DECLARATION

This project is my original work and has not been copied, imitated or presented in any other College or University.

Festus Lokucha Lokwale

Signed:

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My thanks go to Mrs. Doreen Katiba for her wonderful guidance throughout the project. Many thanks also go to all my colleagues at the place of work and at KeMU for their kind advice when I consulted them. Finally I would like to thank my family and friends for their understanding during the period I have endeavored to complete this project.

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ABSTRACT
Bullying is repeated offensive behaviour through malicious attempts to humiliate an individual or groups of employees which could impact on the dignity and well-being of the individual or groups. The researcher aimed to find out the factors that caused bullying and their implications to individuals, organizations, and society. The setting was at NSSF Headquarters in the community area, west of Nairobi. The subjects were NSSF employees. The problem explored was that mobbing victims were responsible for being mobbed. The NSSF has a total population of about 1800 staff currently. The target population of the study was 100 employees of NSSF within the operations department. The sample population was 40 out of the 100 employees of NSSF

organization. The objectives of the research were to determine the prevalence of workplace bullying in NSSF; to examine the relation between bullying and occupational outcomes; and to investigate the relation between support at work and bullying. The methodology was by way of a questionnaire survey. The research design was descriptive and inferential. The data was analyzed by way of tables and figures. Some of the recommendations were; a separate legislation addressing workplace bullying may be required; problem solving methods for addressing cases of workplace bullying, as well as mediation techniques; procedures be established to report and investigate allegations of workplace bullying; Human resource practitioners be educated in investigation processes to ensure workplace bullying allegations are looked into correctly, among others.

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Definition Of Terms
The following is a definition of terms as will be used in the study: 1.1. Physical Violence: The use of physical force against another person or group that results in physical, sexual or psychological harm. Physical violence includes beating, kicking, slapping, stabbing, shooting, pushing, biting, pinching, strangling, among others. 1.1.1. Assault/ Attack: Intentional behaviour that harms another person or group physical, including sexual assault (i.e. rape). 1.2 Psychological Violence: Intentional use of power, including threat of physical force, against another person or group, that can result in harm to family life, livelihood, physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. Psychological violence includes verbal abuse, bullying/mobbing, harassment, intimidation and threats. 1.2.1 Abuse: Behaviour that humiliates or degrades or otherwise indicates a lack of respect for the dignity and worth of an individual. 1.2.2 Bullying/Mobbing: Repeated and overtime offensive behaviour through vindictive, cruel or malicious attempts to humiliate, disrespect or undermine an individual or groups of employees and includes, but is not limited to psychological pressure, harassment, intimidation, threats, conspiracies, manipulation, extortion, coercion and hostile behaviour which could impact on the worth, dignity and wellbeing of the individual or groups. 1.2.3 Harassment: Any conduct based on age, disability, HIV status, domestic circumstances, sex, sexual orientation, gender reassignment, race, colour, language, iv

religion, political, trade union or other opinion or belief, national or social origin, association with a minority, property, birth or other status that is unreciprocated or unwanted and which affects the dignity of men and women at work. 1.2.4 Sexual Harassment: Any unwanted, unreciprocated and unwelcome behaviour of a sexual nature that is offensive to the person involved, and causes that person to be threatened, humiliated, degraded or embarrassed. 1.2.5 Ethnic harassment: Any implicit or explicit threatening conduct that is based on tribe, language, place of birth, religion, association with a minority or majority tribe, or other status that is unreciprocated or unwanted and which affects the dignity of women and men at work. 1.2.6 Threat: Any implicit or explicit promised use of physical force or power (i.e. psychological force, blackmail or stalking), resulting in fear of physical, sexual, psychological harm or other negative consequences to the targeted individuals or groups. 1.3 Structural Violence The intentional use of power and/or organisational systems and structures or laws against an individual or entity (employer, management, shareholders, employee, group of employees, client, government, unions) to carry out a covert or unethical agenda, enforce change or indulge in unfair practices to the disadvantage of the affected individual or entity. Structural violence includes but not limited to the disrespectful handling of changes in the organisation, unrealistic redistribution of workload, intimidation, policies, procedures, regulations, manipulation, coercion to act in a certain way and so on, exercised by an individual or entity.

TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page
Declarationi Acknowledgementsii Abstractiii Definition of Terms .iv Contents.........vi 1.0. INTRODUCTION..1 1.1. Background Information1 1.2. Statement of the Problem....5 1.3. Objectives of the Study...5 1.4. Research Questions.....5 1.5. Significance of the Study6 1.6. Research Assumptions6 2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW...7 2.1. Introduction7 2.2. History of Bullying8 2.3. Factors Influencing Workplace Bullying9 2.4. Effects of Bullying...20 2.5. Workplace Bullying Tactics24 2.6. Increase in Bullying Behavior...............................................................................27 2.7. The Causes of Bullying.........................................................................................29 2.8. Ways to Decrease Bullying...................................................................................29 2.9. Conceptual Framework ...32 3. 0. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.33 3.1. Research Design33 3.2. Total and Target Population..................................................................................33 3.3. Sample Population34 3.4. Research Instruments34 vi

3.5. Sampling Procedures.............................................................................................34 3.6. Location of the Study34 4.0. CHAPTER: Analysis of Data, Interpretation, and Discussion35 4.1. Introduction...35 4.2. Findings, Interpretation and Discussion35 5.0. CHAPTER: Conclusion and Recommendations...42 5.1. Introduction...42 5.2. Conclusion42 5.3. Recommendations43 5.4. Areas of further research...44 REFERENCES 45 APPENDIX 1 ..48 APPENDIX 2 ..49 APPENDIX 3...50

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background Information
The National Social Security Fund (NSSF) was established in 1965 by an Act of Parliament (CAP 258 of the Laws of Kenya) in order to administer a provident fund scheme for all workers in Kenya. Initially the fund operated as a government department under the Ministry of Labour but as its membership grew and its operations became complex, the NSSF Act was amended in 1987 to transform it into an autonomous State Corporation. Since 1988, the Fund has been operating under a Board of Trustees, which is constituted by representatives of 3 key stakeholders: the government, workers, and employers. In recent years NSSF has embarked on an ambitious reform programme intended to convert it from a National Provident Fund Scheme to a Social Insurance Pension Scheme. As a converted scheme, the new NSSF will operate as a mandatory National Social Insurance Pension Scheme, serving as workers 1st pillar of social protection. Sadly, NSSFs history has been marred by scandals and ill-conceived investment policies. Indeed, some regrettable investment decisions were made by the Fund in the early and mid 1990s. However, in recent times, aggressive reform policies have been implemented to prevent the errors of the past from recurring. NSSFs operations are now conducted in an atmosphere of transparency, accountability, and with a renewed commitment to efficient delivery of social security services in Kenya. Membership has grown steadily over the years and by the end of 2007, the Fund had a cumulative registered membership of about 3 million. The average current membership accounts range from 900, 000 to 1.2 million. Today, NSSF continues to work on enhancing its

organizational performance and improving the quality of services it provides to its members.

a) Brief History Of Workplace Bullying.

High-level forms of violence such as assault and murder usually receive most media attention, but lower-level forms of violence such as bullying, has only in recent years started to be addressed by researchers, parents and guardians and authority figures.

It is only in recent years that bullying has been recognized and recorded as a separate and distinct offence, but there have been well documented cases that were recorded in a different context. The Fifth Volume of the Newgate Calendar contains at least one example where Eton Scholars George Alexander Wood and Alexander Wellesley Leith were charged, at Aylesbury Assizes, with killing and slaying the Hon. F. Ashley Cooper on February 28, 1825 in an incident that would now, surely be described as "lethal hazing, The Newgate calendar contains several other examples that, while not as distinct, could be considered indicative of situations of bullying.

According to the Workplace Bullying and Trauma Institute, workplace bullying is "repeated, health-harming mistreatment, verbal abuse, or conduct which is threatening, humiliating, intimidating, or sabotage that interferes with work or some combination of the three". Statistics show that bullying is 3 times as prevalent as illegal discrimination and at least 1,600 times as prevalent as workplace violence. Statistics also show that while only one employee in every 10,000 becomes a victim of workplace violence, one in six experiences bullying at work. Bullying is a little more common than sexual harassment but not verbal abuse which occurs more than bullying.

Unlike the more physical form of school bullying, workplace bullying often takes place within the established rules and policies of the organization and society. Such actions are not necessarily illegal and may not even be against the firm's regulations; however, the damage to the targeted employee and to workplace morale is obvious.

Particularly when perpetrated by a group, workplace bullying is sometimes known as mobbing. It can also be known as "career assassination" in political circles.

b) Bullying In Relation To NSSF Organization

Bullying is a behaviour which is acquired from childhood and it becomes inherent in an individuals life and even after school the individual carries on the behaviour acquired into his / her adult life. It is therefore not an exception for the individual to practice the bullying behaviour especially at the place of work. The researcher is an employee of NSSF and is better placed to carry out the study from within so as to bring out the real picture concerning the causes of bullying in the place of work.

c) The Roots Of Bullying

According to researchers such as Parke, R.D. and Slaby, R.G. (1983), aggressive behaviour is a part of normal development in young children in the same way as learning controls that persuade the child from taking specific courses of action such as fighting or putting ones hand into a fire for example. As aggression grows through various stages, the child develops parallel controls to counteract each stage of aggression.

Szegal (1985) who carried out observational studies in this area suggested that the first real intentions towards intentional aggression are usually revealed between 7 and

12 months in response to experiences of frustration or tension and at times when the infant demands attention.

Peter Randall (1997) argued that by the age of 12 months, it is believed that the infant begins to organise cognitive and behavioural expressions in respect of their primary caregivers, usually the mothers. In short, Randall is arguing that the child is

strategically thinking through his actions in a form of cause and effect, e.g.: "if I cry my mother will come" or "if I hold out my arms I will be picked up". Randall argues that these factors combining can be understood as part of an attachment relationship with the primary carer of which the overall quality of interactions is critical for the successful functional development of a child. It is argued that the satisfaction derived by the infant from the interactions with the primary carer do a great deal to increase the rate at which the carer is able to control the aggression. It is argued that with the correct attention at this age, the child is more able to deal with tension and stress without the need to respond aggressively.

The need to possess is another trait which produces aggressive behaviour. The most common aggression in the nursery is over the possession of certain toys. Randall argues that it is this need to 'have' objects which is the major forerunner of the behaviour which the child eventually refines into bullying. In short, he argues, "being able to 'snatch and grab' is one of the earliest abuses of power we know of".

It is believed that most children are able to express the full range of human emotions by the age of 3 and indeed, researchers such as Cardwell and Dunn (1986) argue that a child of just 18 months is able to pre-meditate getting other small children into trouble in the home environment. Frustration however tends to reduce as children gain the ability to communicate through speech, enabling them to off-load casual distress. 4

At this stage children become able to use other strategies, such as negotiation based upon expressive language instead of aggression.

At about the age of 18 months, some researchers believe a child will develop the ability to feel sympathy and empathize with other people in response to any distress which they may be going through. This characteristic is of course an important inhibitor to aggressive behaviour.

1.2. Statement Of The Problem

Different people hold differing views concerning the factors that cause mobbing. One view holds that mobbing victims are responsible for being mobbed. Some physicians and clinical psychologists who treat mobbing victims support the view. The researcher studied the factors that caused mobbing at NSSF and established the view points of the individuals and perpetrators of mobbing within the organization.

1.3. Objectives Of The Study

1) Identify workplace mobbing and to develop a discourse of mobbing. 2) Identify the costs of workplace mobbing. 3) Suggest solutions to the problem of mobbing. 4) Find out the causes of bullying / harassment at NSSF; 5) Examine what precedes workplace bullying; 6) Examine how coercive power is involved in workplace bullying; 7) Review existing research on workplace bullying;

1.4.

Research Questions

1) Is there workplace mobbing at NSSF? What is its discourse?

2) What is the cost of workplace mobbing? 3) What is the cause of mobbing? Is it the perpetrator, or the organization, or the victim and the social system?

1.5.

Significance Of The Study

1) Raising awareness about dignity and respect in the workplace. 2) To support staffs who have been violated. 3) Train staff on stress management. 4) Training in the management of bullying in the workplace. 5) Training in communication skills.
6) Introducing policies to manage dignity in the workplace.

1.6. Research Assumptions

The researcher will make the following assumptions:

1) All employees of NSSF who will fill in the questionnaires would be assumed to understand the variables that would be used in the study. 2) The respondents will benefit significantly from the study by becoming aware of the workplace dignity. 3) The respondents would be assumed to fill the questionnaires without any influence and bias on their part.

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction

Bullying is a form of abuse. It comprises repeated acts over time that involves a real or perceived imbalance of power with the more powerful individuals or groups abusing those who are less powerful. The power imbalance may be social power or physical power. The victim of bullying is sometimes referred to as a target.

Bullying consists of three basic types of abuse - emotional, verbal and physical. It typically involves subtle methods of coercion such as psychological manipulation. Bullying in school and the workplace is also referred to as peer abuse. Bullying can occur in any context in which human beings interact with each other. This includes school, church, the workplace, home and neighborhoods. It is even a common push factor in migration. Bullying can exist between social groups, social classes and even between countries. Bullying is an act of repeated aggressive behaviour in order to intentionally hurt another person, physically or mentally. Bullying is characterized by an individual behaving in a certain way to gain power over another person. Norwegian researcher Dan Olweus (1981) defines bullying as when a person is "exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons. " He defines negative action as "when a person intentionally inflicts injury or discomfort upon another person, through physical contact, through words or in other ways.

Bullying behavior may include name calling, verbal or written abuse, exclusion from activities, exclusion from social situations, physical abuse, or coercion. Bullies may

behave this way to be perceived as popular or tough or to get attention. They may bully out of jealousy or be acting out because they themselves are bullied.

USA National Center for Education Statistics suggests that bullying can be broken into two categories: Direct bullying, and indirect bullying which is also known as social aggression. Ross (1998) states that direct bullying involves a great deal of physical aggression such as shoving and poking, throwing things, slapping, choking, punching and kicking, beating, stabbing, pulling hair, scratching, biting, scraping and pinching. He also suggests that social aggression or indirect bullying is characterized by threatening the victim into social isolation. This isolation is achieved through a wide variety of techniques, including spreading gossip, refusing to socialize with the victim, bullying other people who wish to socialize with the victim, and criticizing the victim's manner of dress and other socially-significant markers (including the victim's tribe, religion, disability, etc). Ross outlines other forms of indirect bullying which are more subtle and more likely to be verbal, such as name calling, the silent treatment, arguing others into submission, manipulation, gossip/false gossip, lies, rumours/false rumors, staring, giggling, laughing at the victim, saying certain words that trigger a reaction from a past event, and mocking. The children's charity Act Against Bullying was set up in 2003 to help children who were victims of this type of bullying by researching and publishing coping skills.

2.2. History Of Bullying

High-level forms of violence such as assault and murder usually receive most media attention, but lower-level forms of violence such as bullying, has only in recent years started to be addressed by researchers, parents and guardians and authority figures.

It is only in recent years that bullying has been recognized and recorded as a separate and distinct offence, but there have been well documented cases that were recorded in a different context. The Fifth Volume of the Newgate Calendar contains at least one example where Eton Scholars George Alexander Wood and Alexander Wellesley Leith were charged, at Aylesbury Assizes, with killing and slaying the Hon. F. Ashley Cooper on February 28, 1825 in an incident that would now, surely be described as "lethal hazing". The Newgate calendar contains several other examples that, while not as distinct, could be considered indicative of situations of bullying.

2.3. Factors Influencing Workplace Bullying

Workplace bullying, like childhood bullying, is the tendency of individuals or groups to use persistent aggressive or unreasonable behavior against a co-worker. Workplace bullying can include such tactics as verbal, nonverbal, psychological, physical abuse and humiliation. This type of aggression is particularly difficult because unlike the typical forms of school bullying, workplace bullies often operate within the established rules and policies of their organization and their society. Bullying in the workplace is in the majority of cases reported as having been perpetrated by the Manager or Managers and takes a wide variety of forms:

a) Unfairly treated b) Public humiliation(s) c) Regularly threatened with the sack d) Any form of undermining behaviour e) Taking credit for things you have done f) Unfairly passed over for promotion or denied training opportunities g) Being quick to criticize and slow to praise 9

h) Character assassination i) Spreading malicious rumours j) Smear campaigns k) Social ostracism l) Physical assault

Bullying can be covert or overt as described by Tim Field (1996):

"Bullies are deeply prejudiced but at the same time sufficiently devious to not reveal their prejudices to the extent that they contravene laws on harassment and discrimination" - Bully Online.org.

While there is no single formal definition of workplace bullying, several researchers have endeavoured to define it.

a) According to Tracy et al 2006, researchers associated with the Project for Wellness and Work-Life, workplace bullying is most often "a combination of tactics in which numerous types of hostile communication and behavior are used" (p. 152). b) In a WBI-Zogby Survey, by Gary and Ruth Namie (2007) define workplace bullying as "repeated, health-harming mistreatment, verbal abuse, or conduct which is threatening, humiliating, intimidating, or sabotage that interferes with work or some combination of the three." c) Pamela et al, 2003, expands this definition, stating that workplace bullying is "persistent verbal and nonverbal aggression at work that includes personal attacks, social ostracism, and a multitude of other painful messages and hostile interactions."

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d) Noa Davenport et al ,(1999, 2002) identify mobbing as a particular type of bullying that is not as apparent as most, defining it as "an emotional assault. It begins when an individual becomes the target of disrespectful and harmful behavior. Through innuendo, rumours, and public discrediting, a hostile environment is created in which one individual gathers others to willingly, or unwillingly, participate in continuous malevolent actions to force a person out of the workplace."

Because it can occur in a variety of contexts and forms, it is also useful to define workplace bullying by the key features that these behaviors possess. Bullying is characterized by Einarsen, (1999), Keashly & Harvey (2004), and Lutgen-Sandvik, (2006):

a) b) c) d) e)

Repetition (occurs regularly) Duration (is enduring) Escalation (increasing aggression) Power disparity (the target lacks the power to successfully defend himself). Attributed intent

This distinguishes bullying from isolated behaviors and other forms of job stress and allows the term workplace bullying to be applied in various contexts and to behaviors that meet these characteristics.

According to L.S. Pamela, (2003), the lack of unifying language to name the phenomenon of workplace bullying is a problem because without a unifying term or phrase, individuals have difficulty naming their experiences of abuse, and therefore have trouble pursuing justice against the bully. Unlike the term "sexual harassment,"

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which named a specific problem and is now recognized in U.S. law (and many international laws), workplace bullying is still being established as a relevant social problem and is in need of a specific vernacular.

(A) Characteristics Of Bullies

Research indicates that adults who bully have personalities that are authoritarian, combined with a strong need to control or dominate. It has also been suggested that a prejudicial view of subordinates can be particular a risk factor.

Further studies have shown that envy and resentment may be motives for bullying. Research on the self-esteem of bullies has produced equivocal results. While some bullies are arrogant and narcissistic, others can use bullying as a tool to conceal shame or anxiety or to boost self esteem: by demeaning others, the abuser him/herself feels empowered.

Researchers have identified other risk factors such as depression and personality disorders, as well as quickness to anger and use of force, addiction to aggressive behaviours, mistaking others' actions as hostile, concern with preserving self image, and engaging in obsessive or rigid actions.

It is often suggested that bullying behavior has its origin in childhood: "If aggressive behaviour is not challenged in childhood, there is a danger that it may become habitual. Indeed, there is research evidence, to indicate that bullying during childhood puts children at risk of criminal behaviour and domestic violence in adulthood." Bullies may bully because they themselves have been the victim of

bullying.

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(B) Forms of Bullying

Tim Field suggested that workplace bullying takes these forms:

1) Serial bullying: the source of all dysfunction can be traced to one individual, who picks on one employee after another and destroys them, then moves on. Probably the most common type of bullying. 2) Secondary bullying: the pressure of having to deal with a serial bully causes the general behaviour to decline and sink to the lowest level. 3) Pair bullying: this takes place with two people, one active and verbal, the other often watching and listening. 4) Gang bullying or group bullying: is a serial bully with colleagues. Gangs can occur anywhere, but flourish in corporate bullying climates. It is often called mobbing and usually involves scapegoating and victimization. 5) Vicarious bullying: two parties are encouraged to fight. This is the typical "Triangulation" where the aggression gets passed around. 6) Regulation bullying: where a serial bully forces their target to comply with rules, regulations, procedures or laws regardless of their appropriateness, applicability or necessity. 7) Residual bullying: after the serial bully has left or been fired, the behaviour continues. It can go on for years. 8) Legal bullying: the bringing of a vexatious legal action to control and punish a person. It is one of the nastiest forms of bullying. 9) Pressure bullying or unwitting bullying: having to work to unrealistic time scales and/or inadequate resources.

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10) Corporate bullying: where an employer abuses an employee with impunity, knowing the law is weak and the job market is soft. 11) Organizational bullying: a combination of pressure bullying and corporate bullying. Occurs when an organization struggles to adapt to changing markets, reduced income, cuts in budgets, imposed expectations and other extreme pressures. 12) Institutional bullying: entrenched and is accepted as part of the culture. 13) Client bullying: an employee is bullied by those they serve, for instance subway attendants or public servants. 14) Cyber bullying: is the use of information and communication technologies to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behaviour by an individual or group that is intended to harm others.

(C) Types Of Bullying 1) School Bullying

In schools, bullying occurs in all areas of school. It can occur in nearly any part in or around the school building, though it more often occurs, physical education, recess, hallways, bathrooms, on school buses and waiting for buses, classes that require group work and/or after school activities. Bullying in school sometimes consists of a group of students taking advantage of or isolating one student in particular and gaining the loyalty of bystanders who want to avoid becoming the next victim. These bullies taunt and tease their target before physically bullying the target. Targets of bullying in school are often pupils who are considered strange or different by their peers to begin with, making the situation harder for them to deal with.

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One student or a group can bully another student or a group of students. Bystanders may participate or watch, sometimes out of fear of becoming the next victim. However, there is some research suggesting that a significant proportion of "normal" school children may not evaluate school-based violence (student-on-student victimization) as negatively or as being unacceptable as much as adults generally do, and may even derive enjoyment from it, and they may thus not see a reason to prevent it if it brings them joy on some level.

Bullying can also be perpetrated by teachers and the school system itself: There is an inherent power differential in the system that can easily predispose to subtle or covert abuse (relational aggression or passive aggression), humiliation, or exclusion even while maintaining overt commitments to anti-bullying policies.

Anti-bullying programs are designed to teach students cooperation, as well as training peer moderators in intervention and dispute resolution techniques, as a form of peer support.

American victims and their families have legal recourse, such as suing a school or teacher for failure to adequately supervise, racial or gender discrimination, or other civil rights violations. Special education students who are victimized may sue a school or school board under the ADA or Section 504. In addition, the victims of some school shootings have sued both the shooters' families and the schools.

2) Cyber Bullying
According to Canadian educator Bill Belsey, it:

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...involves the use of information and communication technologies such as e-mail, cell phone and pager text messages, instant messaging, defamatory personal Web sites, blogs, online games and defamatory online personal polling Web sites, to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behaviour by an individual or group that is intended to harm others. Bullies will even create blogs to intimidate victims worldwide.

3) Political Bullying
Jingoism occurs when one country imposes its will on another. This is normally done with military force or threats. With threats, it is common to ensure that aid and grants will not be given to the smaller country or that the smaller country will not be allowed to join a trading organization. Often political corruptions, coup d'tats, and kleptocracies are the solution and response to the countries being bullied.

4) Military Bullying
In 2000, the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) defined bullying as: ...the use of physical strength or the abuse of authority to intimidate or victimize others, or to give unlawful punishments. A review of a number of deaths by suicide at Princess Royal Barracks, Deepcut by Nicholas Blake QC indicated that whilst a culture of bullying existed during the mid to late 1990s many of the issues were being addressed as a result of the Defence Training Review.

Some argue that this behaviour should be allowed because of a general academic consensus that "soldiering" is different from other occupations. Soldiers expected to

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risk their lives should, according to them, develop strength of body and spirit to accept bullying.

In some countries, ritual hazing among recruits has been tolerated and even lauded as a rite of passage that builds character and toughness; while in others, systematic bullying of lower-ranking, young or physically slight recruits may in fact be encouraged by military policy, either tacitly or overtly. Also, the Russian army usually has older/more experienced candidates abusing - kicking or punching - less experienced soldiers.

5) Hazing
Hazing is an often ritualistic test which may constitute harassment, abuse, or humiliation with requirements to perform meaningless tasks; sometimes as a way of initiation into a social group. The term can refer to either physical or mental practices. It is a subjective matter where to draw to line between 'normal' hazing and a mere rite of passage , and there is a gray area where exactly the other side passes over into sheer degrading, even harmful abuse that should not even be tolerated if accepted voluntarily Furthermore, as it must be a ritual initiation, a different social context may mean a same treatment is technically hazing for some, not for others, e.g. a linecrossing ceremony when passing the equator at sea is hazing for the sailor while the extended application to passengers is not.

Hazing has been reported in a variety of social contexts, including:

a) b) c)

Sports teams. Academic fraternities and sororities. College and universities in general. 17

d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k)

Associated groups, like fan clubs, school bands. Secret societies and even certain service clubs, or rather their local sections. Similarly various other competitive sports teams or clubs. The armed forces. Police forces. Rescue services, such as lifeguards. In workplaces. Inmate hazing is also common at confinement facilities around the world, including frequent reports of beatings and sexual assaults by fellow inmates.

(D)Bullying And Personality Disorders 1) Personality Disorders And Executives

In 2005, psychologists Belinda Board and Katarina Fritzon at the University of Surrey, UK, interviewed and gave personality tests to high-level British executives and compared their profiles with those of criminal psychiatric patients at Broadmoor Hospital in the UK. They found that three out of eleven personality disorders were actually more common in executives than in the disturbed criminals, they were:

a)

Histrionic personality disorder: including superficial charm, insincerity, egocentricity and manipulation.

b)

Narcissistic personality disorder: including grandiosity, self-focused lack of empathy for others, exploitativeness and independence.

c)

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: including perfectionism, excessive devotion to work, rigidity, stubbornness and dictatorial tendencies.

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They described the business people as successful psychopaths and the criminals as unsuccessful psychopaths.

2) Psychopathy And Workplace Bullying

Robert Hare and Paul Babiak (2006) discuss psychopathy and workplace bullying thus: Bullies react aggressively in response to provocation or perceived insults or slights. It is unclear whether their acts of bullying give them pleasure or are just the most effective way they have learned to get what they want from others. Similar to manipulators, however, psychopathic bullies do not feel remorse, guilt or empathy. They lack insight into their own behaviour, and seem unwilling or unable to moderate it, even when it is to their own advantage. Not being able to understand the harm they do to themselves (let alone their victims), psychopathic bullies are particularly dangerous. Of course, not all bullies are psychopathic, though this may be of little concern to their victims. Bullies come in many psychological and physical sizes and shapes. In many cases, garden variety bullies have deep seated psychological problems, including feelings of inferiority or inadequacy and difficulty in relating to others. Some may simply have learned at an early stage that their size, strength, or verbal talent was the only effective tool they had for social behaviour. Some of these individuals may be context-specific bullies, behaving badly at work but more or less normally in other contexts. But the psychopathic bully is what he is: a callous, vindictive, controlling individual

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with little or no empathy or concern for the rights and feelings of the victim, no matter what the context.

1) Narcissism
In 2007, researchers Catherine Mattice and Brian Spitzberg at San Diego State University, USA, also found that: "Narcissism revealed a small significant positive relationship with bullying and was found to be significantly related to indirect bullying tactics rather than direct tactics. Narcissism also revealed a strong relationship with overall bullying motivation and a moderate relationship with bullying satisfaction."

2.4.

Effects Of Bullying

1) To The Individual
The effects of bullying can be serious and even fatal. Mona OMoore Ph. D of the Anti-Bullying Centre, Trinity College Dublin, said, "There is a growing body of research which indicates that individuals, whether child or adult, who are persistently subjected to abusive behavior are at risk of stress related illness which can sometimes lead to suicide". Victims of bullying can suffer from long term emotional and behavioral problems. Bullying can cause loneliness, depression, anxiety, lead to low self-esteem and increased susceptibility to illness.

The National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) said:

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"In 2002, a report released by the U.S. Secret Service concluded that bullying played a significant role in many school shootings and that efforts should be made to eliminate bullying behaviour."

2) Health Effects
According to Gary and Ruth Namie, as well as Tracy, et al. (2006) workplace bullying can harm the health of the targets of bullying. Organizations are beginning to take note of workplace bullying because of the costs the organization in terms of the health of their employees.

According to scholars at the Project for Wellness and Work-Life at Arizona State University, "workplace bullying is linked to a host of physical, psychological, organizational, and social costs." Stress is the most predominant health effect associated with bullying in the workplace. Research indicates that workplace stress has significant negative effects that are correlated to poor mental health and poor physical health, resulting in an increase in the use of "sick days" or time off from work, Farrell & Geist-Martin (2005).

In addition, co-workers who witness workplace bullying can also have negative effects, such as fear, stress, and emotional exhaustion. Those who witness repetitive workplace abuse often choose to leave the place of employment where the abuse took place. Workplace bullying can also hinder the organizational dynamics such as group cohesion, peer communication, and overall performance. Bullying is not a good thing; it can scar people for life.

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3) Financial Effects To Employers

Several studies have attempted to quantify the cost of bullying to an organization.

1. According to the National Institute of Occupational Safety Health (NIOSH) in U.S. mental illness among the workforce leads to a loss in employment amounting to $19 billion and a drop in productivity of $3 billion, Sauter, et al (1990). 2. In a report commissioned by the ILO, Hoel, Sparks, & Cooper did a comprehensive analysis of the costs involved in bullying. They estimated a cost 1.88 Billion Pounds plus the cost of lost productivity. 3. Based on replacement cost of those who leave as a result of being or witnessing bullying, Rayner and Keashly (2004) estimated that for an organization of 1000 people, the cost would be $1.2 million US. This estimate did not include the cost of litigation should victims bring suit against the organization. 4. A recent Finnish study of more than 5,000 hospital staff found that those who had been bullied had 26% more certified sickness absence than those who were not bullied, when figures were adjusted for base-line measures one year prior to the survey, Kivimaki et al (2000). According to the researchers these figures are probably an underestimation as many of the targets are likely to have been bullied already at the time the base-line measures were obtained.

Research by Dr Dan Dana has shown organizations suffer a large financial cost by not accurately managing conflict and bullying type behaviors. He has developed a tool to assist with calculating the cost of conflict. In addition, researcher Tamara Parris discusses how employers need to be more attentive in managing various discordant 22

behaviors in the workplace, such as, bullying, as it not only creates a financial cost to the organization, but also erodes the company's human resources assets.

4) Direct and Indirect Effects Astute leaders understand that workplace bullying is expensive and that the related costs impact directly on profits, Stanwick (2004). Bullying can cause individuals stress and ill health; it can lead to low productivity. Bullying can result in serious career problems. Also, it can result in a dysfunctional workplace, poor morale, and industrial relations problems. Most employers acknowledge that workplace bullies can negatively impact morale; few realized their continued presence can increase costs through heightened employee turnover rates, absenteeism, and even health care costs stemming from stress-induced illnesses, Wojcik (2005). There is much concern expressed about the loss of work days due to bullying, Berry (2004). Zarowin (2004) reported that victims of bullies withhold the unpaid extras such as being courteous to clients and customers and helping co-workers. So although it may not lower productivity directly, it does impact customer service and team work. More importantly, bullying can lead to litigation (Rothery, 2005). Since bullying also is a form of harassment, creating a hostile workplace environment can lead to employment practices liability issues (Wojcik, 2005). Bullying is ineffective in all types of organizations. Perks stated that from his experience as an army officer and leadership instructor and from his employment with a number of corporations, using a sledge hammer to crack a nut is not effective. The results are often unsustainable and the damage done to an organization is huge, Perks (2006). Levinson (2006) sums up by stating that bullying at work costs a fortune.

23

Millions of working days are lost and staff turnover increases, as does the cost of rerecruiting and training.

2.5. Workplace Bullying Tactics

Research by the Workplace Bullying Institute, 2007, suggests that the following are the most common 25 tactics used by workplace bullies;

1) Falsely accused someone of "errors" not actually made (71 percent). 2) Stared, glared, was nonverbally intimidating and was clearly showing hostility (68 percent). 3) Discounted the person's thoughts or feelings ("oh, that's silly") in meetings (64 percent). 4) Used the "silent treatment" to "ice out" and separate from others (64 percent). 5) Exhibited presumably uncontrollable mood swings in front of the group (61 percent). 6) Made up own rules on the fly that even she/he did not follow (61 percent). 7) Disregarded satisfactory or exemplary quality of completed work despite evidence (58 percent). 8) Harshly and constantly criticized having a different standard for the target (57 percent). 9) Started, or failed to stop, destructive rumours or gossip about the person (56 percent). 10) Encouraged people to turn against the person being tormented (55 percent). 11) Singled out and isolated one person from co-workers, either socially or physically (54 percent). 12) Publicly displayed gross, undignified, but not illegal, behaviour (53 percent). 24

13) Yelled, screamed, and threw tantrums in front of others to humiliate a person (53 percent). 14) Stole credit for work done by others (plagiarism) (47 percent). 15) Abused the evaluation process by lying about the person's performance (46 percent). 16) Declared target "insubordinate" for failing to follow arbitrary commands (46 percent). 17) Used confidential information about a person to humiliate privately or publicly (45 percent). 18) Retaliated against the person after a complaint was filed (45 percent). 19) Made verbal put-downs/insults based on gender, race, accent or language, disability (44 percent). Age is another factor. 20) Assigned undesirable work as punishment (44 percent). 21) Created unrealistic demands (workload, deadlines, or duties) for person singled out (44 percent). 22) Launched a baseless campaign to oust the person; effort not stopped by the employer (43 percent). 23) Encouraged the person to quit or transfer rather than to face more mistreatment (43 percent). 24) Sabotaged the person's contribution to a team goal and reward (41 percent). 25) Ensured failure of person's project by not performing required tasks, such as sign-offs, taking calls, working with collaborators (40 percent)

The following are examples of workplace bullying tactics:

25

1)

Making someone or other people feel unwelcome and not letting them join in e.g. being in a clique and cliquey behaviours and being snobby or elitist. Another hurtful form of unwelcome ness is vilification.

2)

Unkind remarks about someone's family, lifestyle, body, appearance, shape, weight, clothes and their personal life.

3)

Invasion of privacy e.g. tampering with someone's personal effects, asking someone intrusive personal questions, e.g. about their love-life.

4)

Being

refused

annual

leave,

sick

leave

and

especially

compassionate/bereavement leave without a genuine and a fair reason why.

5)

Being subjected and called to disciplinary hearings/meetings without absolute proof and when they are suddenly out of the blue and especially without moral support e.g. a union rep/parent/friend/trusted colleague/other trusted person with you.

6)

Discrimination or unfair treatment to someone because of disability/medical condition/age/race/ethnicity/how they live and sensitive issues about someone e.g. HIV positive and sexual orientation e.g. gay/lesbian etc.

7) 8)

Spreading stories or lies about someone and/or his/her friends/family. Deliberately withholding/giving out false information to make a competent worker look unprofessional and in order to make him/her fail.

9)

Playing practical jokes on someone/telling jokes to someone which they do not like and if it makes them uncomfortable and when they and others are not laughing and they do not find it funny (especially those based on sex).

10)

Sexual harassment of any kind e.g. persistently asking out for dates/romances, touching/staring at someone's body, forcing/coercing to have sex,(especially private areas), displaying explicit/pornographic pictures, cartoons, DVDs,

26

videos, saying sexual comments and any unwanted touches (that the person isn't comfortable with) e.g. brushing against, hugging, kissing, patting, catcalls, wolf-whistling etc.
11)

Beware of terms of endearment as not everyone likes them e.g. even terms like dear, sweetheart, chick, babe, honey, hun, baby, baby-cakes, lovely, etc can be offensive/uncomfortable to some people.

12)

Harassment/stalking e.g. following the person around, always hanging around outside his/her home and/or workplace, favourite haunts like their local pub, shops etc. Persistently emailing, phoning up, text messaging, writing typed/handwritten letters, instant messaging, Face-booking, and looking at someone's personal and confidential information/giving out personal and confidential information without consent.

2.6. Increase In Bullying Behavior

Many researchers support the idea of an increase in bullying behavior in the workplace. For example, more than one in four National Health workers have been harassed, bullied, or abused at work in the past year. Also, if bullying or harassment from colleagues is included, the figure increases to 37%, Patton (2005). A survey conducted by Nursing Times in the fall of 2004 found that nine out of 10 nurses had suffered verbal abuse, with one quarter of the 2,500 nurses surveyed stating that it had made them consider quitting their profession early, Patton (2005). Further, research published in IRS Employment Review, shows a huge increase in harassment, and bullying claims. Egan who carried out the research stated that bullying may now top the list of complaints because people are more aware of the issue. Some companies operate separate bullying and harassment policies and

27

procedures, Reade (2002). In fact, the research revealed that 75 human resource managers had reported the following percentages for various employee complaints: Bullying/harassment, 45%; Discipline, 27%; Discrimination, 18%; and Pay 15%. More recent government statistics have revealed high levels of bullying, dissatisfaction, and low morale among workers, Reed Business Information (2006). One should train oneself to recognize bullying; especially bullying that is below the radar. These bullies are not overtly intimidating or violent; theyre sneaky, manipulative, coercive, emotional intimidators. They are turf protecting,

backstabbing, Queen Bees, Leichtling (2005). Those who commit violent acts at work present warning signs. Unfortunately most managers, including human resources professionals, have never been trained to recognize the warning signs, Fisher (2005). It usually starts with bullying behaviour. It starts with a pattern of threats and intimidation that escalates over the c ourse of six months to a year, Fisher (2005). Bullying is not a United States problem only. In recent surveys carried out in the United Kingdom, Australia, and the European Union as well as the United States, the percentage of people who had been bullied had increased. A study in the United Kingdom of 3,500 workers by Mercer Human Resource Consulting found that more than one in five had been bullied at work at least once during the past year; one in 10 reported bullying on more than one occasion. In Australia, 400,000 to two million workers are affected each year. There are similar figures for Europe; about 12 million workers have been bullied, according to a European Union Survey, Graves (2003).

28

2.7. The Causes Of Bullying

The causes of bullying are similar to the causes of other poor behaviours in the workplace. For example, one research study found that A lack of management skills was cited . . . as the top factor contributing to bullying at work, Sparrow (2005). Management skills such as clear communication, realistic deadlines and targets, and zero-tolerance policies on bullying were lacking. In another research study, a manager was identified as the bully in 75% of cases, Burd (2005). This seems to indicate that bullying is not included in the management training of

supervisors/managers or is not taken seriously. Another possible cause of bullying may be insecurity on the part of management. Stanwicks research revealed that a bullys target has the following profile: Good at their job; Popular with their colleagues, or Have befriended the bullys current target, Stanwick (2004). Economic and social trends have intensified worker sensitivity to bullying. Conditions such as a bad economy, layoffs, greater workloads, increased productivity demands, and longer hours are some of the economic factors. When that is mixed with smaller cramped workspaces, office clutter, and shorter response time, the sensitivity to bullying is intensified, Stack (2003). These extremely stressful conditions can cause employees to have short tempers and poor working relationships.

2.8. The Ways To Decrease Bullying

A review of the literature reveals that companies have instituted several ways to decrease and virtually eliminate bullying in the workplace. These are as follows: 1) Adopt a zero-tolerance policy. Corporations must adopt a zero-tolerance policy to physical violence; and in cases of verbal abuse, ensure that people are not afraid to report being bullied by taking action when bullying is identified, Brennan (2006). 29

On a scale of oneto-10, where one is perfect and 10 is violent, most companies dont intervene until ten. They should intervene at two and three, McDonald (2001). 2) Managers should issue a statement of commitment on bullying, Goodwin (2005). 3) Walk the corridors. Workplace bullying is difficult to spot because the classic symptoms involve the bully not doing something, such as not saying good morning or withholding information to make it difficult for someone to do his/her job. You find out whats happening by walking the corridors or having human resource people on site so that non-behaviours can be spotted, Rayner (2004). The bully moves to exclude his target from meetings, separate him from his peers, belittle his efforts behind closed doors, and crush his self esteem, Stanwick (2004). Managers should look for signs of bullying taking place in the workforce which may involve misuse of power, overbearing supervision, over loading colleagues with excessive work, constant criticism, blocking promotion or denying training and development opportunities and intimidation, Goodwin (2005). 4) Identify and document high-risk behaviour. Workplace violence doesnt just happen; It starts with a pattern of threats and intimidation that escalates over the course of six months to a year, Fisher (2005). Failure to address previous incidents of bullying can lead to an increase in bullying, Goodwin (2005). 5) Show employees how high-risk behaviours are interfering with their jobs. 6) Refer employees to employee assistance programs for counselling. 7) Have someone to whom bullying can be reported. Make sure reporting bullying applies to company managers and employees as well as customers, clients, and suppliers, Penny (2005).

30

8) Limit the amount of abusive language. If one limits the amount of aggression or abusive language or hostility that is tolerated, the people who cant control themselves become more obvious and its easier to intervene with them, Henneman (2006). Marc McElhaney, a psychologist and director of Atlantas Critical Response Associates, says that weve never seen a case where someone just snapped. In every case, there are a series of events that either someone ignored or did not respond to adequately. Managers need to respond to that first sign of abusive language or that first display of hostility. 9) Have specific written policies and procedures in place, Randles (2005). These are presented when the employee begins work. Management reinforces these as needed. A recent survey of 92 companies conducted by IRS Employment Review revealed that anti-bullying policies are becoming more commonplace; 85 of these companies had written policies in place. Interestingly, 74 had been introduced within the past five years, IRS Employment Review (2006). 10) Sponsor seminars. Have workshops dealing with how to control anger and how to deal with an irate person, Stack (2003). Less than five per cent of training courses deal with verbal abuse; however, it makes up to 90 per cent of reported incidents of bullying, Brennan (2003) 11) Evaluate people on civility. Add a new line on the performance appraisal that would rate employees on manners, civility and courtesy; knowing that they would be evaluated on civility might alter the way people behave toward one another. People might think twice about spouting off if its going to show up on their performance reviews and affect their raises or bonuses, Stack (2003).

31

2.9. Conceptual Framework

Researchers such as Andreas Liefooghe, (2001) argue that the different theoretical backgrounds and paradigms used by researchers from the different countries and traditions mean that we cannot be sure the same construct of workplace bullying is being used. For this reason, research findings cannot necessarily be drawn together. Different stakeholders define bullying differently. The following definition summarises much of the current thinking: Bullying at work means harassing, offending, socially excluding someone or negatively affecting someones work tasks. In order for the label bullying (or mobbing) to be applied to a particular activity, interaction or process, it has to occur repeatedly and regularly (e.g., weekly) and over a period of time (e.g. about six months). Bullying is an escalating process in the course of which the person confronted ends up in an inferior position and becomes the target of systematic negative social acts. A conflict cannot be called bullying if the incident is an isolated event or if two parties of approximately equal strength are in conflict, Zapf et al (2003).
A conceptual framework for the study and management of bullying at work.

PERSONAL FACTORS (VICTM, PERTRATORS

SOCIETAL FACTORS

BULLYING
WORK GROUP FACTORS
ORGNIZATIONAL FACTORS (SYSTEM)

32

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Research Design
The researcher carried out the study by way of a questionnaire. Specific areas concerning employee bullying and harassment in the workplace were captured in the questionnaire; such as bullying and harassment, discipline, discrimination and pay among other areas. They were intended to get a comprehensive picture and the whole area of study. The research design was by random issuing of the questionnaires to the willing respondents to fill and to be collected personally by the researcher from them. The first section of the questionnaire contained an introductory letter of the researcher to the respondents, introducing the researcher, and requesting them to participate in the study, assuring them confidentiality, and how they were to benefit with the study. The second contained socio-demographic particulars of the respondents including; sex, age, salary, type of work, description of their status. It contains tables and scale to measure the respondents frequencies of assault, bullying, verbal abuse, sexual harassment, and ethnic harassment and their consequences. The last section of the questionnaire contains questions concerning challenges or problems encountered and prevention strategies to be put in place.

3.2. Total and Target Population

The NSSF has a total population of about 1800 staff currently. Out of these, about belong to the operations department. The researcher chose this department because it is deals directly with the daily operations; it is the department with the highest population of staff; the bullying and harassment results are highly realizable within this department. The target population of the study will be 100 employees of NSSF within the operations department.

3.3. Sample Population

33

The researcher issued questionnaire to a sample population of 40 employees comprising of clerks, fingerprint technicians, and supervisors so as to ensure variety and representation of all sample characteristics.

3.4. Research Instruments

The study was conducted by administering a questionnaire to the top, middle and lower levels of employees at the operations department of NSSF and to find out the causes bullying in terms of verbal abuse, working environment, communication etc. During the time of interview, the main concern was to investigate specific causes of individual bullying and harassment in the workplace and inquire what individuals need to do or recommend others to do in order to overcome the problems of bullying in the workplace.

3.5. Sampling Procedures

After collection of data, by questionnaires, the information was analyzed by the use of tables to represent the results comprehensively. Finally, areas of further research were recommended based on the outcome of the entire study.

3.6. Location Of The Study

The researcher carried out his research at the Operations Department of NSSF organization. The NSSF building is located at the end of Kenyatta Avenue before Pan Africa Hotel, at the junction of Valley Road and Ngong Road; along Community Area off Ngong Road. It is located next to the Kenya Prisons Headquarters and between Blocks A and C.

34

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS OF DATA, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Introduction

The researcher carried out research by way of a questionnaire as outlined in appendix 3 within the NSSF Corporation. This questionnaire was sent to 40 persons in all and included fingerprint staff, clerks, support staff, and managerial staff. Thirty questionnaires were returned equating to a 75% return. Out of the 30 questionnaires, 13 were returned stating that there was no problem whatsoever with bullying at their offices. The remaining 17 questionnaires however stated that there was a problem and so for the purposes of this report, is these returns which the researcher will mainly concentrate on.

4.2. Findings, Interpretation and Discussion

Table1. Status of the bully Total Bully in position of authority Bully of equal status Bully subordinate to victim Total Number of cases (Lokwale,2010) 15 2 0 17 Total as % 88 12 0 100

As can be clearly seen by the figures above, it is quite clear that the majority of bullies are in positions of authority to those who are their victims.

35

Table 2. Respondents reporting each type and category of bullying

Type and category of bullying Assault / attack Bullied / mobbed Verbally abused Sexually harassed Ethnic harassment (Lokwale, 2010)

No (%)

(17)

(11)

(10)

(8)

(5)

The above table shows the types and category of bullying in percentages as reported by respondents. Assault was the most highly reported by 17% while tribal or ethnic harassment was the lowest by 5%.

Table 3. Characteristics of the victims of bullying Variable No (%) bullied Occupational group Administrative Technical Support staff Finance (44) (37) (37) (31) (56) (63) (63) (69) No (%) not bullied

36

Security Proffesional services Public relations Developmental services Sex Male Female Age (years) 18-25 26-40 41-55 56 60 61+ (Lokwale, 2010)

(36) (36) (48) (27)

(64) (64) (52) (73)

(43) (37)

(57) (63)

(51) (40) (34) (35)

(49) (60) (66) (65)

The table above shows the percentage of staff in each occupational group reporting each category of bullying. Of those reporting an incident in the past three months, (67%) had tried to take action about the bullying when it occurred, but most (74%)) were not satisfied with the outcome. Only (6%) people had used the staff stress counselling service, which was comparatively new. 37

Table 4. Number (percentage) of staff reporting each category of bullying Assault/ attach Administrative Technical (19) (18) Bullied/ Verbally mobbed (22) (21) abused (27) (22) Sexually harassed (19) (20) Ethnically harassed (33) (25)

Support staff

(12)

(15)

(18)

(22)

(26)

Finance

(14)

(18)

(20)

(20)

(18)

Security

(18)

(18)

0 (0)

(9)

(27)

Professional services Public Relations

(12)

(16)

(22)

(5)

(21)

(26)

(27)

(36)

(12)

(36)

Development Services

(13)

(16)

(16)

(7)

(16)

(Lokwale, 2010) Table 5. Events sparking off incidents of bullying behaviour No. of cases. Arrival of new Manager at the office 7 As % 41

38

New work practices Promotion of new Manager Manager avenging reprimand Worker simply not liked by Manager Manager suffering from stress No Answer. Total.

3 1 1 1 1 3 17

17.5 6 6 6 6 17.5 100

(Lokwale, 2010)

As can be seen clearly from the table above, the main cause which sparks off bullying behaviour is the arrival of a new manager at the office. Some questionnaire returns did identify new working practices along with other factors including the arrival of a new manager, promotion of a new manager and the case of the manager suffering from stress. This may indicate that employers are perhaps not giving the training, support and advice needed to introduce such patterns.

Table.6. Manifestations of bullying behaviour Male Female Total As % Aggressive shouting at victim Public Humiliation of victim Victim set up to fail with overload of work Unjustifiable and inconsistent discipline. Constant & consistent insulting of victim 12 10 3 3 4 4 2 1 2 3 16 12 4 5 7 94.1 70.6 23.5 29.4 41.2

39

Inconsistently changing hours & duties Cancelling holidays without good reason Deliberate exclusion from social gatherings Malicious gossip/rumour spreading. Telephoning victim at home to intimidate further Sexual/ethnic harassment.

2 2 1 0 2 3

2 1 0 1 1 1

4 3 1 1 3 4

23.5 17.6 5.9 5.9 17.6 23.5

One can see from the figures above that the most common forms of bullying are the overt types such as aggressively shouting at the victim or publicly humiliating the victim. As the researcher has pointed out earlier in this report, the use of an audience is of great importance to a bully as it spreads word of the bullies power across the office or even group of offices in the case of a more senior manager.

At the time in which the researcher was compiling the questionnaire he set out to prove the theory Randall put forward indicating that female bullies tend to act in a more covert fashion by the use of strategies which socially exclude people, however this does not appear to be borne out by these particular findings. It would appear from the figures above that the female bullies are just as capable of aggressive overt behaviour as the males and vice versa. The researcher asked in the questionnaire whether as opposed to just sexual or ethnic harassment, to which there was a marked difference in responses between the two groups of employees. The data is outlined in the two contrasting tables below.

Table 7. A specific policy to tackle bullying Total As % 3 17.6

Yes there is a policy and it is enforced.

40

Yes there is a policy but it is not enforced Yes there is a policy, no comment to enforcement Don't know whether there is a policy, if so it is not enforced Don't know whether there is a policy, no comment to enforcement No there is no special policy. Harassment policies are not enforced Total Replies.

5 2 2 4 1 17

29.4 11.8 11.8 23.5 5.9 100

Table 8. Is counselling provided for either the victim or the bully? Total Counselling provided for victim No counselling provided for victim Counselling provided for bully No counselling provided for bully Total Response. 2 9 3 3 17 As % 12 53 17.5 17.5 100

(Lokwale, 2010)

Out of 30 questionnaires returned, 17 did not respond to the question of whether counselling was provided for victims or perpetrators of bullying, 13 of which were from those claiming that there was no problem with bullying. The data in this respect has also been rather confused as many refer to disciplinary training as 'counselling' and it would appear that in some of these questionnaires the person indicated in some of the comments which were made that they did not understand the question which was being asked. What was absolutely clear however in offices where there was a bullying problem was that there was a marked feeling of resentment as to the way in which the employer was treating their complaints. 41

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. Introduction

Employers have to learn that it is not enough to make a policy statement, but they also have to create a working environment in which both bullies and victims know the company will act decisively.

5.2. Conclusions
Workplace bullying has become an issue of concern for human resource practitioners, management, employees, governments, and unions. Existing research undertaken on bullying suggests it takes place regularly within the workplace. Victims though, are apprehensive to report workplace bullying because of the difficulty in proving it under current legislation and workplace procedures. More qualitative and longitudinal research needs to be carried out to establish the nature and the extent of the effects of workplace bullying in Australian organisations. Also, further research into the effectiveness of any new policy and legislation aimed at reducing the incidence and severity of bullying would be beneficial. Since existing research highlights the seriousness of workplace bullying, action needs to be taken by all parties concerned to ensure workplace bullying is adequately addressed in workplaces, policies and procedures, and by legislation. Until these changes are made, workplace bullying will continue to be a costly problem for employers and employees. Research also shows it to be necessary to have bullying education in schools and universities as a proactive means of preventing workplace bullying. Until action is taken to stop children from being bullies, adults will continue to use such tactics. 42

Recommendations have been developed here as a step towards preventing workplace bullying. It is hoped human resource practitioners and governments will consider introducing changes to legislation, policies, and procedures to ensure that workplace bullying is seriously addressed.

5.3. Recommendations
It is recommended that: 1) Anti-discrimination, sexual harassment, workplace health and safety, and industrial relations legislation be reviewed to determine whether it is appropriate for them to recognise the existence of workplace bullying, and whether the procedures required for legal action need to be documented within this legislation. Alternatively, separate legislation addressing workplace bullying may be required; 2) Private and public sector organisations of all sizes develop codes of conduct, and educate managers and employees on suitable workplace behaviours. Such behaviours should include problem solving methods for addressing cases of workplace bullying, as well as mediation techniques; 3) Appropriate procedures be established to report and investigate allegations of workplace bullying; 4) Human resource practitioners be educated in investigation processes to ensure workplace bullying allegations are looked into correctly; 5) Grievance procedures be established for employees to use should the victim be unhappy with the results of the investigation. Information about these grievance procedures needs to be made available to the bully and the victim; 6) Work cultures of private and public sector organisations should be reviewed to see if they are contributing to workplace bullying; 43

7) Employees have access to employee assistance programs or similar services to discuss workplace bullying issues with independent professionals; 8) Long term absences from work be monitored to identify any stress-related absence due to workplace bullying; 9) Rehabilitation co-ordinators assist where appropriate in monitoring workers compensation claims and incapacity claims for stress related illnesses, to ensure workplace bullying is not contributing to these claims; 10) Suitable reporting mechanisms be established between human resource departments and senior management to report on workplace bullying; and 11) Senior management actively support the introduction of procedures, policies and practices to alleviate workplace bullying.

5.4. Areas for further studies

Workplace bullying is becoming an increasingly worrying phenomenon. Many organizations including health system have acknowledged the existence of the problems but there are yet many others which throw a blind eye to the problems. Those who responded have drafted various preventive and administrative strategies but unfortunately, the efforts are hindered by a lack of evidence-based research on the causal factors. Most of the existing studies are prevalence and incidence studies. Despite that, from the available studies including incidence studies, we can appreciate that the cause of workplace bullying is multi-factorial in nature, ranging from personal factors, organizational factors to societal factors. It is therefore imperative for any preventive measure to embody a comprehensive number of identified and potential causes of bullying. A thorough investigation and analysis of the problem is pertinent and will ensure the success of the planned preventive strategies.

44

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24. Kerbs, J.J., & Jolley, J.M. (2007). The Joy of Violence: What about Violence is Fun in Middle-School?. American Journal of Criminal Justice 32: 12. doi:10.1007/s12103-0079011-1. 25. Kim, Y.S., & Leventhal, B. (2008). Bullying and suicide. A review. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 20 (2): 13354. PMID 18714552. 26. Kumpulainen, K. (2008). Psychiatric conditions associated with bullying. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 20 (2): 12132. PMID 18714551.

27. Leichtling, B. (2005). Bullies in the Workplace, Office Pro, Volume 65, Number 5. 28. Levinson, S. (2006). Putting Workplace Bullies in the Dock, Personnel Today. 29. Lutgin-S.P., (2003), The Communicative Cycle of Employee Emotional Abuse. 30. McDonald, C. (2001). How Managers Can Identify Eight Behaviours of High-Risk Employees, National Underwriter/Life & Health Financial Services, Volume 105, Number 14.
31. MOD, (2000), The Values and Standards of the British Army A Guide to Soldiers, UK. 32. Mattice, C., & Spitzberg, B. (2007), Bullies in Business; Self-Reports of Tactics and Motives, San Diego State University. 33. Namie, G., Ruth, (2007), WBI-Zogby Survey. 34. Noa D. Et al (1999, 2002); Mobbing: Emotional Abuse in the American Workplace; Civil Society Publishing; ISBN 0-9671803-0-9. 35. NCVS. (2001), Student Reports of Bullying, US National Center for Education Statistics. 36. NCSL (2007), School Bullying, Washington, D.C. 37. Olweus, D. http://www.olweus.org/public/bullying.

38. Patton, N. (2005). Staff Behaving Badly, Occupational Health, Volume 57, Number 5. 39. Penny, E. (2005). Bully for You, Contract Journal, Volume 430, Number 6543. 40. Perks, J. (2006). Bullying in Not a Strategy, People Management, Volume 12, Number 9. 41. Pollastri, A.R. et al (2009). Self-Esteem in Pure Bullies and Bully/Victims: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260509354579. PMID 20040706. 42. Patterson, G. (2005). The bully as victim? Paediatric Nursing 17 (10): 2730. PMID 16372706. 43. Page, C. (2006). Striking back at the cyberbullies. BBC News. 44. Republic of Ireland, (2007), Code of Practice for Employers and Employees on the Prevention and Resolution of Bullying at Work. Randles, T. (2005). Put the Bullies on the Back Foot, Employers Law. 45. Rayner, C. (2004). Reported study in Me, the Bully and HR, Personnel Today. 46. Reade, Q. (2002). Bullies Fight Way to Top Employee Complaints, Personnel Today. 47. RBI. (2006). Civil Servants Face High Levels of Bullying and Dissatisfaction, Occupational Health, Volume 58, Number 5. 48. Rothery, B. (2005). Bashing the Bullies, Commercial Motor, Volume 202, Number 5147. 49. Ross, P.N. (1998). Arresting violence: A resource guide for schools and their communities. Toronto: Ontario Public School Teachers Federation. 46

50. Sparrow, S. (2005). Keeping the Bully at Bay, Motor Transport. 51. Stack, L. (2003). Employees Behaving Badly, HR Magazine, Volume 48, Number 10. 52. Stanwick, D. (2004). How to Beat the Workplace Bully, New Zealand Management, Volume 51, Number 5. 53. Said, C., (2007). Bullying bosses could be busted: Movement against worst workplace abusers gains momentum with proposed laws. 54. Tracy, L.S., & Alberts, (2006), Nightmares, Demons and Slaves, Exploring the Painful Metaphors of Workplace Bullying. 55. Whitted, K.S., & Dupper, D.R. (2005). Best Practices for Preventing or Reducing Bullying in Schools. Children and Schools, Vol. 27, No. 3, July 2005, pp. 167-175(9). 56. Wood, G.A., & Leith, A.W. The Complete Newgate Calendar Volume V, Tarlton Law Library; The University of Texas School of Law.
57. Whitted, K.S. (2005). Student reports of physical and psychological maltreatment in schools: An under-explored aspect of student victimization in schools. University of Tennessee. 58. Williams, K.D. et al. (2005), The Social Outcast: Ostracism, Social Exclusion, Rejection, & Bullying. Psychology Press: New York, NY. 59. Wojcik, J. (2005). Bullies in the Workplace Can Increase Turnover, Health Costs, Business Insurance, Volume 39, Number 28. 60. Zarowin, S. (2004). Golden Business Ideas, Journal of Accuntancy, Volume 198, Number 6.

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APPENDIX 1: WORK SCHEDULE

ACTIVITY

DURATION (In Months) 1

Background theory Analyzing the survey of bullying In the workplace at NSSF (Nairobi) Project development Total duration 2 4 1

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APPENDIX 2: BUDGET
ITEM QUANTITY COST PER UNIT 180, 000 300 550 500 15 1000 3,000 1,500 200 55,000 10,000 10,000 10, 000 300 55,000 10,000 20,000 90,000 60,000 837,050 TOTAL (KSH)

University fees Ruled papers Printing papers Staples Pens Flash disks Books Journals and papers Photocopy of literature Typing and typesetting Internet services Binding Laptop computer Toshiba Printer (h.p. DeskJet D 1460) Toner Travelling and accommodation Subsistence Total

3 years 5 reams 5 reams 1 packet 20 2 5 20 50 articles 1 1 2 packs 9 terms 200 days -

540,000 1500 2750 500 300 2000 15,000 30,000 10,000

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APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE
To Whom It May Concern, RE: Workplace Bullying Survey
Workplace bullying be it physical or emotional abuse has become a global problem crossing borders, work settings and occupational groups. Bullying at work and accompanying people problems have dramatically gained momentum and are now a priority concern in both industrialised and developing countries. This is a confidential questionnaire to measure the extent of the relationship between bullying and people problems at the workplace. There is no way that any respondent would be identified. The researcher guarantees absolute confidentiality and anonymity. The researcher is a final year student at the Kenya Methodist University (KeMU) pursuing a Bachelors Of Education and Counselling (Counselling Option). The period under review is for 12 months, e.g. if the questionnaire is answered on 1 March 2010, the period will be 1 March 2009 to 28 February 2010 (a 12 month period) and all questions relate to this time frame. Your participation will make it possible for me to establish the extent of bullying and other people problems in specific areas in the workplace. The findings will enable employers to deal with these problems effectively. I thank you for your participation and caring about a better workplace. Yours Faithfully, Festus Lokucha Lokwale Student No: Edu 1 485 2 / 2007

1. What is your sex? Male Female

2. To which age group do you belong? 16 - 21 years 41 - 50 years 21 - 25 years 50 - 55 years 26 - 30 years 56 - 60 years 31 - 40 years 61+ years

3. Into which monthly salary group do you fall? SF 14: Ksh 19, 001 21, 500 SF12: Ksh 22, 501 26, 500 SF 13: Ksh 21, 501 22, 500 SF 11: Ksh 26, 501 56, 500

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SF 10: Ksh 56,501 67, 500 SF 8: Ksh 79, 501- 85,500 SF 6: Ksh 90, 501 - 93, 500 SF 4: Ksh 115, 501 170, 500 SF 2: Ksh 195, 001 and more Other, please specify

SF 9: Ksh 67, 501 79, 500 SF 7: Ksh 85, 501 90, 500 SF 5: Ksh 93, 501 115, 500 SF 3: Ksh 170, 501 - 195, 500

4. Do you work with the public (clients, visitors, employers and so on) MORE than 50% (half) of the time? Yes No Other, please specify

5. What type of work do you do? Administrative/clerical Staff-related services (e.g. HR, Technical Training) Auxiliary or Support Services Finance Marketing, Public relations and front-line communication Professional Services (e.g. nursing, teachers, social work etc.) Security Services Specialist Services Technical Services Developmental Services Other, please specify

6. Select the best status description for your current position: 51

Temporary Staff member or Contract worker Support staff member Supervisor Non-supervisory independent professional Middle manager Manager Senior manager Other, please specify 7. During the 12-month period under review, have you been assaulted or attacked at work? (Physical violence is the use of physical force against another person or group that results in physical, sexual or psychological harm. It includes among others, beating, kicking, slapping, stabbing, shooting, pushing, biting and pinching. [Adapted from WHO definition of violence]). Yes No Don't know

If you answered NO to the previous question (question 7), skip question 8 and go directly to question 10. 8. If you answered YES to question 7, please indicate how often the assaults or attacks take place, who the perpetrator(s) are and their gender A. FREQUENCY OF ATTACK A.1 All the time A.2 Sometimes A.3 Once B.1 Member of the public or non-staff person. B.2 Colleague(s) is/are B. THE PERPETRATOR C. GENDER OF THE PERPETRATOR

52

my senior(s). B.3 Colleague(s) is/are my junior(s). B.4 Colleague(s) is/are peer(s) (same level). C.1 Male C.2 Female

9. During the 12-month period under review, have you been bullied or mobbed at work? Bullying/mobbing is repeated and over time offensive behaviour through vindictive, cruel or malicious attempts to humiliate or undermine an individual or groups of employees. This includes direct or indirect acts, ganging up against a person(s), threats, aggressive behaviour, humiliating, or undermining or conspiring against a person(s), trying to get a person dismissed and so on. Yes No Don't know If you answered NO to the previous question (question 9), skip question 10 and go directly to question 11. 10. If you answered YES to question 9, please indicate how often the bullying/ mobbing takes place, who the perpetrator(s) are and their gender. A. FREQUENCY OF B. THE C. GENDER OF BULLYING/MOBBING PERPETRATOR(S) PERPETRATOR A.1 All the time A.2 Sometimes A.3 Once B.1 Member of the public or nonstaff person. B.2 Colleague(s) is/are my senior(s). B.3 Colleague(s) is/are my junior(s). 53

B.4 Colleague(s) is/are peer(s) (same level). C.1 Male C.2 Female

11. During the 12-month period under review, have you been verbally abused at work? Abuse is behaviour that humiliates, degrades or otherwise indicates a lack of respect for the dignity and worth of an individual. (Alberta Association of Registered Nurses) This includes among others screaming, shouting, sarcastic and humiliating remarks, body language and so on. Yes No Don't know

If you answered NO to the previous question (11), skip question 12 and go directly to question 13. 12. If you answered YES question 11, please indicate how often the verbal abuse takes place, who the perpetrator(s) are and their gender. A. FREQUENCY OF B. THE C. GENDER OF VERBAL ABUSE PERPETRATOR(S) PERPETRATOR A.1 All the time A.2 Sometimes A.3 Once B.1 Member of the public or non-staff person. B.2 Colleague(s) is/are my senior(s). B.3 Colleague(s) is/are my junior(s). B.4 Colleague(s) is/are peer(s) (same level). C.1 Male

54

C.2 Female

13. During the 12-month period under review, have you been sexually harassed at work? Any unwanted, unreciprocated and unwelcome behaviour of a sexual nature that is offensive to the person involved, and causes that person to feel threatened, humiliated or embarrassed. (Irish Nurses Organisation) Yes No Don't know

If you answered NO to the previous question 13, skip question 14 and move on to question 15. 14. If you answered YES to question 15, please indicate how often the sexual harassment takes place, who the perpetrator(s) are and their gender A. FREQUENCY OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT A.1 All the time A.2 Sometimes A.3 Once B.1 Member of the public or non-staff person. B.2 Colleague(s) is/are my senior(s). B.3 Colleague(s) is/are my junior(s). B.4 Colleague(s) is/are peer(s) (same level). C.1 Male C.2 Female B. THE PERPETRATOR(S) C. GENDER OF PERPETRATOR

55

15. During the 12-month period under review, have you experienced ethnic harassment in your workplace? Ethnic harassment is any threatening conduct that is based on tribe, ethnicity, colour, language, national origin, religion, association with a minority, birth or other status that is unreciprocated or unwanted and which affects the dignity of women and men at work. (Adapted from Human Rights Act,) These include among others tribal jokes, isolating a person(s), humiliating remarks, behaviour and so on. Yes No Don't know

If you answered NO to the previous question 15, skip question 16 and go to question 17. 16. If you answered YES question 15, please indicate how often the ethnic harassment takes place, who the perpetrator(s) are and their gender. A.FREQUENCY OF ETHNIC HARASSMENT A.1 All the time A.2 Sometimes A.3 Once B.1 Member of the public or non-staff person. B.2 Colleague(s) is/are my senior(s). B.3 Colleague(s) is/are my junior(s). B.4 Colleague(s) is/are peer(s) (same level). C.1 Male C.2 Female 17. If you answered ''YES" to any or all of questions 7, 9, 11, 13 or 15, then indicate below how did the attack and/or incident(s) affect you. How bothered are you by: None A Moderately Very Severely little much B. THE PERPETRATOR(S) C. GENDER OF PERPETRATOR

56

Repeated disturbing memories, thoughts or images of the attack or incident Avoid thinking about or talking about the attack/incident or avoiding having feelings related to it? Being "super alert" or watchful or on guard? Feeling like everything was an effort

18. On a scale of 1 (not worried) to 5 (extremely worried) how concerned are you about the physical and/or emotional bullying/mobbing (verbal abuse, tribal and sexual harassment) at work? 1. Not worried at all 4. Very worried 2. A little worried 5. Extremely worried 3. Moderately worried

19. Please indicate if you have one or more of the following problems or challenges in your life: Dependency on alcohol to relax Suffering from stress or stress-related illness Using drugs or medicine to cope Know of a colleague living HIV/AIDS Financial difficulties Problems with relationship with partner or spouse Problems with relationships with colleagues Problems with your boss or supervisor Problems with relationships with clients, public etc (external people at work) with relationships with friends Parenting problems 57 Problems

Career frustrations Don't like your type of work Other problems or lifestyle disorders, please specify.

20. Select THREE (3) options from the list below of what you think your employer should do to reduce bullying and people problems at work: Introduce policies to manage dignity in the workplace Special training in communication Training in the management of bullying in the workplace Train staff to manage stress Support staff who had been violated Request the public to treat staff with respect too Raise awareness about dignity and respect Other, please specify

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