explain, they are beginning to understand that in the future, sales of hybrid and electric cars will grow. In this context, modern and alternative technology frequently appears as a series of concepts, parameters and names that you may have heard of but whose correct denition is not fully known. To prevent possible confusion and to provide clarity from the beginning, this chapter is an introduction to the subject and provides a concise perspective on these technologies, as well as explaining some of the new concepts. Did you know that the rst electric car was built in 1834 by Thomas Davenport? The vehicle was a prototype and did not have rechargeable batteries. When Carl Friedrich Benz introduced the rst petrol automobile in 1885, the electric car was already known, but the low cost of fuel at the time meant that the combustion engine prevailed. Source: http://de.wikipedia.org/

Even the manufacturers themselves have problems wiki/ Thomas_Davenport using the correct technical vocabulary. This is demonstrated in the ofcial description of a product written by a British subsidiary of a US car manufacturer. It indicates an electric car battery with a capacity of 111 kWh (kilowatt hours), a fact which simply cannot be true. The car has 111 kW, a measurement that is used to indicate the electrical power more than to refer to the capacity of the electric cars battery. (see http://www.green-and-energy.com/blog/the-needforclarication-around-evs/).

The main difference between cars with a combustion engine and an electric motor lies in the energy source used to enable locomotion. In combustion engines the energy sources are liquid or gaseous fuels derived mostly from fossils. Both oil and natural gas are accessible and nite resources. Additionally, access to these materials is restricted to cer tain regions which has generated a signicant dependence on imports from the countries where the fuels are found. The need for these deposits has often resulted in political tension and even war. For decades the increasing global demand and limited supply of these resources has led to a continuous increase in the price of petrol and diesel. Another basic argument against the use of fossil fuels is the environmental impact caused by their burning. For example, it is from carbon dioxide emissions that we get the so-called Greenhouse Effect that has been proven to cause climate change, resulting in many countries committing to reduce their emissions. Therefore, despite the claims that liquid and gaseous fuels can be obtained through Biomass, these methods have certain disadvantages. For example, to obtain the necessary amounts of Biogas and other Biofuels it would be necessary to turn to agricultural areas that are otherwise needed for food production. This is particularly problematic in those countries where food production and supply of goods for the general population is already difcult.

T h e f a c t s o u t l i n e d a b ove demonstrate that the internal combustion engine alone does not represent the technology of the future, although at the present time it satises almost all consumer mobility needs. Unlike

Did you know that the CO2 produced during the combustion of biofuels is almost the same as the amount a plant captures during its growth? For that reason, biofuels are CO2 neutral.

conventional vehicles, electric cars store the energy they need for their operation in chemical form in a battery. Cars with combustion engines also use batteries to store energy, not for traction but primarily for starting the engine. In this context they are described as starter batteries. If the accumulated energy is used for the motion (traction) of the vehicle they are called traction batteries. Traction batteries can store a much higher quantity of energy than the starter battery. An ordinary lead-acid battery is adequate for a starter battery, while the traction battery requires more advanced technologies such as lithium-ion or nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH). The energy for the electric traction can be obtained through local and renewable energy sources. Thus, through electric mobility emission free mobility can be ensured. Another advantage is that the dependency on oil or gas producing countries is no longer existing. Therefore, the vehicle owner is not subjected to the costs dictated by the oil companies. If the electricity is not produced emission free, electric cars are responsible for CO2 emissions which are not emitted into the environment from the vehicle, like conventional cars, but from the production process.

Along with the extensive number of utility companies there are also numerous methods of producing energy through both fossil and renewable sources, meaning that supply problems or dependence can be virtually eliminated. CO2 emissions per kilowatt hours vary from country to country depending on the used power plants respectively used methods for the generation of electricity. The current emissions of different countries are shown in the gure below. France, with about 102 g of CO2/kWh, is amongst the countries with the lowest specic emissions worldwide. This is because over 75 %1 of the electricity is generated by nuclear plants which have relatively low CO2 emissions when compared to plants fueled by coal, gas or oil.
CO2 emissions of electricity production in kg/kWh

900 720 540 360 575 249 102 454 667 813 180 0

Germany

Austria

France

Europe

USA

China

Figure 2: Specic emissions for electricity production in different countries2,3

1 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf40.html 2 http://www.zukunft-elektroauto.de/pageID_8368817.html [GEMIS (2009)] 3 http://www.umweltbundesamt.at/leadmin/site/publikationen/REP0303.pdf

Due to technological advances and the growth of renewable systems, the average carbon dioxide emissions from power plants are continuously decreasing. Thus, the levels of CO2 per kilowatt hour produced will also continue to decrease. Even if the electric cars are not recharged by electricity generated solely through renewable energies the emissions will still decline. The CO2 emissions will be separately reviewed in Chapter 7. Along with the pure electric cars that are slowly arriving on the market there are also hybrid cars that are already growing in popularity. The term hybrid generally refers to vehicle systems in which two or more technologies are combined. They have an internal combustion engine and an electric motor which make them a ver y attractive option, as apart from the

Did you know that the vehicle known as the Lohner-Porsche was displayed at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900? It was an electric car with the motor on the wheel hub. The image shows the racing version with the electric wheel hubs on all four wheels!

Source: http://de .wikipedia.or g/wiki/ Ferdinand_Porsche#Elektroauto_LohnerPorsche

lower energy consumption and therefore lower emissions of gases that cause pollution, they can be propelled purely through electricity even if only for relatively few kilometers. In this way you get the advantage of both technologies and compensation for the disadvantages of each.

Did you know that the Greenhouse Effect is caused by greenhouse gases like CO2 or methane. The greenhouse gases constrain the transmission of the suns rays reected by the earths surface, which leads to rising global temperatures. Scientists as well as politicians came to a worldwide agreement that the extreme characteristics of the current greenhouse effect and therefore global warming is caused by the emissions created by humanity.

The electric motor is, in terms of efciency, superior to the combustion engine. An electric motor has an efciency factor of circa 95 % or more whereas a modern diesel powered engine only has a maximum efciency of about 35 %. Depending on the driving characteristic and the route prole (for example driving in city trafc), this value is further reduced by a couple of percentage points and most of the fuel is used to heat the atmosphere rather than to propel the vehicle. Another advantage of the electric car is the ability to recover the kinetic energy during braking. Braking, which has been a purely mechanical process up to n ow, c a n b e a l s o a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h electromagnetic forces that generate electricity and recharge the battery. This is known as recuperation and is particularly effective when driving in city trafc.

Currently there are many different congurations in the world of hybrids. They differ according to the various traction components as well as the degree of electrication of the vehicle. The variety reaches from Micro-Hybrid electric cars with only a Start and Stop function to electric cars with a so called Range Extender, which could be a small engine or fuel cell. The Range Extender generates electric energy while driving in order to recharge the battery or to directly drive the electric engine.

In a pure electric vehicle (EV) the engine is omitted. The car is equipped exclusively with an electric motor powered only by the battery.

Electric motor / generator Battery Range Extender Fuel tank

Figure 2: Hybrid car (left) and a pure electric car (right)

Electronics

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1-How do you charge an electric car?

What are the different ways to recharge an electric car?
Cur rently there are no standardized methods for charging electric cars, but we assume this will change soon. Generally there are three main ways: conductive charging, inductive charging and by changing the battery. Using the conductive method the car (battery) is connected by a cable and plugged directly into an electricity provider. The inductive method, in contrast, works through electromagnetic transmission without any contact between the EV and the charging infrastructure. The charging spot is equipped with wires which carry an alternating current as soon as the EV is at the right place. The alternating current creates an electromagnetic eld, which affects the receiver (also consisting of wires) in the EV in a way that a current is induced and charges the battery. This method is the same as that used to charge electric toothbrushes. Currently, both the automotive industry and operators of charging stations prefer conductive charging because it is much cheaper and more efcient. Yet there are several R&D projects which focus on the further improvement of inductive charging, because it offers a way better user comfort and could be a key feature for electric mobility.

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The third possibility takes into consideration the swapping of discharged batteries with fresh ones in a swapping station. This concept is being developed today by, amongst others, an Israeli company. However for this to be possible the dimensions and internal connections for the batteries must be standardized. Each electric car from each manufacturer would have to have virtually the same size, shape and type of battery. As this reduces the OEMs freedom of design and given that the choice of placement of the battery would be severely reduced, most of the manufacturers reject this method.

How long does it take to charge the batteries?

The time required to recharge the batteries depends on several factors. Firstly- the available power from the grid and the state of charge of the battery. Secondly, there are the specic characteristic values of both the car and the battery such as the battery type, the cooling system and the maximum permissible current. For example , a conventional household outlet in Europe can achieve an output close to 3.5 kilowatt (kW) (Analog to Level 1 charging in USA, with 2 kW). Therefore, a battery with a capacity of 3.5 kilowatt hours (kWh) can be charged in one hour, regardless of any energy losses and other effects during the charge. This means that the procedure for charging a 20 kWh traction battery takes around 6 hours (in USA with Level 1 10 hours). However, a high voltage power port supplies around 22 kW (Level 2 charging) so the same battery would be fully charged in around 50 minutes. This fast load can only be guaranteed in facilities that have been technically upgraded for this purpose which

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represents a considerable expense. Furthermore, the current battery types still react sensitively to variable charging methods and therefore these methods of fast charging are not yet standard. It could be that the implementation of fast charging infrastructure would be a result of simply putting it in the publics consciousness, to demonstrate to the users that fast charging is possible and that additional unscheduled trips could be fullled. Vehicles are generally used every day and owing to the average distances travelled and the time the vehicle is parked etc., a level 1 charging installation should sufce in a majority of cases. As for the amount of energy recharged there are two reasonable possibilities: A complete charge to 100 % or an 80 % charge. An 80 % charge is recommended when the process needs to be nished in a hurry and if you are not going to make long journeys afterwards. The problem with charging the batteries is that the charging of the last 10 or 20 % is slower and produces more losses in the form of heat. The following gure can help to explain the inuence of load power during the process of recharging car batteries.

Level 1 10

Europes level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Charging time in hours

8 6 4 2 0

10

15

20

25

30

Amount of energy recharged in kWh

Figure 3: Time necessary for the charging process depending on the charging power and the amount of energy required.

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Battery swapping would be, in terms of time demand, probably the best way to provide a full battery. With the technologies available today it would just take around a minute to get a fresh one. The downside of this technology is its high cost. It would involve not only a new and expensive infrastructure (the swapping stations) but you would also need a certain amount of costly batteries for the exchange. It would also be necessary to standardize batteries to be compatible with all car models and because of this the removable battery system is rejected by many OEMs as well as many investors in this sector. The recharging time is one of the most important aspects

Did you know that you would have to pay about 10,50 for a 100 km drive with a conventional car (for an average fuel consumption of 7 l/ 100km and a fuel price of 1,50 /l)? With an EV the cost would just be around 4 ( fo r a n e n e r g y demand of 20 kWh/ 100km and a price of 0,2

in the discussions about electric mobility. A look at the /kWh). average use of the car4 demonstrates that a large part of the vehicles lifetime is spent off the road so in most cases fast charging is not necessary. Furthermore, most of the every day journeys in Germany and Europe are below 50 km and could easily be fullled by electric vehicles despite the range limitation.

4 Grau, A.: Pendler: Die Mehrheit nimmt weiter das Auto, Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden, 2009

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When and where can the batteries be recharged?

In theory, the batteries could be recharged at any time and in any place that has an electrical installation available. This means that the car could be charged either at home or at the workplace as well as at a public charging station. There are plans for the future implementation of charging stations at strategic points, e.g. in car parks or at shopping malls. In this way the energy can be partially or even completely recharged easily while the owner is, for example, in the supermarket or visiting a doctor. Yet, these public stations are especially useful for partial charging. It is more convenient to fully charge the batteries in the evening. There are two reasons why this is more desirable: rstly because cars are generally used less in the evenings and secondly because there is less electricity consumption in the evenings so the grid will not be overloaded. There is a further cost advantage if the consumer has the possibility of contracting a cheaper night time electricity tariff. This would not only prevent change in the network stability but would reduce the demand for new power plants. With the help of smart electricity meters commonly known as SmartMeters you can recharge your vehicle at a time of night that would be more economical.

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2-What is the lifespan of an electric car?

The lifespan of an electric car depends primarily on the battery. The lifespan of the rest of the vehicles components is comparable to those of conventional cars or may even do need less maintenance. For example, the lack of a gear system or a complex cooling system for the engine saves a lot of visits to the mechanic. Some automobile companies currently offer a guarantee on traction batteries. For example , the GM5 Volt is guaranteed for 8 years and/or 160,000 km6 (100,000 miles) and the Tesla Roadster comes with a 7 year and/or 160,000 km7 guarantee. Like all other chemical storage systems, lithium batteries, currently the most promising technology for use in electric cars, react to environmental effects and

5 http://www.auto-motor-und-sport.de/eco/gm-gewaehrt-acht-jahre-garantie-auf-volt-batterie-acht-jahre-garantieauf-batterie-des-volt-1930194.html 6 http://gm-volt.com/2010/07/19/chevrolet-volt-battery-warranty-details-and-clarications/ 7 http://www.teslamotors.com/blog/program-update

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show signs of wear, so their life can be limited to some extent depending on their use. This signies that the battery capacity is reduced Did you know that lithium batteries are constantly aging? There are sever al inter nal processes which lead to an aging during the phases of usage (charging and discharging) as well as during periods of storage. Therefore the possible usage of current lithium batteries today is limited to a maximum of 8 to 10 years. slightly with each charging cycle due to the numerous internal reactions caused by the charging process. Put simply, the loss in capacity (aging) of the batteries accelerates signicantly with the temperature and the current as well as the number of charging cycles. This background knowledge answers the most common questions about the lifespan of an electric car. As for the memory effect (an effect observed

in some batteries that causes them to hold less charge, specically when the batteries lose their maximum energy capacity when they are repeatedly charged after being only partially discharged) known from batteries of the past it is safe to say that this effect does no longer exist, or it should only minimally affect modern batteries.

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Do the batteries age faster in Winter or Summer?

Low temperatures, without being extremely low, both during use and when the vehicle is parked, reduce the pace of the aging process in lithium batteries. For this reason the batteries deteriorate markedly slower in winter than in the summer. During the summer months it makes sense to protect the batteries with an appropriate cooling system. That said - extreme low temperatures can also damage some types of batteries.

Is the lifespan of the battery longer if the car is used less often?
Lithium batteries are affected by calendaric aging as well as an aging due to the charging and discharging cycles. Calendaric aging means that regardless of usage, the batteries will age as time passes by. Because of this effect the lifespan of a lithium battery is reduced to 10 years, 15 maximum, even when it is not used. On the other hand, the cyclic aging is dependent on the frequency that the battery is charged and discharged. Modern batteries can withstand between 2,000 and 3,000 cycles (charging and discharging) so assuming a full charge cycle per day the life of the battery would be between 5 and 8 years. Under this assumption and depending on the type of battery you could say that the life of a battery can be lengthened by moderate use. Yet, in general there are certain limitations for the batteries life, which can not be prolonged even by not using the vehicle.

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Depending on the type of battery, cyclic aging may be lower than calendaric aging. Put in other words, no matter how many miles the car travels, the aging of the battery is dictated by the passage of time.

How can the lifespan of the battery be influenced?

The life of the lithium battery depends directly on their proper use. Mishandling can have a negative inuence in the conservation of energy storage and handled correctly the life of the battery can be extended considerably. The main factor here is the temperature of the battery, coupled with the correct charging and discharging. Fast charging will lead to higher current ow (amps) into the battery and will accelerate cyclic aging. It will lead also to higher battery temperatures and thus to faster aging due to the temperature. Both overcharging and deep discharging can also shorten the battery life. These two effects are usually regulated and prevented by the electronics of the vehicle. The battery life is currently estimated to be 5 to 8 years. In contrast, the average life of a conventional car in Europe is about 12 to 15 years8 , which is considerably longer. This is one of the weak points of the electric car and explains why the companies are working hard to improve this statistic.

Did you know that the ener gy consumption in winter, with temperatures touching freezing point, can rise from 16 kWh/100 km to 24 kWh/100 km just by using the heating? This means that the range of the vehicle lowers from 120 km to 80 km.

However, if the total costs of ownership are taken into account, an electric car can be cost effective compared to a conventional vehicle despite the shorter lifespan and higher investment.

8 http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=SEC:2007:0015:FIN:DE:HTML

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3-What is the range of an electric car?

In theory the range of an electric car depends on both the energy stored and the amount of energy required by the car. The greater the capacity of a traction battery, the greater the range of the car. However the range can be reduced by the manner the vehicle is driven. The energy consumption of an electric car in Europe is given in kWh (kilowatt hours) per 100 km. A small electric vehicle driven in city trafc needs on average 15 kWh/100 km, which when translated into liters of gasoline is about 1.5 liters/100km (157 MPG). The consumption of a traditional car in urban trafc is, as everybody knows from experience, about or even more than 7 liters of gasoline per 100km (35 MPG and lower). This clearly demonstrates that the energy requirements of an electric car are far below that of the combustion car. A car equipped with a traction battery of 30 kWh and a specic energy consumption of 15 kWh/100 km has a theoretical range of 200 km. This theoretical range is further inuenced in practice by the way the vehicle is driven and other parameters like cooling and lights. These parameters also appear in conventional vehicles with combustion engines but affect the electric cars range considerably more because of the lower energy stored in the battery compared to the quantity of energy stored in gas tanks.

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Before getting into the specics of the aforementioned parameters we should clarify the relationship between the speed and power demands of the car. Both electric cars and conventional cars need more power at higher speeds. For conventional cars, this effect reects in a higher consumption per 100 km (or lower mileage per gallon) at higher speeds, as shown in gure 4. If you drive at a high speed for a long journey the car will require more power for a long period. This leads to a high energy requirement and therefore a small range.

100

Required power in kW

75

50

25 0 0 20 100 Speed in km/h 120 140 160 180 200

40

60

80

Figure 4: Power requirement of a car depending on the driving speed.

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Car dependent parameters:

Here you have to look at the weight and shape of the car. The heavier and larger the car, the higher the driving resistances that have to be overcome while moving the car. For example the air resistance, which is directly proportional to the front surface of the vehicle, results in high consumption and low range. This explains why an SUV needs between 10 and 15 liters per 100 km (23 MPG and lower), two or three times more than a small car traveling the same distance that usually requires 4 to 5 liters per 100 km (52 MPG). iEV is a quick and effective way to calculate the energy consumption of an electric car, even before having it.9

User dependent parameters:

The driver can inuence the range of an electric car in three ways. As shown in the graph above, the way that you drive plays a role. If you accelerate too much or maintain very high speeds, the range is affected. The recuperation via regenerative braking is also smaller on the motorway. Other factor s that should not be overlooked are additional accessories in the vehicle such as using the air conditioning or having the heating on. Any additional weight also affects the range, if the boot is lled with boxes or bags or all of the seats are occupied with passengers the vehicle is heavier which has a negative impact on the range of an electric car. Did you know that calculating your personal energy consumption is essential before buying an electric car? The authors of this ebook, recognized the impor tance of this and developed a calculation algorithm and implemented it into an iPhone app to perform this task. http://dottribes.com/iEV With iEV you can calculate which battery will satisfy your mobility needs.

EV simulator for electric cars for the iPhone - http://dottribes.com/iev

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Environment dependent parameters:

This section includes the outdoor temperature, the distance travelled and the trafc conditions. The outside temperature affects the range because it inuences the need for heating or cooling. Electric cars have in winter, unlike petrol cars, the drawback that the heating needs to be powered by the battery, which decreases the range massively. Residual heat from the electrical components is not sufcient to heat the interior of the vehicle due to its high performance. Additionally, in very low Did you know that the ener gy c o n s u m p t i o n i n w i n t e r, w i t h temperatures touching freezing point, can rise from 16 kWh/100 km to 24 kWh/ 100 km just by using the heating? This means that the range of the vehicle lowers from 120 km to 80 km. Source: Forschungsstelle fr E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t e . V. , M n c h e n (unpublished)( http://www.ffe.de)

temperatures and depending on the type of battery (e.g NiMH), only a small portion of the energy that is stored can be used to power the car. Another important factor is geography because during climbs the car requires more energy which can be recuperated going downhill through braking. Energy consumption and autonomy depend on the type of journey and this explains why both can differ considerably. In tests carried out a small electric prototype car demonstrated a consumption of 10 kWh/100 km in urban trafc, about 15 kWh/100 km in intercity trafc and 20 kWh/100 km on motorways. The reason why motorway journeys require a greater amount of energy is because of the higher speeds.

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In summary, one could say that the limited range of electric cars could cover the mobility needs of the current average driver. 90 % of daily trips made by the average european driver from home to work and work to home is usually less than 50 km10 and is within an electric cars range. Obviously the manufacturers of electric cars are struggling to nd solutions for future mobility requirements and are trying to ensure that the needs of all users can be met by an electric car, (for example through the use of a range extender). Do you want to see, if an electric car could be something for you? With iEV you can test it!11

10 www.eds-destatis.de 11 More information for iEV under http://dottribes.com/ebook-iev

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4-What are the costs of an electric car?

For the consumer, the cost is one of the most important criteria when buying a car. It is the single factor that dictates whether the next car you buy will be an electric car or not. This brings us to the purchase price. Several surveys have shown the limits and the surcharges that consumers are willing to pay. Results showed that consumers would spend a maximum of 24,000 12 for an electr ic car with 58 % of the respondents stating that they would pay an extra surcharge of 4,000 13 for an electric car if necessary. Automobile manufacturers calculate the price of an average electric car between 35,000 and 40,000 in the European market. Similar prices are targeted for the US market. The largest percentage of the price is in the batteries. According to a study by Roland Berger and the Market Research Institute TNS Infratest, the surcharge will fall below 4,500 by 2020. This indicates that there is a noticeable discrepancy between the prices that the users are prepared to pay and the manufacturers estimated cost. Therefore it is essential to look not only
12 https://www.uni-due.de/de/presse/meldung.php?id=2428 13 http://www.wiwo.de/unternehmen-maerkte/deutsche-sehnen-das-elektroauto-herbei-429125/

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at the cost of acquisition but at the cost of the vehicle throughout its total cost of ownership (TCO)14. Comparing the TCO, it is clear that the electric car, compared to a conventional one, might have a great potential for savings. The savings generated from electric cars are largely a result of low energy costs and better efciency, plus the energy source used is more economical. The maintenance of the vehicles is also more economical as there is less wear on their components. This issue is explored in more depth in Chapter 8. The consumer should not fall into the trap of seeing only the purchase price of the car which could make him reluctant to purchase it. It should also be taken into account that there are few electric cars on the market. However, many manufacturers have announced that they will be launching models in 2011 and 2012. As soon as mass produced vehicles enter the market, the consumer will see a decline in price. Batteries are the most expensive element in a

Did you know that a large propor tion of fuel prices in Europe are taxes? They have a tendency to rise. The current price of a barrel of fuel is around 90 or 110 dollars a barrel, which means just 33 to 37 cents per liter. The rest of the fuel costs are taxes

electric car. Currently they cost nearly 1,000 per kWh of storage, so the price of a lithium battery with a capacity between 20 and 35 kWh is between 20,000 and 35,000 . This is why the purchase cost of an electric car is so high today. Electric cars will become more attractive when the battery price drops, or alternatively when the cost of fossil fuels increases. The car industry is aware of this problem and is working on strategies to lower the price of batteries for users, for example they have considered the possibility that the customer does not acquire the battery with the vehicle but instead leases it as a separate component from the vehicle manufacturers. This way the batteries are removed when they no longer have the required capacity as a traction battery and can be given a second life through stationary usage.

14 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_cost_of_ownership

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Since all of the electric mobility technology - from the cars to the batteries - is currently still in the development stage, we can deduce that there is still great potential for cost reduction through a combination of the effects of mass production and continuous and progressive technological development. Even today there are both public and private transportation systems that are fully electric and are very protable, for example electric

Did you know that usually, using energy at night is cheaper than during the day?

scooters. The scooters are already available on the market in a wide variety of models and the electric scooters suitable for urban trafc are now on sale for less than 1,000 . Electric scooters show slightly higher investment costs than their current petrol equivalents. The prices depend directly on the battery technology used and their capacity, although the additional purchase costs are compensated for by lower usage costs over a few thousand kilometers. This relationship is demonstrated in gure 5.
Electric Scooter 1,500 1,250 1,000 750 500 250 0 Petrol Scooter

Overall costs

1,250

2,500 Driven distance in km

3,750

5,000

Figure 5: Comparison of costs between an electric scooter and another with a gas powered engine.

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Electric scooters can also be a good additional investment to a car and not only as an alternative to a combustion engine scooter. A cost analysis demonstrates from what mileage the acquisition costs of a scooter are amortized. The saving in running costs of a car can pay for the total costs of buying an electric scooter. The following gure shows the total costs of an electric scooter as an additional investment to three Volkswagen models when comparing the amount of kilometers travelled. The graph shows that the scooter is more economical beyond 6,500 km as an additional investment to the car, taking into account the current costs of electricity, fuel and other expenses.
VW Passat 4000 VW Golf VW Polo Electric Scooter

3000

Costs

2000

1000

5,000

10,000 Driven distance in km

15,000

20,000

Figure 6: Comparison of the total cost of ownership of an electric scooter with the variable costs of three vehicles15

15 Forschungsstelle fr Energiewirtschaft Mnchen - (unpublished).

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5-Do governments promote the purchase of electric cars?

The governments role is important in encouraging people to consider electric transport as an option in urban areas. After all, as with any new technology there are always difculties to be overcome at the outset. To answer the initial question, there is no universal worldwide approach for promoting EVs. Some nations regard the direct funding via governmental grants for the purchase of an EV as a suitable way of introducing of e l e c t r i c m o b i l i t y. O t h e r governments prefer an increase in research and development. Leading the way in subsidies for the purchase of an electric car is Japan, which contributes 10,000 for the purchase of a vehicle of this type. In this way they are trying to encourage the purchase of the rst generation of electric cars which inevitably are highly prices (as noted in chapter four).

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The gure below shows which countries contribute to the purchase of an electric car and how much they provide as an incentive.

Japan China Canada Spain GB USA France Italy Ireland Germany

0 2,500 3,500 5,000 5,700 5,500 6,000 6,800 6,400

10,000

2,500

5,000 Subsidy in for each country

7,500

10,000

Figure 7: Subsidy in Euros provided by each country As already mentioned before, direct nancial support to buyers of electric cars is not the only way governments can promote the implementation of this new technology. There are a number of opportunities in the grants that governments provide that the consumer can take advantage of indirectly, for example investment in research. This ensures the continuous improvement of the car and battery and the subsequent development of technical innovations. Alongside the subsidies there are also numerous other state funded aids that may be advantageous for buyers, such as parking lots or separate lanes for these vehicles in busy areas.

30

The different possibilities of direct and indirect promotion are shown in more detail in Figure 8.

Common Opportunities for subsidies Direct subsidies

Investment costs associated with the car Fiscal advantages for the car through the costs of electricity Reductions in insurance costs Loans with low interest rates Preferential parking spaces Special driving lanes

Indirect subsidies
Investment for R & D Automotive and battery technology Implementation of an infrastructure Charging stations & battery recycling Preparation for market introduction Field trial in pilot regions

Figure 8: Subsidy possibilities for electric mobility In summary, one can say that the subsidies governments provide for electric mobility are reasonable although the governments should be careful not to focus simply on the way the subsidies are provide, but also be conscious of providing the subsidies at the opportune moment. Although Germany aims to take a pioneering role in electric mobility, the German government is currently left considerably behind their European neighbors in terms of promotion. There has been much discussion on the provision of subsidies in Germany but so far there are no subsidies available from the German government, although money has been spent on various investigations into the subject. Even the smaller countries such as Ireland are considerably more advanced in the subsidization of electric cars

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6-Is the electric car just another passing fad?

This question can be answered with a clear and resounding NO. As we have previously explained, electric mobility is not just another technology that will be fashionable for a while. Finding alternatives to oil and nite fossil fuels that are harmful to both the environment and peoples health is of utmost importance. Furthermore the costs of nite fossil fuels will inevitably rise due to the limitation in combination with the constant increasing demand. For which reason a shift to alternatives is also necessary from an economic point of view. It is imperative to redene the term mobility and nd an alternative to the conventional vehicles that are contributing to the greenhouse gasses that are continuously accelerating climate change.

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Many governments especially in Europe, Asia and the USA have set ambitious goals for the eventual integration of electric cars into urban trafc and are promoting projects by providing nancial resources. The automotive industry has also recognized the need to act and they are being forced to manufacture and develop electric cars that are suitable for a broad market. In recent years studies have shown that the consumer has become considerably more sensitive to their own environmental impact. Ten years ago these issues were not given much consideration but today they feature amongst the top 5 factors and criteria that determine which vehicle the consumer will purchase16.

Did you know that EVs are already economical in diverse application areas (e .g. Taxi, Bus etc .)? Despite the higher investment costs, the much lower variable costs (energy, service etc.) and the high kilometer s travelled make it possible.

Many international companies are spending enormous amounts of money attempting to transform urban trafc through the use of electric cars which again conrms that the future of electric vehicles is very promising. It is very likely however that in the future this area will not be dominated by a single traction technology and there will be many different types of technology being used in different elds. Thus, the electric car will be used primarily as a city vehicle and for commuting to work. For longer distances drivers will be able to use technologies such as hybrid cars or electric vehicles with range extenders (additional energy storage and engines to extend the range of the car). These vehicles can make urban driving purely electric (no local emissions) but then they can also make longer journeys without having to worry about their range.

16 http://www.energie-info.net/diesel-und-benziner/umweltschutz-beeinusst-kaufentscheidung.html

33

Did you know that most of the oil producing countries are already in the process of turning away from fossil fuels? They invest in renewable energies, which demonstrates that electric mobility has an enor mous potential.

Biofuels will also play a role in the future mobility mix, meaning a combination of different energy sources. These fuels will even be suitable for trucks and long haul vehicles that usually run on diesel. Biofuels have already been tested in this area with great success, including air travel! As for future forms of mobility two things are

required. Firstly, the fuels need to be green and thus help minimize the emissions that contribute to the greenhouse effect so that the rapid advance of climate change is reduced. Secondly, the mobility alternatives must be widely available to consumers and economically viable. Both of these demands cannot be met by conventional driving technologies used up to now. For this reason, electric mobility and its derivatives will make an enormous contribution in the future.

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7-What are the levels of CO 2 emissions from electric cars?

CO2 emissions from electric cars basically depend on how the electricity is produced since - as mentioned before - the cars do not emit CO2 during driving. This fact also reveals the reason for the variety of CO2 emitted by EVs charged from different sources in different countries. Therefore the information e.g. in Germany emissions vary from 0 g CO2/kWh when the electricity comes from natural sources and around 575 g CO2/kWh 17 when measured against the regular German mix (a mixture of all of the electricity generation systems). In other countries the mixed power generation tariff is as follows18,19 : France 102 g CO2/kWh, Spain 390 g CO2/kWh, Great Britain 530 CO2/kWh, China 813 g/kWh, USA 667 g CO2/kWh and Austria 249 g CO2/ kWh. To get an idea of the inuence of different technologies used by power plants to the CO2 emissions of electric cars we will calculate the potential CO2 savings of an electric car in four countries with different power generation structures. More than half of the energy requirements

17 Forschungsstelle fr Energiewirtschaft 18 http://www.zukunft-elektroauto.de/pageID_8368817.html [GEMIS (2009)] 19 http://www.umweltbundesamt.at/leadmin/site/publikationen/REP0303.pdf

35

in Spain and Germany are met by fossil fuels. Austria generates 70 % of its electricity through hydropower and France produces 80 % of its energy through nuclear power. The potential savings for the four countries analyzed are represented in Figure 9. To make an adequate comparison the consumption of a Mini-E (15 kWh/100km) is compared to that of a Mini Cooper with a petrol engine (7,56 Liters/100km20 and 2,33 kg CO2/l21 ).

20

CO2 savings in kg/100km

16 12 13.9 9.0 10.8 7.6 5.4 0 4 16.1 8

Germany

Austria

France

Europe

USA

China

Figure 9: Potential CO2 savings of an electric car in comparison with a gasoline car

20 http://www.spritmonitor.de 21 http://www.spritmonitor.de/de/berechnung_co2_ausstoss.html

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In the USA, an electric car saves more than 5 kg for every 100 km driven in comparison with a gasoline powered automobile, while in Germany you would save about 9 kilograms. It is worth mentioning that the percentage of renewable energies in the mixed tariff of most of the countries is constantly growing. Therefore, in the future the potential savings will even be greater.

Did you know that some companies offer purely ecological electricity generated exclusively by renewable energy systems?

France has the highest potential saving with more than 16 kilograms although the use of nuclear energy to create electricity is still a controversial topic. Austria produces a high percentage of renewable energy, reducing CO2 emissions to almost 14 kg per 100km. On the other hand, power plants have the possibility of ltering the harmful substances on a large scale and can separate them effectively. This procedure is difcult to perform when the source of the emission is mobile and is very costly, like the catalytic converters in petrol vehicles. The reduction of these emissions from power plants is an important issue - yet there has been very little attention paid to it by the general public. Generally, emissions of CO2 and other contaminants are continuously declining due to the increased use of renewable energy systems driven in par t by the international climate conventions. This reduction is aided by the increased efciency of conventional power plants. Power plants are obliged to purify their residual gases and this is one of the reasons why the use of electric cars is recommended from an ecological point of view, and may be obligatory in the long term. Yet it is not only CO2 emissions that are on the decline but also other pollutants such as nitrogen oxide or the particles created by wear on the brakes.

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8-What kind of maintenance and repair do electric cars need?

When purchasing a vehicle, the consumer must take into account the potential maintenance and repair costs. It is therefore important to calculate the maintenance and repair costs of an electric car as precisely as possible in advance, so that any future owner is aware of what the vehicle may require. For accident repair, like any conventional vehicle, nothing can be specied in advance. If you look at preventative maintenance and repair related to the wear of the automotive components, electric cars have a clear advantage. Electric motors are much simpler than their petrol counterparts and have a substantially higher lifespan (excluding the battery). Electric vehicles have fewer components that are affected by friction and temperature variations and the individual components are less exposed to wear. This means that electric cars do not need the regular servicing that conventional vehicles require. Electric cars do not need a gear box or a clutch, nor do they need a turbo charger, a mufer or a catalyst to lter particles. They dont even need to lter oil or air. While an owner of a petrol car needs to continuously maintain these elements, the electric car owner does not need to think about it, saving them both time and money. All of this means that maintenance and repair costs for electric cars are greatly reduced when compared to those of conventional cars, except for the batteries, which may possibly have to be replaced during the cars lifetime. The batteries are currently the most expensive component

38

of an electric car but if the minimal costs for maintenance and repair as well as the low electricity costs are taken into account, the electric car can still be more economical. Once again, the total cost of ownership is important when comparing conventional and electric cars. One of the main goals for the future must be to ensure that the additional costs generated by the price of the batteries can be redeemed through the lifespan of the car. By lowering the prices of the batteries, the cars will cost less and will be far more economically attractive to consumers than a conventional vehicle. Clearly, despite the reduced maintenance costs it is still imperative to adapt repair shops for electric vehicles so that electric mobility can be a success. The continued and growing demand on vehicle mechanics has resulted in a greater investment in electrical components and a demand for more qualied staff. In the future the workshops and garages will focus increasingly on electric cars and the special conditions that they require (e.g security measures for high voltage equipment) to meet demand and take advantage of the new business opportunities that are appearing.

Did you know that an electric engine can be used as an engine as well as a generator? Therefore its possible to turn the kinetic energy into electric energy dur ing the deceler ation phase. This so called recuperation is one reason why electric mobility is predestinated for inner city journeys. The breaking process will no longer be a wasting of energy.

39

9-Will the batteries be available in the long term?

The availability of the battery systems depends on the availability of the raw materials and the type of the materials used within the systems. The current focus is on traction batteries made from lithium which is a resource that will continue to be important in the future. Lithium is a lightweight metal found in its elemental form in the ground but is combined with other elements within the battery. It is found rock and salt lakes in the earths crust and is referred to in ter ms of reser ves or resources. Both concepts are used to describe the quantities of a specic material in the ground although it is impossible to determine exactly how much there is of any raw material. When we dene both terms it will explain why.

40

Reserves: Raw materials known to be economically feasible for extraction by the use of current extraction methods. The development of extraction technologies and increasing market costs for raw materials could lead to a conversation of resources into reserves. Resources: Raw materials that are known or supposed to exist in a given region and may be used in the future. The reserves are a subset of the resources, therefore only parts of the resources can be extracted at market price. The future use of the whole amount of the resources is dependent on the development and the availability of extraction technology. Technological progress and/or a rise in the price of the raw materials leads to the resources being converted into reserves. Resources are continually being discovered so the amount of raw materials available can never be absolutely determined. Every so often the availability of these raw materials should be calculated and valued. Obviously, the availability of lithium depends primarily on the extent of the deposits, however there are other factors that must be taken into account. Firstly, governments have to encourage that old lithium batteries are recycled and that the metal is used to manufacture new batteries. This directly affects the longevity of lithium resources. Additionally, the ability to reuse the raw materials is a crucial advantage when compared to oil. On the other hand the regions in which lithium D i d yo u k n ow t h a t c a r d i a c pacemakers use lithium batteries? This is because lithium batteries have a long lifespan. deposits are located should be taken into account. Theoretically, as with fossil fuels, countries that contain no lithium deposits may be threatened with a shortage of the raw materials, especially if the countries or regions that contain vast deposits become politically unstable.

41

The following gure shows lithium stocks around the world and the quantity of known deposits. The most important countries are those in South America. Argentina, Chile and Bolivia represent the so-called Lithium Triangle which contains a concentration of around 70% of the world reserves. Since the extraction an production is carried out by several countries with different political systems there are no restrictions.
Total Bolivia Chile China Argentina USA Israel Zaire Brazil Russia Canada Serbia Australia 0 17,630,415 4,925,000 4,235,000 2,730,000 2,311,500 1,450,400 675,000 345,000 252,750 170,250 166,090 143,550 141,920 1,250,000 2,500,000 Lithium in millions of tons 3,750,000 5,000,000

Figure 10: Estimated worldwide lithium stocks22 The information about the number and the size of lithium deposits around the world varies depending on the source, but they all agree on one point: taking into account only the calculations of quantities available, there is enough lithium to supply the automobile industry for at least 100 years23. The question still arises whether the amount of lithium required will be available at the desired times, at a sufcient quality and at an affordable price. The variations in quality and price are important issues. In order to secure the future battery availability other battery technologies are also being considered and tested. With investment in different storage technologies diversication can be achieved in respect to the dependency on certain raw materials ensuring the long term availability of traction batteries.

22 Forschungsstelle fr Energiewirtschaft e.V. 23 http://www.green-and-energy.com

42

10-How are electric car batteries recycled?

14,000 tons of conventional batteries are discarded annually in Germany24. The controlled removal of these batteries is necessary due to their toxic contents. Therefore, inappropriate elimination may obviously have a negative impact on both the public and the environment. Integrating electric cars into city trafc will inevitably increase the annual battery waste. In view of environmental policy, this represents a challenge. For the users, disposing of batteries is relatively easy as European producers are subject to a law encompassing the return of used batteries. The consumer is obliged to return the batteries so that they can be disposed or recycled professionally. This law also applies to conventional batteries, such as those used in a torch. Yet, studies have shown that less than 50 % of these batteries are returned correctly. To rectify this, a fee of 7,50 was charged for starter batteries for cars, meaning that if the customer did not return an old starter battery when purchasing a new one, he had to pay 7,50 . As a result of this simple system the recycling quota reached almost 100 %. These returns, sponsored by governments, provide benets to the consumer through the economic cycle. Recycling reduces manufacturing costs and ultimately the retail price.

24 http://www.bmu.de/abfallwirtschaft/statistiken/doc/3008.php

43

The collection of old, used batteries is difcult for the manufacturers, mainly because the governments have set levels of recycling efciency. There are also regulations covering the quantity of old battery components that must be used for the production of new batteries. This percentage is a statutory minimum of 50% for all batteries. The regulations also require that the unusable parts are disposed of using the best technical processes available. For state of the ar t batter y technologies the manufacturers have met the established requirements. However for new technologies in this area these requirements are still problematic. This is not the manufacturers fault but is due to the lack of appropriate infrastructure that would guarantee the correct recycling of traction batteries. It can be concluded that constant development in the area of electric-mobility will improve recycling conditions and lead to a greater number of recycling centers. In summary it can be stated that the recycling of old batteries would be advantageous and present no additional costs to the consumer. This cost advantage would only be guaranteed through a change in policy and if the industry pays sufcient attention to establishing infrastructure for the recycling of old batteries and integrates this into the development plans of the electric car.

Did you know that lithium has only recently started to be recycled? The value of lithium was recognized during the development of electric mobility and processes for the adequate recycling are currently being researched.

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Conclusion/ Summary
The topic of electric-mobility is omnipotent; in the media, in the automobile factories and is the subject of many cor por ate meetings. Ever yone who is interested, from journalist to consumer, wonders about the current state of development and how it will continue. One issue is more dominant than others - the demand for information. Since the subject is complex, we conducted an investigation into the most important questions about electric-mobility that needed answering. The questions we would answer were selected through an online survey of 20 questions. More than 4,000 people participated in the survey and each chose 10 questions based on their prior knowledge and own particular interests. After the 10 most important questions were determined,we began writing this guide to provide strong, concise answers. The authors, three scientists dedicated to the area of electric-mobility, correlated the data in this book and compiled it to provide detailed explanations of the key concepts. A thorough reading will enable you to make up your own mind up about the development and implementation possibilities of the electric car. As an introduction we took a brief look at the current situation. It describes the benets of renewable energy through its unlimited availability and environmental friendliness when compared to fossil fuels. Electric cars are now occupying space in automobile showrooms and many people dont realize that millions of hybrid cars are already sold and have spent years safely navigating our streets. Their use already contributes to improving the environment.

45

The rst chapter introduced the question of how to recharge an electric car and it was demonstrated that multiple rapid charges of the batteries are by no means necessary for the majority of users. Amongst other things it was made clear that the batteries do not require a complete charge every time. The second most important question- that of the lifespan of an electric car - was discussed in chapter 2. It explained that the key component in the lifespan is the battery. Factors are also being developed that can shorten or lengthen the lifespan and by using the vehicle normally the battery of an electric car will last between 5 and 8 years. Chapter 3 focused on the issue of autonomy. It identied what the autonomy of an electric vehicle depends on. It is evident that todays electric cars could meet most of the mobility needs in most countries, e.g. in Germany 90 % of the population do not drive more than 50km daily. In turn, the chapter illustrated that electric cars are ideal for urban trafc due to their ability to recuperate energy. The four th most relevant question considered the total ownership costs of an electric car. Most of the people interested in this issue only consider the purchase price which is undoubtedly still higher than that of a conventional car. The costs of repair and maintenance must not be forgotten and this is where the electric car has a clear advantage. It is also forecasted that the price of these vehicles will drop signicantly through technical innovations and mass production as has happened with other technologies in the past.

46

Chapter 5 gave a brief overview on the support given to electric-mobility worldwide. In this respect Japan offers the highest nancial incentive for potential consumers. Germany is still lagging behind in the direct promotion of electric cars although it aims to become one of the leaders in the electric-mobility market.

Many potential customers are wondering if electric-mobility is just another hype but there are many arguments that suggest otherwise. Not only are electric cars considered viable for many market segments, they also provide two basic benets. The rst is that they can operate solely using the unlimited availability of renewable energy and the second benet is that unlike petrol vehicles they are an ecological option, as discussed in chapter 6. The survey respondents were interested in the question of CO2 emissions from electric cars and this was discussed in chapter 7. As explained in this manual, the expansion of available renewable energy sources makes it possible for there to be a continuous drop leading to the eventual elimination of CO2 emissions through the generation of clean electricity. Electric cars will be run on a totally clean network with no emissions and therefore be more environmentally friendly than they have been to date.

47

The question answered in chapter 8 is about the maintenance and repair of an electric car. It was pointed out that these vehicles have fewer parts that are susceptible to wear than a conventional vehicle and suffer fewer breakdowns. However, electronics are still complex and repairs performed on conventional vehicles are frequently electrical. In the future, vehicle mechanics will need to be more qualied and electric cars will possibly encounter the same problems that conventional vehicles currently succumb to. Chapter 9 addressed the question of the raw materials needed to manufacture the batteries and explained why there are no anticipated supply problems. Not only is lithium readily available it is also reusable so the demand for the material is reduced. What happens to the batteries when they reach the end of their life was explained in the tenth and nal chapter. Recycling plays an essential role in the life of vehicle batteries and a recycling rate of almost 100% is already achieved. It is estimated that this will also be the case for the traction batteries in electric cars. After answering these ten questions we are faced with the nal question about how the development of electric cars will continue. Undoubtedly, consumers are changing. They are reconsidering the situation. This has also has benets for the environment, manufacturers and governments. All of the links on the consumption chain are increasingly dependent on the countries producing fossil fuels and thus are subject to their political tensions and the increasing prices for the dwindling stocks of oil and natural gas which sooner or later will be exhausted. This makes electric vehicles a more than reasonable alternative.

48

It should also not be forgotten that the authors are convinced of the advantages of electricmobility because the technology is available to put it into practice in addition to the fact that its advantages hugely outweigh its disadvantages. For this reason and in order to make consumers aware of all aspects of electric-mobility, including the material and technology, Green & Energy GmbH was founded. You can learn more about electric cars at our blog under: www.green-and-energy.com .

49

Glossary of key terms related to electric-mobility

Starter Battery
Starter batteries provide the power to start the internal combustion engine. This process requires currents between 100 and 1,000 amps to overcome the initial resistance of the engine. In addition to starting the vehicle the starter battery also supplies power to the vehicles electrical components.

Traction Battery
A high power battery designed to provide the propulsion that allows an electric vehicle to move.

Battery Energy Content

Indicates the electrical energy contained in a battery in watt hours (Wh). It does not usually indicate the content of the battery but the specic value in respect to the mass (Wh/kg).

Electric Vehicle
A vehicle propelled by a motor that is powered by the electricity from a traction battery.

Battery Capacity
Indicates how much electricity is stored within a battery. This information is usually shown in amps per hour (Ah).

50

Memory Effect
The memory effect is a phenomenon that reduces the quantity of power that the batteries can hold that occurs in some types of batteries when they are charged without being completely discharged. Crystals are created inside the battery by a chemical reaction caused when the battery is heated either through use or by being improperly charged.

SOC - State Of Charge

Indicates the level of charge of a battery and can be compared with the petrol gauge of a conventional car. A SOC of 100 % signies that the vehicle is completely charged and on the other hand a reading of 0 % indicates that the battery is completely at.

SOH - State Of Health

SOH indicates the battery status in respect to its ideal charge. Usually a new battery has a SOH of 100 % and it will subsequently descend for the duration of its life.

Range Extender
An additional component in an electric car that can extend its autonomy by recharging the battery while driving. Most of the time it is the combustion engine that drives the generator. (See the Hybrid series).

Full Hybrid
Both the combustion engine and the electric motor drive the wheels hence the full hybrid is a parallel hybrid. The battery that feeds the electric motor is recharged with surplus energy created through driving or during braking.

Plug In Hybrid
These vehicles have both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor. The batteries are recharged by being plugged directly into a power outlet, hence the name Plug In. This type of

51

hybrid has a greater storage capacity than Mild Hybrid or Full Hybrid and can travel longer distances using only electricity. They can be manufactured with a hybrid conguration in series or in parallel.

Parallel Hybrid
The internal combustion engine and the electric motor are both connected to the wheels and each of them (or both together) can start the car.

Series Hybrid
The vehicle is powered solely by an electric motor that draws power from a traction battery and the driver can increase the autonomy of the car with a generator that recharges the battery. The generator is powered by an internal combustion engine.

Micro-Hybrid
This is a conventional car that has an automatic start-stop mechanism that turns the motor off when the car is stopped and restarts it when the clutch is pressed. The energy required for starting the vehicle is created through regenerative braking technology. The vehicle does not have the electrical energy required for propulsion but this mechanism reduces the consumption of the internal combustion engine.

Mild Hybrid
In this conguration both the internal combustion engine and the electric motor turn the wheels. The energy needed to power the motor is obtained from the battery that stores surplus energy created through driving and braking. However, the electric motor has very little power and only operates during vehicle acceleration. The Mild Hybrid cannot be driven solely by electricity.

52

Number of Cycles
The number of cycles indicates how many times the battery can be charged and discharged. If a battery or accumulator has a high number of cycles it has a longer lifespan.

Electric Mix
Species the portfolio of the sources (e.g. coal, gas, wind etc) from which the electricity is generated.

Fuel Cell
Electrochemical conversion mechanism similar to a battery but different in that the battery or cell allow the continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; that is to say that it produces electricity from an external fuel and oxygen source in contrast to the limited storage capacity of a regular battery.

Hybrid Propulsion
Alternative propulsion that combines several technologies. In the case of the electric hybrid: it combines an electric motor fed by electrical energy from a traction battery and an internal combustion engine.

Regenerative Braking (Energy Recovery System)

Regenerative brakes are based on the principle that an electric motor can be used as a generator. The electric traction motor becomes a generator during braking, converting kinetic energy into electrical energy. This electrical energy is used to recharge the batteries.

53

The Authors
Lorenz Kll
Lorenz Kll, born in 1974, worked as a research associate in the Research Center for Energy Economics in Munich (Forschungstelle fr Energiewirtschaft e.V.) after concluding his studies in civil engineering. As project manager, Lorenz was dedicated to carrying out studies in different areas of the energy industry, especially in electric-mobility. In the year 2011 Lorenz was directely involved in founding the Green & Energy GmbH. After a short time he has also become self employed with his own company, the Energie Ingenieure GmbH (http:// energie-ingenieure.net), He is currently engaged in several projects including some in the eld of research and development of electric transportation in order to introduce electric-mobility onto the market. His website can be seen at: http://www.lorenzkoell.com and some of his articles are published on http://www.green-andenergy.com/blog .

54

Olmo Toms Mezger

Olmo Toms Mezger, born in 1980, studied electrical engineering after which he started working at the Research Center for Energy Economics in Munich (Forschungsstelle fr Energiewirtschaft e.V.). As a collaborator he mainly focuses on the complexities of electric-mobility and renewable energies and is involved in investigation and research in the elds of battery measurement, automobile simulation, the integration of electric cars into the industry and the search for new solutions. Olmo is also the author of numerous publications and seminars on electric-mobility that can be found on his web page: http://olmotomasmezger.com or through his blog: http://www.green-and-energy.com/blog.

55

Thomas Rasilier
Thomas Rasilier, born in 1983, worked in the Research Center for Energy Economics in Munich (Forschungstelle fr Energiewirtschaft e.V.) after nishing his studies in eco energy technologies. His work mainly concentrated on electricmobility. With the help of analysis and numerous scientic studies he was investigating solutions to the problems to guarantee a rapid advance of this traction technology. With his collegues he founded the Green & Energy GmbH (G&E) at the beginning of the year 2011, i. a. for developing tools and services to promote the further progress of electric mobility. Since mid 2012 he is working for the Energie Ingenieure GmbH (http://www.energie-ingenieure.net) besides his function for G&E. At the Energie Ingenieure GmbH he is enganged in the development and realization of project in the eld of electric mobility and renewable energies. Alongside his work as an engineer, Thomas writes substantiated articles that are regularly published in: http://www.green-and-energy.com/blog.

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iEV: Electric car simulator for iPhone

Are you interested in electric cars? Do you wonder whether an electric car would be suitable for you? Find out with the iEV App! The iEV App will tell you whether an electric car would suit your driving style and your daily routes and will suggest the appropriate type of electric car for you . The App can save you a lot of money and will help ensure that you make the right decision when buying an electric car. For more information visit: www.dottribes.com/iEV

www.green-and-energy.com

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