ACTA MECHANICA SINICA, Vol.4, No.3 August, 1988 Science Press, Beijing, China Allerton Press, INC.

, New York, U.S.A.

ISSN 0567w7718

FRACTAL GEOMETRY AND FRACTURE OF ROCK

Xie Heping Chen Zhida (China Institute of Mining & Technology)
AI~TRACT: The irregularand rough profileof fracturesurfacesof rockcan be regardedas having

self-similaritystatistically.The authors apply a new geometry fraetalgeometryto describe this irregularity. Fractal models of the transgranular fracture and the combined intergranular and transgranular fractureare established.The fractalcharacterof fracturesurfaceof rock is examinedby electron scanningand optical fractographicanalyses.Finally, the relation between fractal dimension and macromechanicsqumatitiesof rock fracture is obtained. KEY WORDS: fractal dimension, fractal model, transgranular brittle fracture, intergranular brittle fracture, rock, fractography
I. INTRODUCTION

One of the difficult problems in geological science and mining engineering is the fractur~ modelling of rock-material. Macro-fracture mechanics is very difficult to be applied for rockmaterial, because it does not take into account the complexity of microstructure of rock-material itself, and the variability of conditions affecting rock-material, One of the research projects of geological materials listed in the report on the research trend of solid mechanics, which was proposed recently by American Society of Mechanical Engineering [tl, is to determine parameters which can describe microstructures of materials and their evolutions, and also to develop experimental techniques for measuring these parameters. Therefore, it is very important both in theory and in engineering practice to establish the model of brittle micro-fracture of rock-material and to uncover the relations between an intrinsic parameter in the microstructureal level and the macromechanics quantities. The fracture of rock depends strongly on its microstrnctures and the loading situations. The rough and irregular profile of fracture surfaces of rock is affected by rock microstructures and other complicated factors. But if the profile is examined by a mathematical metbod, it is only a geometry of irregularity. Mandelbort -- --[z] (1976, 1983) proposed a new geometry fractal geometry and he applied it to a lot of fields to describe irregular phenomena in nature. In (3), the fractal character of fracture surfaces of metals was studied. Using this new geometry, we are going to establish the fractal models of micro-fracture of rock in this paper. The fractal character of fracture surfaces of rock is analysed. Some useful results are shown. H. FRACTAL GEOMETRY The term "fractal" coined from the Latin adjective fractus (the corresponding Latin verb fragere means "to break to create irregular fragments"). Fractal geometry is a new branch born belatedly in the crisis of mathematics caused by a continuous nondifferentiable function constructed by Weierstrass. The crisis started from 1875 and lasted approximately to 1925. During Received 12 December1987.

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this period, classical Koch's curve and Peano's space-filling curve were proposed. Cantor proved one-to-one corespondence between the points in a interval and the points in a square. Although it was not continuous correspondent mapping of the interval on the whole of a square, it was shown that the dimension is not a matter of how many points are involved or that of the number of coordinates required to describe the location of a fixed point. By this reason, the definitions of the integral dimension and the curve, and the conception of metric were shaken. Fractional dimension, self-similar dimension and fractal dimension were discovered one after another. Then a new geometry--fractal geometry was formed t2l. The several main definitions of fractal geometry are introduced as follows. 1. Statistically self.similarity In the Euclidean space R E, a real ratio r > 0 determines a transformation called similarity. It transforms the point X = (xl ..... x6..... XE) into the point r(X) = (rx I ..... rxs ..... rxE), and hence transforms a set ~ into the set r(~), A bounded random set ~ is statistically sell-similar, with respect to the ratio r and an integer N, only when ~ is the union of N nonoverlapping subsets, each of the form r(SN) where the N set ~N are Congruent in distribution to ~. 2. Self-similarity dimension For a D-dimensional standard shape (such as a rectangle, a rectangular parallelepiped), when every side is divided into b parts, it follows that the "whole" made up of the shape can be "paved" exactly by N = b ~ parts, each part of which can be deduced from the whole by a similarity of ratio r(N) = 1 / N '/~ (2.1) Equivalent alternative expressions are D = log(N) / log(l)
r

(2.2)

For nonstandard shape, in order for the similarity of ratio to have the same form as Eq.(2,1), the sole requirement is that the Shape be self-similar. The D obtained in this fashion is called self-similarity dimension, 3. Hansdorff Besicovitch dlmension The idea of allowing dimension d to be fractional was proposed by Hausdorff in 1919. Given a test function h(p), a finitecovering of the set ~ by balls of radii Pm can be said to have the measure Y h(pm). One forms the infimum infpm<p Zh(pm). As p-~0, it has a limit limit infpm<p ~,h(pm)
0"0

This limit defines the h-measure of E (Euclid dimension). When h(p) = ~ p d , the h-measureis called d-dimensionall2 i, or the d-measure for short. For every set S there exists a real value D Such that the d-measure is infinite for d < D, and vanishes for d > D. This D is called the Hausdorff Besicovitch dimension of S. 4. Fractal dimension A fractal set is a set for which Hausdorff Besicovitch dimension D strictly exceeds the topological dimension D z, i.e. d f ---- { DiD > Dr} (2.3) Fractal often has self-similarity or statistically self-similarity, therefore its dimension is estimated by self-similarity dimension.

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5. The metric of fraetal

When the true length L(e) of a fractal curve is measured with the yardstick length e, then L(r~) = rNL(~) L(I) = 1 if df
=

log(N) / log(1 ), then

T

L(e)

el -df.

(2A)

III. FRACTAL MODELS FOR MICRO-FRACTURE OF ROCK

For brittle fracture, with Irwin's approach [sl, the critical crack extension force may be written
as Gcrit -- 27s (3.1) where ?s represents the surface energy per unit apparent macro-metric area. Here crack extension along straight line is assumed. Eq.(3.1) is very approximate when crack extension is considered at the level of the grain size. In fact, the crack in rock would propagate along zigzag waytTl and a large zigzag would consist of small zigzags as shown in Fig.1. Hence the true areas of the fracture surfaces in rock are actually larger than those obtained by macroscopic measurements. The area of the fracture surface per unit thickness of specimen would be Atrue = (L(E) / Lo(E))A . . . . .

where Lo(~) is the metric of the corresponding straight fractal Curve. Then the critical crack extension force becomes
Gcrit ---- 2[L(e) / Lo(e)J?s

(3.2)

Fig.1

Submicroscopic crack extension path of Marble under compression failure (Scanning electron micrograph 70)

It is clear that the smaller the grain size in a certain range, the larger the true area of fractal surface will become. According to Mandelbrot t21
]-.df~(1 Li(~i) ---- ~o "i -df)

Choosing L o as a unit length (say ]cm), and l as grain size, we have Gcrit = 2?s/(t-df) (3.3) The microstructure of a rock consists of large grains. Its fracture is brittle, which is characterized mainly by intergranular brittle fracture, transgranular brittle fracture and their

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combination. The crack extension path of these fractures is irregular, and can be considered as statistically self-similar and then can be modelled by fractal.

1. A fractal model for intergranular brittle fracture

In the intergranular fracture case, the crack would propagate along grain boundaries as shown in Fig.2. Literature [4] proposed two fractal models of intergranular brittle fracture (Fig.3a, b). (a) (b) N = 2 N=4 r = 1/1.732 r=l/3

d: = l o g ( 2 ) / l o g ( 1 . 7 3 2 ) = l . 2 6 dy=log(4)/log(3)=l.26

Fig.2 Intergranular brittle fracture of Marble under three point bending loading (Scanning electron micrograph 450) where N is number of fragments, r represents ratio of similarity ( N = Li/Eoi, r = Eoj/Loi). From Eq.(3.2), we have
1 df - 1

Gcrit =
(a)

27s(Loi/eoi) =

27s(r)

(3.4)

(b)
(b).

9 = 1.73 o.26 27~=1.15 27~ G r,, 9= 3~ 27~= 1.33 27~ Go,,,

W e can see that case (a) will take place more frequently, for it consumes less energy than case

1
b~2 Lz c /

(a)

(b) Fig.3 Fractal models of intergranular brittle fracture

2. A fractal model of transgranular brittle fracture

In rock fracture, transgranular brittle fracture is a common phenomenon because of microvoids and micro-cracks existed in rock masses. The main character of transgranular, fracture is to

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form opposite non-flat facets of cleavage fracture, i.e. to form cleavage step in crystallographic plane as shown in Fig.4. A fractal model of transgranular fracture is showl~ in Fig.5. 2.236 d I = log(3) / log(2.236) = 1.365 Its crack critical extension force is x 27s = 1.34 x 27s Gcrit (2.236) ~
=

N=3

r-

Fig.4 Cleavagestep in crystallographicplane of Marble (three point bending loading), Arrowsindicate direction of crack propagation (Scanning electron micrographx 1000)

Fig.5 A fractal model of transgranular brittle fracture We can see that transgranular fracture consumes more energy than any intergranular fracture. 3. A fraetal model of the combined intergranular and transgranular fracture The fracture profiles of intergranular and transgranular fracture are often found on fracture surfaces of a rock. Local stress concentrations at micro-voids, micro-cracks and inclusions etc. are the causes of transgranular fracture. Generally, the fracture will be intergranular because less energy is needed. Hence a fracture surface of rock is that of combined transgranular and intergranular fracture as shown in Fig.6. Its fractal model is shown in Fig.7. 1 N= 5 r = 3.--~ d I = log(5)/log(3.445) = 1.30 Its crack critical extension force becomes Gcrit = (3.445) O'3 x 2Ts

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Fig.6 Combined intergranular (A) and transgrauular (B) fractures of Marble (three point bending loading) (Scanning electron micrograph 45)

Fig.7 A fractal model of combined intergranular and transgranular fracture

The results and measured values are listed in Table 1. It is clear that calculated results are in good agreement with the measured ones. The reason why the i n t e r g r a n u l a r brittle fracture takes place more easily for the same grain size can also be seen quantitatively in Table 1. Table 1 Fractal dimension and Gcrit under different type of brittle fracture fracture type calculated value of fractal dimension dI measurements of fractal dimension d.r of Marbleunder tensile failure intergranular fracture (a) intergranular fracture (b) transgranular fracture combined ofintergranular and trAnsgranular fracture
1.30

Gcr~t . values for the grain size of 10-%m Gri t = 27s X 1tl - d f ) 3.31 27s 3.31 27~ 5.37 27+

liability of rock fracture under the same 7s value easy easy difficult

1.26 1.26 1.365

1.18 1.18 1.31

1.29

3.98 2Ys

fairly difficult

IV. F R A C T A L ANALYSIS OF F R A C T U R E SURFACE OF ROCK

1. Macroscopic experiments
The experiments of rock under tensile loading and three point bending loading are examined. The test pieces are standard specimens. The typical experimental curve of three point bending loading is given in Fig.8. W h e n stress reaches its peak value, sufficient energy stores in the specimen, and crack unsteady extension starts and after failure, stress finally decreases to zero. Let

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o'(kg)
38.131
28.64

1 e( 5

19.13 9.6

0 Fig.8

er

100

300

t/

/Je

Typical experiment curve of Marble under three point bending

us draw a straight line CD parallel to the elastic loading segment OA in Fig.8, and assume that material has the property of elastic unloading at point C0-. Then the area surrounded by OABCDO represents the plastic dissipation work and the area under arc DCE is the energy G: expended in damage and fracture of the material. The expression of G: can be obtained by

G/= 1/2

;'

~d~

(4.1)

$c

where ac and ~f denote strain at stress peak value and at failure respectively. 2. Estimation and measurement of fractal of fracture surface of rock 171 A relation between the circumferential length of a 2-dimensional standard shape (such as a circle or a square) and the area of a disc bounded by the standard shape can be obtained as follows, (length) oc (area) 1/2 (4.2) For nonstandard shapes (such as clouds and inclusions etc.), the corresponding relation[21 is (length)l/df ~ (area) 1/2 (4.3) Eq.(4.3) represents the relation between nonstandard circumferential length and the area of standard facet. By Eq.(4.3), we have

1 / d:" log(length) = const. + 1/2. log(area)

d f=

(4.4)
(4.5)

2 Alog(length)
~

~Fhe fracture surfaces in rock obtained by macro-fracture experiments are rough and irregular. When statistically self-similarity is assumed, they are a fractal and their fractal dimensions would be estimated by Eq.(4.5). A series of tests are shown in Fig. 10. A fractured rock specimen is plated with gold (or carbon). The specimen is then polished parallel to the plane of fracture continuously. "Islands" of rock surrounded by gold (or carbon) become rock slit islands as shown in Fig.9. The nonstandard circumferential length of rock slit islands are measured accurately with a fixed yardstick length by electron scanning and optical fraetographic analysis, their areas are obtained also. We find that there are a linear relation between the log(length) and log(area) (Fig.]0). For this reason, the data of n groups of log(length) and log(area) are analysed by linear regression method. Then the estimation of fractal is defined by

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df

2 ~=1

log(C)Jog(,4),- (l/n)( ~ log(`4)/ ~ log(c)/) i=~ ~=~

(log(,4),) 2 i=X

(1/n)(~ los('4),) ~
i=1

(4.6)

where C is the length, .4 is the area.

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Fractal character of fracture surfaces of rock under tensile and three point bending loading is examined and the corresponding fractal dimension are obtained. Now we have to find the relationship between macroscopic mechanics quantities and these microscopic geometric intrinsic ones. In tensile case, macroscopic mechanics quantities obtained in the experiment are only the 0-2 tensile strength a, and elastic strain energy U= (1/2)E" The relation between them and fractal dimensions is given in Fig.ll. In three point bending case, first we try to find the relationship between fractal dimensions and the failure load Pax' critical stress strength factor Kxcand geometric size factor f(wa--) = ( a ) x/2 ( 2 . 9 - 4 . 6 ( a ) + 2 1 . 8 ( a ) 2 - 37.8(a)3 + 38.7 ( a ) 4)

where a is the initial crack length, w is the specimen width.

Fig.9 Rockslit islandslike clouds( 'Opticalmicrograph) It looks as if there exists certain relation (Fig. 12), but it is not ideal. Then fractal dimensions are connected with dissipation energy Gf of damage and fracture evaluated by macroscopic experiments, the result is very well (Fig.13). The relation can be expressed by
de = 2 . 4 9 - 0 . 0 4 5 10 { ~ - ~

~3/10-2c + f ~fa d ~

(5.1)

Its general formula becomes

d e = K , - K 2 Cr (5.2)

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1500
D

1200
' S

600 3OO
I I,,. I
I I I

3 log(area)

0.1

0.2

0.3

(d:-1)
Fig.ll 2U
-O"t

Fig.10

The relation between log(length)

The relation between ( d : - 1 ) and of Marble under tensile loading

and log(area) on fracture surface of Marble under tensile failure

10

__

0.I

0.2

0.3 ( d / - 1)

0.4

0.1

0.2 (d l - 1)

0.3

Fig.12

The relation between ( d f - 1 ) and log (P~x(Ku)l/a

Fig.13

f
of Marble under three point bending loading

The relation between (df- 1) and G.f of Marble under three point bending

where K 1 and/(2 are material parameters. They may depend on microstructure of the material. It shows that the irregularity of the fracture surface of rock is the reflection of damage and fracture energy expended as rock breaks, This irregularity can be modelled by fractal geometry. Therefore it is possible to retrace the fracture mechanics behavior of rock by means of the fractal analysis of its fracture surface. Although G: (energy) is a synthetical quantity of mechanics behavior, it is a new way to trace the origin of fracture properties of failed material. It is clear that the research method, in this paper, may find very important applications in the analysis of material 'fracture and in engineering practice. In this paper, some exploralory researches on the fracture of rock have been done by means of

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fractal geometry. Through the tentative results obtained, we can see that the fractal dimension may be useful for fracture analysis of rock, and it may serve as a synthetical geometric parameter related to microstructures of material, their evolutions, and deformation and fracture properties. It is a new method to study the fracture of rock by means of combining micromechanics with macromechanics. Acknowledgments The authors' would like to thank Professor B. B. Mandelbrot (IBM Research Center, USA) and Professor C.W. Lung (Institute of Metal research, Academia Sinica, Shenyang) for their helps and advices. Also authors would like to thank Mr. Wu Mianba and Mr. Gao Jiangung (Institute of Rock and soil Mechanics,' Academia Sinica, Wuhan) for giving help during the macroscopic experiments of the rock.

['1] ['2] ['3] ['41 ['5"1 ['6~ ['7]

REFERENCES WangRen, Mechanics problems of geologicalmaterial, Mechanics and Practice, 8, 4(1986) (in Chinese). Mandelbrot B. B., The fractal geometry of nature, W.H. Freeman and Company (1983). Mandelbrot B. B., Passoja D. E. and Paullay A. J., Fractal character of fracture surfaces of metals, Nature, 308, 19(19~), 721. LungC. W., FraetMsand fracture of cracked metals, Preprint of the Int. Centre for TheoreticMphysics,Trieste, Italy, IC/85/1~. Cherepanov G. P., Mechanics of brittle fracture, McGraw-HillInt. Book Company, New York (1979), 130. Lung Qiweiand DongLianke, Fracture mechanicsI of comhinin$microscopewith nuicroseope,4~SthLecture, App/ied Mazherru~ics and Mechanics, 1906(in Chinese). Xie Heping, NonlinearanMysisof large defornmtionof rock creepand darnase & fractal modelsof microscopicfracture, Dissertation of Ph.D., China Institute of Mining and Technology.(1907,5)P(in Chinese).