Six months training

MEANING OF TRAINING
T- To be in time on your seat. R- Remain attentive all the time. A- Actively participation. I- Interact for clarity. N- Note points difficult to remember. I- Improve your listening habit. N- Never neglect the program. G- Gain as much as you can.

Six months training

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT A formal statement of acknowledgment is hardly sufficient to express my gratitude towards the personalities who is helping me to undertaking and completing this project. Training in an organization like JETKING which is fuelled by the acknowledgement individuals with so much zest & energy, teaming up to form a formidable force, was in itself a true learning experience which is going to help me immensely in my career. There is no substitute to Teamwork, this is one of the many lessons I am learning during my training in JETKING. I hereby convey my thanks to all those whom have rendered their valuable help, support and guidance in completing this training. Thanking you all Vivek Rehan

Six months training

HISTORY OF JETKING
Jetking Infotrain Limited as is known today was founded as Navbharat Radio by the visionary and patriotic Shri Gordhandas Bharwani in Mumbai as a training agency dealing in electronics items such as transistors and radios. Through sheer hard work and consummate skills he made Navbharat Radio Agency as countrys leading manufacturer of transistors and radios. In 1980, Suresh G. Bharwani, the present Chairman & Managing Director joined his father and cut his teeth into this fiercely competitive business. However he always believed in leaving his footprints for others to follow rather than following the herd. This approach led him in developing Do-it-yourself electronic kits with lucidly written and graphically designed manual that enabled customers to assemble a whole range of electronic items. Soon these kits became a rage and success experienced laid the foundation for the hardware training that was eventually started in 1990 at Sewri by him. During 1990, India witnessed an unprecedented boom in the IT thanks to the advent of cost effective and affordable PCs. As the demand for software to run on these PCs roseso the demand for software professionals. Soon the software institutes started mushrooming in every nook and corner. Jetking under the stewardship of Suresh G. Bharwani, added another dimension to this. Instead of joining the rat race , it ventured into Hardware training .People prophesized doom and called it a one night dream. But soon they were proven wrong and Jetking went from strength to strength and today it stands tall and serves as the lightpost to thousands of lost students who turn to Jetking to realize their unfulfilled dreams. What made it so successful? The first and foremost was the chairmans commitment to create opportunities for others and his foresight that caught the demand for the trained professionals in hardware early on. Second was the training methodology that derives its origin from three great philosophies, the thing being Yoga, the second being the oriental philosophy of What I hear I forget,What I see I remember and What I do I understand and the third being the participant centric training laws of world famous training guru Robert W. Pike. These three great philosophies gave rise to Smartlab plus, a unique training methodology that developes students into successful professionals and fine human beings. It ensures that they are focused and have fun while learning.

Six months training

CCNA EXPLORATION
The Cisco CCNA Exploration curriculum provides a comprehensive overview of networking; from fundamentals to advanced applications and services. It is based on a top-down approach to networking that is popular in many colleges and universities. This course emphasizes theoretical concepts and practical application, while providing opportunities for students to gain the skills and hands-on experience needed to design, install, operate, and maintain networks in small-to-medium businesses, as well as enterprise and service provider environments. CCNA Exploration offers in-depth theory, challenging labs, and a detailed overview of protocol operations. It is designed for students with advanced problem-solving and analytical skills, such as degree candidates in engineering, math, or science, or for working professionals who would like to advance their careers or gain certification. CCNA Exploration was designed to be integrated into technology curricula or continuing education programs at postsecondary institutions such as technical schools, colleges, and universities.

CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate)

1) Definition The CCNA validates the ability to install, configure, operate, and troubleshoot enterprise level router and switched networks. This includes design implementation and verification of connections to remote sites in a WAN. New CCNA training includes basic mitigation of security threats, introduction to wireless networking and Voice. 2) Acquiring The CCNA Credential is obtained by passing 640-822 and 640-816 or the single 640-802 composite exam. 3)CCNA Training Cisco's official CCNA training consists of separate classes for each official course. Both ICND1 and ICND2 are 40 hour classes. Some Cisco Learning Partners also offer the CCNA training as a boot camp, combining both courses in a hands-on training & certification preparation experience.

ICND1 - 640-822 ICND2 - 640-816

Both classes apply towards the combined 640-802 test. 4) Examination Candidates have the option of gaining the certification by passing two tests (640-822 ICND1 and 640-816 ICND2), or one single test (CCNA 640-802)Composite; the two-test option has the advantage of allowing the candidate to test for the subject matter in one or two sittings.

Six months training 5)Continuing education The certification is valid for three years; at that time a Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) holder must either

re-take the CCNA or ICND2 exam, or take and pass an exam for one of the Professional (e.g.,Professional certifications CCNP or Specialist level certifications (excluding the sales specialist exams), or pass the CCIE written exam.

These exams are conducted by authorized test centers at a cost of USD$125 each for the ICND1 or ICND2 exams and, effective 06-23-2008, USD$250 for the composite CCNA exam. There is also the Cisco Networking Academy, which brings the CCNA and CCNP curricula into traditional educational institutions in more than 150 countries.Students enrolled in Cisco Networking Academy can request exam vouchers that allow them to take the retired exam for an extended period of time

Six months training

WHAT IS A NETWORK?
A network is a connection between at least two computers so that they can share resources. Although most networks are more complex than this two-computer scenario, all networks are based on the concept of sharing. Theres actually a great deal of technology involved when one computer connects to and communicates with another. In addition, there are many types of physical connections and related software to consider. In the following sections, we discuss some fundamental concepts behind all networks, and explain what kinds of network models are appropriate for various business environments.

Peer-To-Peer Networks
Computers on a peer-to-peer network can act as both a client and a server. Because all computers on this type of network are peers, peer-to-peer networks have no centralized control over shared resources. Any individual machine can share its resources with any computer on the same network, however and whenever it chooses to do so. The peer relationship also means that no one computer has higher access priority, nor heightened responsibility to provide shared resources. Here are some benefits of peer-to-peer networks: They are easy to install and configure. Individual machines do not depend on a dedicated server. Users are able to control their own shared resources. This type of network is inexpensive to purchase and operate. You dont need any equipment or software other than an operating system. This type of network is well suited for networks with 10 or fewer users. As with anything, peer-to-peer networks have their drawbacks as well: You can only apply network security to one resource at a time. Users might have to remember as many passwords as there are shared resources. You must perform individual backups on each machine to protect all shared data. When someone accesses shared resources, the machine where the resource resides suffers a performance hit.

Client/Server Networks
Although the term client/server commonly describes network servers,Microsoft prefers the term server-based to describe them. In simple terms,a server is a machine whose only function is to respond to client requests.Servers are seldom operated directly by someone and then usually only to install, configure, or manage its services. In general, a server is a combination of specialized software and hardware that provides services on a network to other computers (workstations) or to other processes. Here are some benefits of server-based networks: They provide centralized user accounts, security, and access controls, which simplifies network administration.

Six months training More powerful equipment means more efficient access to network resources as well. Users only have to remember a single password for network login, which allows them to access all resources that they have permission to access. Now lets take a look at some server-based networking cons: A server failure can render a network unusable; at best, it results in loss of network resources. Such networks require an expert staff to manage the complex, special-purpose server software, which adds to the overall cost. Costs also increase due to the requirements of dedicated hardware and specialized software.

Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide-area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies currently, but ARCNET, Token Ring and many others have been used in the past.

Metropolitan area network

Metropolitan area networks, or MANs, are large computer networks usually spanning a city. They typically use wireless infrastructure or Optical fiber connections to link their sites. A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.

Wide area network

Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries Contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet. WANs [a] are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to

Six months training the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods.

Campus area network

A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks (LANs) within a limited geographical area. It can be considered one form of a metropolitan area network, specific to an academic setting. Although technically not a WAN, a CAN extends the reach of each indivudal LAN in an organization's complex. With a CAN, all the buildings on a common office campus, or university campus, are interconnected using the same kinds of hardware and netwoking technologies that you would use in a LAN. In addition, all of the components, including switches, routers, and cabling are owned and mainained by the organization.

INTERNETWORK
A Internetworking involves connecting two or more distinct computer networks or network segments via a common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork (often shortened to internet). Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork. In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates in them:

Intranet Extranet Internet

Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.

Intranet
An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information.

Six months training

Extranet
An extranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities (e.g. a company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint). Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

Internet
The Internet is a specific internetwork. It consists of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). The 'Internet' is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.

Basic hardware components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.12) or optical cable ("optical fiber"). An ethernet card may also be required.

Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wireless. The NIC provides the transfer of data in megabytes.

Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable runs longer than 100 meters away from the computer.

Hubs
A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address.

Six months training

Bridges
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received. Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.

Switches
A switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunk of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets. This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the packets to the ports involved in the communications rather than all ports connected. Strictly speaking, a switch is not capable of routing traffic based on IP address (OSI Layer 3) which is necessary for communicating between network segments or within a large or complex LAN. Some switches are capable of routing based on IP addresses but are still called switches as a marketing term. A switch normally has numerous ports, with the intention being that most or all of the network is connected directly to the switch, or another switch that is in turn connected to a switch. Switch is a marketing term that encompasses routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier). Switches may operate at one or more OSI model layers, including physical, data link, network, or transport (i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is called a multilayer switch. Routers Routers are networking devices that forward data packets between networks using headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers work at the network layer .

Six months training

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between workstations. Logical topology was discussed in the Protocol chapter. Main Types of Network Topologies In networking, the term "topology" refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. This article introduces the standard topologies of computer networking. One can think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find an actual ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

Star Topology Ring Topology Bus Topology Tree Topology Mesh Topology

Star Topology: - Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a
central connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.)

Six months training

Advantages of a Star Topology

Easy to install and wire. No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

Requires more cable length than a linear topology. If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.

Ring Topology: - In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

Bus Topology: - Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a
common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("Thin Net") and 10Base-5 ("Thick Net") both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a

Six months training network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Tree Topology: - Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In
its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

Six months training

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments. Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Mesh Topology: - Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the
previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.

Six months training

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION

Half Duplex : - It uses only one wire pair with a digital signal running in both directions on
the wire. It also uses the CSMA/CD protocol to help prevent collisions and to permit retransmitting if a collision does occur. If a hub is attached to a switch, it must operate in halfduplex mode because the end stations must be able to detect collisions.

Full Duplex : - full-duplex Ethernet uses two pairs of wires instead of one wire pair like half
duplex. And full duplex uses a point-to-point connection between the transmitter of the transmitting device and the receiver of the receiving device. This means that with full-duplex data transfer, get a faster data transfer compared to half duplex. And because the transmitted data is sent on a different set of wires than the received data, no collisions will occur. Full-duplex Ethernet can be used in three situations: With a connection from a switch to a host With a connection from a switch to a switch With a connection from a host to a host using a crossover cable

Six months training

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Three types of Ethernet cables are available: Straight-through cable Crossover cable Rolled cable

Straight-Through Cable : - Straight Through cable is used to connect

Host to switch or hub Router to switch or hub

Four wires are used in straight-through cable to connect Ethernet devices. It is relatively simple to create this type; Figure shows the four wires used in a straight-through Ethernet cable. Notice that only pins 1, 2, 3, and 6 are used. Just connect 1 to 1, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, and 6 to 6 and youll be up and networking in no time. However, remember that this would be an Ethernetonly cable and wouldnt work with voice, Token Ring, ISDN, and so on.

Crossover Cable : - Crossover Cable can be used to connect

Switch to switch Hub to hub Host to host Hub to switch Router direct to host

Six months training

The same four wires are used in this cable as in the straight-through cable; we just connect different pins together. Figure shows how the four wires are used in a crossover Ethernet cable. Notice that instead of connecting 1 to 1, 2 to 2, and so on, here we connect pins 1 to 3 and2 to 6 on each side of the cable.

Rolled Cable : - Although rolled cable is not used to connect any Ethernet connections
together, you can use a rolled Ethernet cable to connect a host to a router console serial communication (com) port. If you have a Cisco router or switch, you would use this cable to connect your PC running HyperTerminal to the Cisco hardware. Eight wires are used in this cable to connect serial devices, although not all eight are used to send information, just as in Ethernet networking. Figure shows the eight wires used in a rolled cable.

Six months training

Six months training

FUNCTION OF PROTOCOL IN NETWORK COMMUNICATION

A protocol is a set of predetermined rules and regulations that govern data transfer between two devices across network.

Six months training

OSI MODEL

Six months training Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Purpose of layers: - We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us
consider two friends who communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were no services available from the post office. There are 7 layers in OSI model which is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Physical Data link Network Transport Session Presentation Application

Six months training

Type of data in each layer of OSI model

Six months training

Six months training

S. No. Layer name

Function

Devices Used

Protocol Used

Physical Layer 1.

2.

Data Link Layer

3.

Network Layer

Data is sent across physical media like wires and hubs. Responsible for encoding scheme (like Manchester encoding) Packets placed into frames at this layer. CRC is added at this layer. If CRC fails at the receiving computer, this layer will request retransmission. Mac addresses are resolved at this layer. Logical addressing, routing of message, determining the best route.

Hubs, Repeaters, None Amplifiers, Transceivers

Bridges Switches.

CSMA/CD

Routers.

4.

Transport layer

Sequencing, Error free Gateways delivery. Sliding window is at this layer. Responsible for Gateways opening, using and closing the session. Also places checkpoints in the data flow, so that if the transmission fails, only the data after the last checkpoint needs to be retransmitted. Translating data into Gateways understandable format for transmission. Data compression and encryption takes place at this layer. Redirector works at this layer. Interface between the Gateways user and the computer. API incorporated in this layer.

IP, IPX, RIP, OSPF, ICMP, ARP, RARP, IGRP, BGP, EGRP TCP, UDP

5.

Session Layer

Network files system, SQL, RPC.

6.

Presentation Layer

JPEG, MIDI, MPEG, (All kind of music, pictures and movie formats) SNMP, FTP, TELNET, WWW, HTTP, MIME

7.

Application Layer

Six months training

TCP/IP MODEL
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite was created by the Department of Defense (DoD) to ensure and preserve data integrity, as well as maintain communications in the event of catastrophic war. So it follows that if designed and implemented correctly, a TCP/IP network can be a truly dependable and resilient one. TCP/IP model is basically a condensed version of the OSI model its composed of four, instead of seven, layers: 1. 2. 3. 4. Application layer Host-to-host layer Internet layer Network access layer

As data is being sent from one computer, it will pass from the top layer to the bottom. On the receiving end, the data will then be rebuilt from the bottom layer to the top. You can view an example of this process below.

Each layer a packet of information travels through adds what is called a header.

Six months training

Application Layer: - The Application layer deals with representation, encoding

and dialog control issues. All these issues are combined together and form a single layer in the TCP/IP model whereas three distinctive layers are defined in the OSI model.

Host-to-Host: - Host-to-Host protocol in the TCP/IP model provides more or less

the same services with its equivalent Transport protocol in the OSI model. Its responsibilities include application data segmentation, transmission reliability, flow and error control.

Internet: - Again Internet layer in TCP/IP model provides the same services as the
OSIs Network layer. Their purpose is to route packets to their destination independent of the path taken.

Six months training

Network Access: - The network access layer deals with all the physical issues
concerning data termination on network media. It includes all the concepts of the data link and physical layers of the OSI model for both LAN and WAN media.

The diagram below shows clearly the way TCP/IP protocol suite relates to the TCP/IP model.

Six months training

Application layer protocols

At the top of the TCP/IP protocol architecture is the Application Layer. This layer includes all processes that use the Transport Layer protocols to deliver data. There are many applications protocols. Most provide user services, and new services are always being added to this layer. The most widely known and implemented applications protocols are:

TELNET
The Network Terminal Protocol, which provides remote login over the network.

FTP
The File Transfer Protocol, which is used for interactive file transfer.

SMTP
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, which delivers electronic mail.

HTTP
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which delivers Web pages over the network.

While HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and telnet are the most widely implemented TCP/IP applications, you will work with many others as both a user and a system administrator. Some other commonly used TCP/IP applications are:

Domain Name Service (DNS)

Also called name service, this application maps IP addresses to the names assigned to network devices. DNS is discussed in detail in this book.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Routing is central to the way TCP/IP works. OSPF is used by network devices to exchange routing information. Routing is also a major topic of this book.

Network Filesystem (NFS)

This protocol allows files to be shared by various hosts on the network.

Some protocols, such as telnet and FTP, can only be used if the user has some knowledge of the network. Other protocols, like OSPF, run without the user even knowing that they exist.

Six months training As system administrator, you are aware of all these applications and all the protocols in the other TCP/IP layers. And you're responsible for configuring them.

Six months training

Host-to-Host Layer Protocols

Two protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) are defined for transmitting data grams. We will look at the details of both these protocols as well as their interaction with the upper layer.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is connection-oriented in the sense that prior to transmission end points need to establish a connection first. TCP protocol data units are called segments. The sending and receiving TCP entities exchange data in the form of segments. TCP is responsible for breaking down a stream of bytes into segments and reconnecting them at the other end, retransmitting whatever might be lost and also organizing the segments in the correct order.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP protocol consists of fewer fields compared to TCP. The reason for that is because certain data types do not require reliable delivery and extra overhead. Real-time traffic for example, needs to be transported in an efficient way without error correction and retransmission mechanisms. UDP is considered to be a connectionless protocol. It leaves reliability to be handled by the application layer. All it cares about is fast transmission.

Six months training

Internet layer protocols

ARP
(Address Resolution Protocol) A TCP/IP protocol used to obtain a node's physical address. A client station broadcasts an ARP request onto the network with the IP address of the target node it wishes to communicate with, and the node with that address responds by sending back its physical address so that packets can be transmitted.

RARP
(Reverse ARP) A TCP/IP protocol used by a workstation to obtain its IP address. Upon startup, the client station sends out a RARP request in an Ethernet frame to the RARP server, which returns ip address for the client (performing the opposite function of an ARP).

IP
IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite and has the task of delivering distinguished protocol datagrams (packets) from the source host to the destination host solely based on their addresses. For this purpose the Internet Protocol defines addressing methods and structures for datagram encapsulation. The first major version of addressing structure, now referred to as Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is still the dominant protocol of the Internet, although the successor, Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) is being deployed actively worldwide.

Six months training

IP ADDRESSING
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical identification (logical address) that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes. Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6). The role of the IP address has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."

IP versions
The Internet Protocol (IP) has two versions currently in use (see IP version history for details). Each version has its own definition of an IP address. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4.

IP version 4 addresses
IPv4 uses 32-bit (4-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique addresses. However, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses, and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an IPv4 address shortage appears to be inevitable in the long run. This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards IPv6, which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only offering to replace IPv4. IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation (four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g. 208.77.188.166). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and is therefore called an octet. In less common cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. When converting, each octet is usually treated as a separate number.

IPv4 networks
In the early stages of development of the Internet protocol network administrators interpreted an IP address as a structure of network number and host number. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) were designated the network number, and the rest of the bits were

Six months training called the rest field or host identifier and used for host numbering within a network. This method soon proved inadequate as local area networks developed that were not part of the larger networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual assignments. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address was defined as the "class" of the address, instead of just the network number and, depending on the class derived, the network designation was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. The following table gives an overview of this system.

Class

First octet in binary

Range of first octet

Network Host Possible number Possible number ID ID of networks of hosts

0XXXXXXX

0 - 127

b.c.d

128 = (27)

16,777,214 = (224 - 2)

10XXXXXX

128 - 191

a.b

c.d

16,384 = (214)

65,534 = (216 - 2)

110XXXXX

192 - 223

a.b.c

2,097,152 = (221)

254 = (28 - 2)

Class Class A Class B Class C Class D (multicast) Class E (reserved)

Leading Value Network Number Bits Rest Bits 0 7 24 10 14 16 110 21 8 1110 1111

IP version 6 addresses
The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space, despite conservation techniques, prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the Internet's addressing capability. The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This next generation of the Internet Protocol, aimed to replace IPv4 on the Internet, was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) The address size was increased from 32 to 128 bits (16 bytes), which, even with a generous assignment of network

Six months training blocks, is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. Mathematically, the new address space provides the potential for a maximum of 2128, or about 3.403 1038 unique addresses.

IP subnet mask
The technique of subnetting can operate in both IPv4 and IPv6 networks. The IP address is divided into two parts: the network address and the host identifier. The subnet mask (in IPv4 only) determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts. The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.

VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masks)

When an IP network is assigned more than one subnet mask, it is considered a network with VLSMs because the extended-network numbers have different lengths at each subnet level. To provide the address mask information the ICMP protocol was extended by adding a new pair of ICMP message types, "Address Mask Request" and "Address Mask Reply", analogous to the "Information Request" and "Information Reply" ICMP messages. In key idea was that netmask becomes the part that is nessesary for the interpretation of the address and can be specified by the number of the bit in network part of the address, for example 10.10.10.10/24 mean C class network (24-bit network part of of the address and 8bit host part of the address) Two of the main advantages to assign more than one subnet mask to a given IP network number are:

Multiple subnet masks permit more efficient use of an organizations assigned IP address space.

Six months training

Multiple subnet masks permit route aggregation, which can significantly reduce the amount of routing information at the backbone level within an organizations routing domain.

Example:
VLSM to Apply a 30-bit Mask to Subnet 172.16.2.0 for More Efficient WAN Link Addressing

Description
Subnetwork address First WAN interface Second WAN interface Broadcast address

Decimal 172.16.2.0 /30 172.16.2.1 /30 172.16.2.2 /30 172.16.2.3 /30

Subnetwork Binary .00000010.00000000 .00000010.00000001 .00000010.00000010 .00000010.00000011

Subnetting and VLSM

The Internet is composed of many routers that interconnect different networks. Each router interface must be on a unique network and must have a unique address. Assigning different IP addresses to different networks is required because of the IP addressing scheme required by routers. Subnetting and VLSMs are two ways of dividing an assigned network address into multiple, smaller networks for use within an organization. These smaller networks are referred to as subnetworks.

Subnetting
You can divide a network into subnetworks to:

Isolate network traffic within local subnets, therefore reducing contention for network bandwidth Secure or limit access to a subnet Enable localization of specific network protocols to a subnet Allow the association of a subnet with a specific geography or a department Allow administrative work to be broken into logical units

An example of an entry for a subnetted Class B network is: 172.16.0.0 255.255.255.0 An example of an entry for a subnetted Class C network is: 192.168.43.0 255.255.255.240

Six months training

ROUTERS
A device that forwards data packets along networks is called router. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISPs network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect. Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts. Cisco 2503 have a CPU motherboard with an onboard LAN (Ethernet/Token Ring) and multiple WAN ports, and a single power supply, as shown in figure

Cisco 2503 series router

Components of a router Processor

The CPU used in the 25xx Series is a Motorola 68030 CISC. The characteristics of the CPU are:

32 bit bus, 20 MHz clock (25 MHz on some platforms). 256 Bytes internal Data Cache, 256 Bytes internal Instruction Cache, both direct mapped.

System Control Logic

System Control Logic helps the main processor with device control, interrupt handling, counting and timing, data transfer, minimal First In, First Out (FIFO) buffering, and communication with network interfaces and Dynamic RAM (DRAM). 25xx Series platforms use Anchor Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) for data transfer to DRAM and System Bus, and Steam ASIC for accessing network interface devices. These are shown as System Control ASICs (one block) in the above diagrams.

Six months training

Network Interfaces
Network Interfaces provide on board data transfer functionality.

Each 25xx router has an on-board Ethernet/Token Ring controller, and Serial Communication Channels (SCC) for WAN ports. WIC slots provide further modularity for WAN interfaces on the 2524 and 2525.

Wan Interface Cards

Wan Interface Cards (WIC) are media specific network interfaces (only on the 2524 and 2525) responsible for data transfer in and out of the 25xx series router, (in addition to the onboard interfaces).

The WIC communicates with the CPU through the System Bus for packet transfer. Specialized controllers (or ASICs) used for media support perform the above mentioned functionality. WICs do not support online insertion and removal (OIR). Cisco IOS software is revised as new WICs are designed. Ensure that you use the release of Cisco IOS software that contains code for any hardware in the router.

Buses
Buses are used by the CPU to access various components of the system, and transfer instructions and data to or from specified memory addresses.

CPU Bus is for high speed operations, with direct Processor access - 32 bit address and 32 bit data, 20 MHz. These include access to Dual Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART), Boot ROM, nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM), Flash, and PCMCIA Flash. System Bus allows communication with Ethernet/Token Ring controllers, WAN port interfaces, and so on. DRAM is accessed through System Control ASICs and allows Direct Memory Access (DMA).

Dual UART
Dual Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter (UART) provides the necessary user interface. It has one RS232 port, Data Communications Equipment (DCE) (Console) RJ45, and Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) (Aux) RJ45.

Six months training

Memory Details DRAM

The DRAM is divided in Main Processor Memory and Shared Input/Output (I/O) memory.

Main Processor Memory is used for routing tables, fast switching cache, running configuration, and so on. It can take unused shared I/O memory, if needed. Shared I/O memory is used for temporary storage of packets in system buffers. Physically, all the boards have one single inline memory module (SIMM) slot (72-pin, 70 ns). Furthermore, if the revision level of the board is A through G, there are an additional 2 MB of RAM soldered to the system card. If the revision level is I through N, there is no RAM soldered to the system card. DRAM SIMM can be up to 16 MB, so total DRAM can be 18 MB on routers having an additional 2 MB on-board. If the SIMM is not used, shared I/O memory is 1 MB and Main Processor Memory is 1 MB of the 2 MB on-board DRAM. If SIMM is used, shared I/O memory is 2 MB on-board DRAM, and Main Processor Memory is the SIMM (up to 16 MB).

Flash
Flash provides permanent storage of the Cisco IOS software image, backup configurations, and any other files.

Flash on 25xx is implemented using two SIMMs (80-pin, 120 ns). Flash size can be 4, 8, or 16 MB. The 2500 routers run the Cisco IOS software from Flash. These image files are defined as re-locatable, because the Cisco IOS software image can be executed from different locations in the Flash. A re-locatable image file is recognized by the letter "l" contained in the file name (for instance: c2500-js-l.121-9). As a consequence, the Flash memory is set as read only when the main Cisco IOS software is running. Copying a new Cisco IOS software image then requires the router to be in RxBoot. Newer releases of Cisco IOS software make this step automatic and transparent in the background.

NVRAM
NVRAM is used for writeable permanent storage of the startup configuration. NVRAM size is 32 KB.

Six months training

BOOT ROM
This refers to erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) used to permanently store the startup diagnostic code (ROM Monitor), and RxBoot. Boot ROM size is 2 MB.

ID PROM
ID PROM, also known as EPROM (size 256 bytes) is used for permanent storage of the hardware revision and identification information, as well as the MAC addresses for LAN interfaces.

CONFIGURING THE ROUTER

The basic commands for configuring a router are sh running-config - details the running configuration file (RAM) sh startup-config - displays the configuration stored in NVRAM setup - Will start the the automatic setup; the same as when you first boot the router config t - use to execute configuration commands from the terminal config mem - executes configuration commands stored in NVRAM; copies startup-config to running-config config net - used to retrieve configuration info from a TFTP server copy running-config startup-config - copies saved config in running config (RAM) to NVRAM or "write memory" for IOS under ver.11 copy startup-config running-config - copies from non-volatile (NVRAM) to current running config (RAM) boot system flash <put file filename here> - tells router which IOS file in flash to boot from boot system tftp - tells router which IOS file on the tftp server to boot from boot system rom - tell router to boot from ROM at next boot copy flash tftp - Copies flash to tftp server copy tftp flash - Restores flash from tftp server copy run tftp - Copies the current running-config to tftp server copy tftp run - Restores the running-config from tftp server

General Commands : Here is a list of the general commands. These are the basic level
commands and most commonly used no shutdown - (enables the interface) reload - restarts the router sh ver - Cisco IOS version, uptime of router, how the router started, where system was loaded from, the interfaces the POST found, and the configuration register sh clock - shows date and time on router sh history - shows the history of your commands sh debug - shows all debugging that is currently enabled

Six months training no debug all - turns off all debugging sh users - shows users connected to router sh protocols - shows which protocols are configured banner motd # Your customized message here # - Set/change banner hostname <give router name> - use to configure the hostname of the router clear counters - clear interface counters

Privileged Mode commands of a router : Learn how to work in the privileged mode of
a router. enable - get to privileged mode disable - get to user mode enable password <give password here> - sets privileged mode password enable secret <give password here> - sets encrypted privileged mode password

Here you will be able to learn how to set the password on a router:
enable secret <give password here> - set encrypted password for privileged access enable password <give password here> - set password for privileged access (used when there is no enable secret and when using older software) Setting the password for console access: (config)#line console 0 (config-line)#login (config-line)#password <put password here>

Set password for virtual terminal (telnet) access (password must be set to access router through telnet): (config)#line vty 0 4 (config-line)#login (config-line)#password <put password here> Set password for auxiliary (modem) access: (config)#line aux 0 (config-line)#login (config-line)#password <put password here>

Router Processes & Statistics : By these command you can see the statistics and different
processes of the router. sh processes - shows active processes running on router sh process cpu - shows cpu statistics sh mem - shows memory statistics sh flash - describes the flash memory and displays the size of files and the amount of free

Six months training flash memory sh buffers - displays statistics for router buffer pools; shows the size of the Small, Middle, Big, Very Big, Large and Huge Buffers sh stacks - shows reason for last reboot, monitors the stack use of processes and interrupts routines

IP Commands : Here is a list of the IP Commands.

Configure IP on an interface: int serial 0 ip address 157.89.1.3 255.255.0.0 int eth 0 ip address 2008.1.1.4 255.255.255.0 Other IP Commands: sh ip route - view ip routing table ip route <remote_network> <mask> <default_gateway> [administrative_distance] configure a static IP route ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 <put gateway of the last resort here> - sets default gateway ip classless - use with static routing to allow packets destined for unrecognized subnets to use the best possible route sh arp - view arp cache; shows MAC address of connected routers ip address 2.2.2.2 255.255.255.0 secondary - configure a 2nd ip address on an interface sh ip protocol.

Routing Protocols : RIP, IGPR and OSPF are the routing protocols and here is a list of the
commands for the working on the routing protocols.

Configure RIP: router rip network 157.89.0.0 network 208.1.1.0

Other RIP Commands: debug ip rip - view RIP debugging info

Configure IGRP: router IGRP 200 network 157.89.0.0 network 208.1.1.0

Six months training

Other IGRP Commands: debug ip igrp events - view IGRP debugging info debug ip igrp transactions - view IGRP debugging info

Access Lists : Here is a list of the Access list command of a router.

sh ip int ser 0 - use to view which IP access lists are applies to which int sh ipx int ser 0 - use to view which IPX access lists are applies to which int sh appletalk int ser 0 - use to view which AppleTalk access lists are applies to which int View access lists: sh access-lists sh ip access-lists sh ipx access-lists sh appletalk access-lists Apply standard IP access list to int eth 0: access-list 1 deny 200.1.1.0 0.0.0.255 access-list 1 permit any int eth 0 ip access-group 1 in Apply Extended IP access list to int eth 0: access-list 100 deny tcp host 1.1.1.1 host 2.2.2.2 eq 23 access-list 100 deny tcp 3.3.3.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 80 int eth 0 ip access-group 100 out Apply Standard IPX access list to int eth 0: access-list 800 deny 7a 8000 access-list 800 permit -1 int eth 0 ipx access-group 800 out Apply Standard IPX access list to int eth 0: access-list 900 deny sap any 3378 -1 access-list 900 permit sap any all -1 int eth 0 ipx access-group 900 out

Six months training

Miscellaneous Commands : In the last but not least here is a list of the some
miscellaneous and useful commands sh controller t1 - shows status of T1 lines sh controller serial 1 - use to determine if DCE or DTE device (config-if)#clock rate 6400 - set clock on DCE (bits per second) (config-if)#bandwidth 64 - set bandwidth (kilobits)

PROCEDURE OF CONFIGURING A ROUTER:

The Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS) is extremely flexible and powerful. Hence, there are many subtleties to configuring certain services and many things that the router can do that you will never use. For the full description of the options that can be used with each of these commands, refer to the router configuration guide and command reference. These documents are available in printed form and via the World Wide Web as http://www.cisco.com/univercd/data/doc/software.htm.

Set a Hostname
The first order of business in configuring a router is to choose a hostname for the router. This name is not used by the router itself and is entirely for human consumption. The hostname you set replaces "Router" in the prompt and can be useful in distinguishing which router you are connected to when telnetting among several routers. This line also appears within the first 20 lines of the configuration file and can be used to distinguish saved configurations of one router from another. The form of this command is hostname <name>

Establishing Enable Password Protection

Before connecting the router to your network it is also a good idea to set the enable password. This password is used to gain privileged access to the router so it should not be an obvious password. The format of this command is as follows: enable password <password> This password may contain any alphanumeric characters up to 80 including spaces but MUST NOT START with a number or a space. The password is stored in an unencrypted (plain text) format in the configuration file. Obviously, it is desirable to have the password encrypted before it is saved. To do this, use: service password-encryption

Six months training This will cause all passwords in the system to be encrypted before being stored in a saved configuration using Cisco's proprietary encryption algorithm.

Configure Console and Network Access

Initialy, the only device setup for access is the console. When placed in the field, it is more convenient to program and maintain the routers through a telnet connection than it is to dial up into each router to configure or monitor the system. In order to do this, virtual ttys (vtys) must be configured. Generally, 5 vtys should be configured however, the router will support up to 100. Each should be given a timeout to avoid all vtys being in use. If all vtys are in use, further connection attempts will result in a "connection refused". It is probably a good idea to force the user to enter a password before he can login to the router through a vty as well. An example of this configuration is shown below. line vty 0 4 exec-timeout 30 0 login password steamboat

Configure Serial and Ethernet Interfaces

By far, the easiest interfaces to configure are ethernet interfaces. To bring up an ethernet interface, all that is necessary is to assign it an IP address, associate a netmask with that address, and turn up the interface. For example, to bring online the ethernet interface on a 2501 and assign it the IP address 150.151.152.1 with a class C netmask (255.255.255.0), the following commands would be used: interface Ethernet0 ip address 150.151.152.1 255.255.255.0 no shutdown

Add IP Routes and Set a Default Route

Obviously, the internet is not centered around one router. Usually, to get to another system requires passing through at least one other router (probably several). It is also possible that more than one network will end up on a single interface. The general form of Cisco's route command is ip route <network> <mask> <interface/next-hop> [metric]

Configure Frame Relay

Configuring Frame Relay is a little more complicated than configuring point to point networks and therefore involves a few more steps. First is to configure the interface as a frame relay link. At the same time, you need to specify the type of frame relay

Six months training packets carried by this network. Currently, cisco only supports IETF and Cisco's own frame relay packet types. Since not very many vendors use the cisco format, we always specify IETF. The format of this command as as follows. interface Serial0/0 ip address 1.2.3.4 255.255.255.224 encapsulation frame-relay IETF

Configuring Access Lists and Network Security

Once the router's interfaces are configured, a momment should be taken to determine if any of these interfaces connect to "secure" networks. These networks can be those that connect corporate workstations with the rest of your network or perhaps the rest of the internet. They could also be networks which house servers that provide specific services to the internet community but which you would like to protect as much as possible. The traditional way of protecting such servers is with access lists. Access lists filter Internet traffic and determine if a packet is permitted to pass into or out of the network. Ideas about how access lists should be designed, where they should be placed, and how physical networks should be structured to allow propper filtering without overloading network links and the routers they connect varry considerably. Some corporations choose to invest in commercial "fire wall" products while others will implement minimal access controls at all. Cisco has created two different classes of access lists within its routers. The first, the standard access list, filters only on source address. If numbered access lists are being used (IOS 11.1 and earlier did not support named access lists), than these lists would be numbered from 1 to 99. The second type of access list, the extended access list, is numberes from 100 to 199 and is capable of filtering based on source address, destination address, protocol, protocol port number, and a myriad of other features not necessarily applicable to general IP traffic. Once an access list is created, it must be tied to an interface in order to be used. The interface configuration considers a filter list to be an "access group". The access group can be applied either inbound or outbound with respect to the interface. For example: Interface Serial0 ip access-group 101 in ip access-group 6 out

Six months training

Routing
Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. This article is concerned primarily with routing in electronic data networks using packet switching technology. In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes; typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers with multiple network cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the routers' memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Because structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging) in large networks, and has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet, though bridging is still widely used within localized environments

Static routing
Static routing describes a system that does not implement adaptive routing. In these systems, routes through a data network are described by fixed paths (statically). These routes are usually entered into the router by the system administrator. An entire network can be configured using static routes, but this type of configuration is not fault tolerant. When there is a change in the network or a failure occurs between two statically defined nodes, traffic will not be rerouted. This means that anything that wishes to take an affected path will either have to wait for the failure to be repaired or the static route to be updated by the administrator before restarting its journey. Most requests will time out (ultimately failing) before these repairs can be made. There are, however, times when static routes make sense and can even improve the performance of a network. Some of these include stub networks and routes. The phenomenon of adding routers manually to the routing table, is termed as static routing. This is feasible in small networks, but not in large networks.

Six months training Example conf t ip route 10.10.20.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.100.1 or the default route (config-router)#network 192.169.16.0

Dynamic Routing
The chief advantages of dynamic routing over static routing are scalability and adaptability. A dynamically routed network can grow more quickly and larger, and is able to adapt to changes in the network topology brought about by this growth or by the failure of one or more network components. With a dynamic routing protocol, routers learn about the network topology by communicating with other routers. Each router announces its presence, and the routes it has available, to the other routers on the network. Therefore, if you add a new router, or add an additional segment to an existing router, the other routers will hear about the addition and adjust their routing tables accordingly. You don't have to reconfigure the routers to tell them that the network has changed. Similarly, if you move a network segment, the other routers will hear about the change. You only need to change the configuration of the router (or routers) that connect the segment that moved. This reduces the chance that errors will occur. The ability to learn about changes to the network's configuration has implications beyond adding new segments or moving old ones. It also means that the network can adjust to failures. If a network has redundant paths, then a partial network failure appears to the routers as if some segments got moved (they are now reached via alternate paths), and some segments have been removed from the network (they are now unreachable). In short, there's no real difference between a network failure and a configuration change. Dynamic routing allows the network to continue functioning, perhaps in a degraded fashion, when a partial failure occurs.

Routing versus Routed protocols

Confusion often arises between routing protocols and routed protocols. While routing protocols help the router decide which paths to send traffic along, routed protocols are responsible for the actual transfer of traffic between devices running L3 protocols such as IP. [5] Specifically, arouted protocol is any network protocol that provides enough information in its network layer address to allow a packet to be forwarded from one host to another based on the addressing scheme, without knowing the entire path from source to destination. Routed protocols define the format and use of the fields within a packet. Packets generally are conveyed from end system to end system. Almost all layer 3 protocols, and those that are layered over them, are routable, with IP being an example. Layer 2 protocols such as Ethernet are necessarily non-routable protocols, since they contain only a link-layer address, which is insufficient for routing: some higher-level protocols based directly on these without the addition of a network layer address, such as NetBIOS, are also non-routable.

Six months training There has always been a great attraction for me to the networking protocols. I dont know why I have always been fascinated by them, but they do interest me greatly. A good deal of my time has been spent studying and playing with the protocols contained in the TCP/IP protocol suite. What all those protocols have in common is that they are routed protocols. This begs the question of what routes them? A very good question indeed, and one that a great many books have been written about. What I shall cover in this article is a breakdown of what routing protocols are. How they work, and what kinds of routing protocols there are. Things I wont be covering are the Cisco IOS syntax used when configuring these routing protocols. Quite a few excellent books out there already do an admirable job of doing just that. Instead, as mentioned, I will concentrate on giving you a high level overview of what routing protocols are, the various types, and what it is that they do. In some cases, routing protocols can themselves run over routed protocols: for example, BGP runs over TCP which runs over IP; care is taken in the implementation of such systems not to create a circular dependency between the routing and routed protocols. That a routing protocol runs over particular transport mechanism does not mean that the routing protocol is of layer (N+1) if the transport mechanism is of layer (N). Routing protocols, according to the OSI Routing framework, are layer management protocols for the network layer, regardless of their transport mechanism:
IS-IS runs over the data link layer OSPF, IGRP, and EIGRP run directly over IP; OSPF and EIGRP have their own reliable transmission mechanism while IGRP assumed an unreliable transport RIP runs over UDP BGP runs over TCP

Exterior vs. Interior Protocols

Dynamic routing protocols are generally classified as an exterior gateway protocol (EGP ) or an interior gateway protocol (IGP). An exterior protocol carries routing information between two independent administrative entities, such as two corporations or two universities. Each of these entities maintains an independent network infrastructure and uses an EGP to communicate routing information to the other. Today, the most common exterior protocol is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). It is the primary exterior protocol used between networks connected to the Internet, and was designed specifically for such purposes. In contrast, an interior protocol is used within a single administrative domain, or among closely cooperating groups. In contrast to the exterior protocols, IGPs tend to be simpler and to require less overhead in a router. Their primary drawback is that they can't scale to extremely large networks. The most common interior protocols in IP networks are the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), and the Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).[3] The first two are open standards adopted or developed by the Internet community, while the third is a proprietary protocol designed by Cisco Systems for use on their routers.

Six months training While it is possible to use an interior protocol as an exterior protocol, and vice versa, it is seldom a good idea. Exterior protocols are designed to scale to the largest of networks, but their inherent complexity and overhead can quickly overwhelm a small or medium-sized network. On the other hand, while interior protocols are fairly simple and have little inherent overhead, they don't scale well to larger networks. Because of the difference in focus between interior and exterior protocols, I will not discuss exterior protocols in this chapter. Instead, I will reserve our discussion of exterior protocols to later chapters where we will be discussing connections to the world outside of your organization. Some routing protocols are designed for use within an organization, while other routing protocols are designed for use between organizations. The current lead Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) is OSPF. Other Interior Gateway Protocols include IS-IS, RIP, and EIGRP. The current lead Exterior Gateway Protocol is BGP. The current revision of BGP is BGP4. There are no other Exterior Gateway Routing protocols in current competition with BGP4.

Interior routing protocols

Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) exchange routing information within a single routing domain. A given autonomous system [6] can contain multiple routing domains, or a set of routing domains can be coordinated without being an Internet-participating autonomous system. Common examples include:
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) RIP (Routing Information Protocol) IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)

shiyaaan [IGRP] Note that IGRP, a Cisco proprietary routing protocol, is no longer supported. EIGRP accepts IGRP configuration commands, but the internals of IGRP and EIGRP are completely different.

Exterior routing protocols

Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) route between separate autonomous systems. Examples include:
EGP (the original Exterior Gateway Protocol used to connect to the former Internet backbone network; now obsolete) BGP (Border Gateway Protocol: the current version, BGPv4, dates from around 1995)

CSPF (Constrained Shortest Path First)

Six months training

HELLO (an older protocol), from RFC 891

Distance-Vector vs. Link-State Protocols

Routing protocols such as RIP and EIGRP are Distance Vector routing protocols. These are called Distance Vector protocols because they base routing decisions on the "distance" of the remote destination in terms of the number of network layerhops which the packet will have to traverse. OSPF and IS-IS are Link State routing protocols. They are called Link State protocols because they base routing decisions on messages received from other routers in the internetwork which give information about state of the links connected to them.

Interior routing protocols RIP

The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol used in local and wide area networks. As such it is classified as aninterior gateway protocol (IGP) using the distance-vector routing algorithm. It was first defined in RFC 1058 (1988). The protocol has since been extended several times, resulting in RIP Version 2 (RFC 2453). Both versions are still in use today, however, they are considered technically obsoleted by more advanced techniques, such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and the OSI protocol IS-IS. RIP has also been adapted for use in IPv6 networks, a standard known as RIPng (RIP next generation)

Rip versions
There are three versions of the Routing Information Protocol: RIPv1 and RIPv2

RIP version 1
The original specification of RIP, defined in RFC 1058,[3] uses classful routing. The periodic routing updates do not carry subnet information, lacking support for variable length subnet masks (VLSM). This limitation makes it impossible to have different-sized subnets inside of the samenetwork class. In other words, all subnets in a network class must have the same size. There is also no support for router authentication, making RIP vulnerable to various attacks.

RIP version 2
Due to the deficiencies of the original RIP specification, RIP version 2 (RIPv2) was developed in 1993[4] and last standardized in 1998.[5] It included the ability to carry subnet information, thus supporting Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). To maintain backward compatibility, the hop count limit of 15 remained. RIPv2 has facilities to fully interoperate

Six months training with the earlier specification if all Must Be Zero protocol fields in the RIPv1 messages are properly specified. In addition, a compatibility switch feature[5] allows fine-grained interoperability adjustments. In an effort to avoid unnecessary load on hosts that do not participate in routing, RIPv2 multicasts the entire routing table to all adjacent routers at the address 224.0.0.9, as opposed to RIP which uses unicast broadcast. Unicast addressing is still allowed for special applications. RIPv2 incorporated a password authentication mechanism. However, passwords were transmitted in clear-text format which were found insufficient for secure communications[6] on the Internet

IGRP

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a distance vector interior routing protocol (IGP) invented by Cisco. It is used by routers to exchange routing data within an autonomous system. IGRP is a proprietary protocol. IGRP was created in part to overcome the limitations of RIP (maximum hop count of only 15, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, delay, load, MTU, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. The maximum hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255 (default 100), and routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds (by default). IGRP is considered a classful routing protocol. Because the protocol has no field for a subnet mask, the router assumes that all interface addresses within the same Class A, Class B, or Class C network have the same subnet mask as the subnet mask configured for the interfaces in question. This contrasts with classless routing protocols that can use variable length subnet masks. Classful protocols have become less popular as they are wasteful of IP address space. In order to address the issues of address space and other factors, Cisco created EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol). EIGRP adds support for VLSM (variable length subnet mask) and adds the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) in order to improve routing and provide a loopless environment. EIGRP has completely

Six months training replaced IGRP, making IGRP an obsolete routing protocol. In Cisco IOS versions 12.3 and greater, IGRP is completely unsupported. In the new Cisco CCNAcurriculum (version 4), IGRP is mentioned only briefly, as an "obsolete protocol". refer to the network administrators, this is the best protocol at the moment

OSPF
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a dynamic routing protocol for use in Internet Protocol (IP) networks. Specifically, it is a link-state routing protocol and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols, operating within a single autonomous system (AS). It is defined as OSPF Version 2 in RFC 2328 (1998) for IPv4.[1] The updates for IPv6 are specified as OSPF Version 3 in RFC 5340 (2008).[2] OSPF is perhaps the most widely-used interior gateway protocol (IGP) in large enterprise networks; IS-IS, another link-state routing protocol, is more common in large service provider networks. The most widely-used exterior gateway protocol is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), the principal routing protocol between autonomous OSPF is an interior gateway protocol that routes Internet Protocol (IP) packets solely within a single routing domain (autonomous system). It gathers link state information from available routers and constructs a topology map of the network. The topology determines the routing table presented to the Internet Layer which makes routing decisions based solely on the destination IP address found in IP datagrams. OSPF was designed to support variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) and Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing models. OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link failures, very quickly and converges on a new loop-free routing structure within seconds. It computes the shortest path tree for each route using a method based on Dijkstra's algorithm, a shortest path first algorithm. The link-state information is maintained on each router as a link-state database (LSDB) which is a tree-image of the entire network topology. Identical copies of the LSDB are periodically updated through flooding on all OSPF routers.

EIGRP
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol - (EIGRP) is a Cisco proprietary routing protocolloosely based on their original IGRP. EIGRP is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol, with optimizations to minimize both the routing instability incurred after topology changes, as well as the use of bandwidth and processing power in the router. Routers that support EIGRP will automatically redistribute route information to IGRP neighbors by converting the 32 bit EIGRP metric to the 24 bit IGRP metric. Most of the routing

Six months training optimizations are based on the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) work from SRI, which guarantees loop-free operation and provides a mechanism for fast convergence

Switching Methods

Store-and-Forward Switching
Store-and-forward switching means that the LAN switch copies each complete frame into the switch memory buffers and computes a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) for errors. CRC is an error-checking method that uses a mathematical formula, based on the number of bits (1s) in the frame, to determine whether the received frame is errored. If a CRC error is found, the frame is discarded. If the frame is error free, the switch forwards the frame out the appropriate interface port, as illustrated in Figure .

Figure Store-and-Forward Switch Discarding a Frame with a Bad CRC An Ethernet frame is discarded if it is smaller than 64 bytes in length, a runt, or if the frame is larger than 1518 bytes in length, a giant, as illustrated in Figure.

Cut-Through Switching
With cut-through switching, the LAN switch copies into its memory only the destination MAC address, which is located in the first 6 bytes of the frame following the preamble. The switch looks up the destination MAC address in its switching table, determines the outgoing interface port, and forwards the frame on to its destination through the designated switch port. A cut-through switch reduces delay because the switch begins to forward the frame as soon

Six months training as it reads the destination MAC address and determines the outgoing switch port, as illustrated in Figure 6-10. The cut-through switch shown in Figure 6-10 inspects each received frame's header to determine the destination before forwarding on to the frame's destination network segment. Frames with and without errors are forwarded in cut-through switching operations, leaving the error detection of the frame to the intended recipient. If the receiving switch determines the frame is errored, the frame is thrown out to the bit bucket where the frame is subsequently discarded from the network.

Figure 6-10 Cut-Through Switch Examining Each Frame Header Before Forwarding to Destination Network Segment Cut-through switching was developed to reduce the delay in the switch processing frames as they arrive at the switch and are forwarded on to the destination switch port. The switch pulls the frame header into its port buffer. When the destination MAC address is determined by the switch, the switch forwards the frame out the correct interface port to the frame's intended destination.

Fragment-Free Switching
Fragment-free switching is also known as runtless switching and is a hybrid of cut-through and store-and-forward switching. Fragment-free switching was developed to solve the latecollision problem.

Access list
With respect to a computer filesystem, an access control list (ACL) is a list of permissions attached to an object. The list specifies who or what is allowed to access the object and what operations are allowed to be performed on the object. In a typical ACL, each entry in the list specifies a subject and an operation: for example, the entry (Alice, delete) on the ACL for file WXY gives Alice permission to delete file WXY. Conditions of access list: Permitts and Deny

Six months training

Frame relay technology

In the context of computer networking, frame relay consists of an efficient data transmission technique used to send digital information. It is a message forwarding "relay race" like system in which data packets, called frames, are passed from one or many startpoints to one or many destinations via a series of intermediate node points. Network providers commonly implement frame relay for voice and data as an encapsulation technique, used between local area networks(LANs) over a wide area network (WAN). Each end-user gets a private line (or leased line) to a frame-relay node. The frame-relay network handles the transmission over a frequently-changing path transparent to all end-users. With the advent of MPLS, VPN and dedicated broadband services such as cable modem and DSL, the end may loom for the frame relay protocol and encapsulation.[citation needed] However many rural areas remain lacking DSL and cable modem services. In such cases the least expensive type of "always-on" connection remains a 64-kbit/s frame-relay line. Thus a retail chain, for instance, may use frame relay for connecting rural stores into their corporate WAN.

Six months training

A packet-switching protocol for connecting devices on a Wide Area Network (WAN). Frame Relay networks in the U.S. support data transfer rates at T-1 (1.544 Mbps) and T-3 (45 Mbps) speeds. In fact, you can think of Frame Relay as a way of utilizing existing T-1 and T-3 lines owned by a service provider. Most telephone companies now provide Frame Relay service for customers who want connections at 56 Kbps to T-1 speeds. (In Europe, Frame Relay speeds vary from 64 Kbps to 2 Mbps. In the U.S., Frame Relay is quite popular because it is relatively inexpensive. However, it is being replaced in some areas by faster technologies, such as ATM.

DLCI
A data link connection identifier (DLCI) is a channel number which is attached to frame relay data frames to tell the network how to route the data. This 10-bit field defines the destination address of a packet. The address is local on a link-by-link basis. Frame relay is statistically multiplexed, which means that only one frame can be transmitted at a time but many logical connections can co-exist on a single physical line. The DLCI allows the data to be logically tied to one of the connections, so that once it gets to the network it knows where to send it. The standard allows the existence of 1024 DLCIs, however only numbers from 16 to 991 are available for end users' equipment. The rest are reserved for various management purposes.

Six months training

NAT (Network Address Translation )

In computer networking, network address translation (NAT) is the process of modifying network address information in datagram packet headers while in transit across a traffic routing device for the purpose of remapping a given address space into another. Most often today, NAT is used in conjunction with network masquerading (or IP masquerading) which is a technique that hides an entire address space, usually consisting of private network addresses (RFC 1918), behind a single IP address in another, often public address space. This mechanism is implemented in a routing device that uses stateful translation tables to map the "hidden" addresses into a single address and then rewrites the outgoing Internet Protocol (IP) packets on exit so that they appear to originate from the router. In the reverse communications path, responses are mapped back to the originating IP address using the rules ("state") stored in the translation tables. The translation table rules established in this fashion are flushed after a short period without new traffic refreshing their state. As described, the method enables communication through the router only when the conversation originates in the masqueraded network, since this establishes the translation tables. For example, a web browser in the masqueraded network can browse a website outside, but a web browser outside could not browse a web site in the masqueraded network. However, most NAT devices today allow the network administrator to configure translation table entries for permanent use. This feature is often referred to as "static NAT" or port

Six months training forwarding and allows traffic originating in the 'outside' network to reach designated hosts in the masqueraded network. Because of the popularity of this technique, see below, the term NAT has become virtually synonymous with the method of IP masquerading. Network address translation has serious consequences (see below, Drawbacks, Benefits) on the quality of Internet connectivity and requires careful attention to the details of its implementation. As a result, many methods have been devised to alleviate the issues encountered. See article on NAT traversal.

PAT (Port Address Translation)

Port Address Translation (PAT) is a feature of a network device that translates TCP or UDP communications made between hosts on a private network and hosts on a public network. It allows a single public IP address to be used by many hosts on a private network, which is usually a Local Area Network or LAN. A PAT device transparently modifies IP packets as they pass through it. The modifications make all the packets which it sends to the public network from the multiple hosts on the private network appear to originate from a single host, (the PAT device) on the public network.

Relationship between NAT and PAT

PAT is a subset of NAT, and is closely related to the concept of Network Address Translation. PAT is also known as NAT Overload. In PAT there is generally only one publicly exposed IP address and multiple private hosts connecting through the exposed address. Incoming packets from the public network are routed to their destinations on the private network by reference to a table held within the PAT device which keeps track of public and private port pairs. In PAT, both the sender's private IP and port number are modified; the PAT device chooses the port numbers which will be seen by hosts on the public network. In this way, PAT

Six months training operates at layer 3 (network) and 4 (transport) of the OSI model, whereas basic NAT only operates at layer 3.

ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network is a telephone system network. Prior to the ISDN, the phone system was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of the ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the classic telephone system. There are several kinds of access interfaces to the ISDN defined: Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI) and Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN). ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, that also provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in better voice quality than an analog phone. It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for data), in increments of 64 kbit/s. Another major market application is Internet access, where ISDN typically provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions (which can be considered to be broadband speed, since it exceeds the narrowband speeds of standard analog 56k telephone lines). ISDN B-channels can be bonded to achieve a greater data rate, typically 3 or 4 BRIs (6 to 8 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded. ISDN should not be mistaken for its use with a specific protocol, such as Q.931 whereby ISDN is employed as the network, data-link and physical layers in the context of the OSI

Six months training model. In a broad sense ISDN can be considered a suite of digital services existing on layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model. ISDN is designed to provide access to voice and data services simultaneously. However, common use has reduced ISDN to be limited to Q.931 and related protocols, which are a set of protocols for establishing and breaking circuit switched connections, and for advanced call features for the user. They were introduced in 1986.[1] In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing systems.

Spanning tree protocol

The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a link layer network protocol that ensures a loopfreetopology for any bridged LAN. It is based on an algorithm invented by Radia Perlman while working for Digital Equipment Corporation.[1][2] In the OSI model for computer networking, STP falls under the OSI layer-2. Spanning tree allows a network design to include spare (redundant) links to provide automatic backup paths if an active link fails, without the danger of bridge loops, or the need for manual enabling/disabling of these backup links. Bridge loops must be avoided because they result in flooding the network. The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP), is defined in the IEEE Standard 802.1D. As the name suggests, it creates a spanning tree within a mesh network of connected layer-2 bridges (typically Ethernetswitches), and disables those links that are not part of the tree, leaving a single active path between any two network nodes.

STP switch port states:

Blocking - A port that would cause a switching loop, no user data is sent or received
but it may go into forwarding mode if the other links in use were to fail and the spanning

Six months training tree algorithm determines the port may transition to the forwarding state. BPDU data is still received in blocking state.

Listening - The switch processes BPDUs and awaits possible new information that
would cause it to return to the blocking state. Learning - While the port does not yet forward frames (packets) it does learn source addresses from frames received and adds them to the filtering database (switching database) Forwarding - A port receiving and sending data, normal operation. STP still monitors incoming BPDUs that would indicate it should return to the blocking state to prevent a loop. Disabled - Not strictly part of STP, a network administrator can manually disable a port

VLAN (Virtual LAN)

A virtual LAN, commonly known as a VLAN, is a group of hosts with a common set of requirements that communicate as if they were attached to the Broadcast domain, regardless of their physical location. A VLAN has the same attributes as a physical LAN, but it allows for end stations to be grouped together even if they are not located on the same network switch. Network reconfiguration can be done through software instead of physically relocating devices.

Six months training

When do I need a VLAN?

You need to consider using VLANs in any of the following situations:

You have more than 200 devices on your LAN You have a lot of broadcast traffic on your LAN Groups of users need more security or are being slowed down by too many broadcasts?

Six months training

Groups of users need to be on the same broadcast domain because they are running the same applications. An example would be a company that has VoIP phones. The users using the phone could be on a different VLAN, not with the regular users. Or, just to make a single switch into multiple virtual switches.

Why not just subnet my network?

A common question is why not just subnet the network instead of using VLANs? Each VLAN should be in its own subnet. The benefit that a VLAN provides over a subnetted network is that devices in different physical locations, not going back to the same router, can be on the same network. The limitation of subnetting a network with a router is that all devices on that subnet must be connected to the same switch and that switch must be connected to a port on the router.

How do I create a VLAN?

Configuring VLANs can vary even between different models of Cisco switches. Your goals, no matter what the commands are, is to:

Create the new VLANs Put each port in the proper VLAN

Lets say we wanted to create VLANs 5 and 10. We want to put ports 2 & 3 in VLAN 5 (Marketing) and ports 4 and 5 in VLAN 10 (Human Resources). On a Cisco 2950 switch, here is how you would do it:

Six months training

VTP(VLAN Trunking Protocol )

VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) is a Cisco proprietary Layer 2 messaging protocol that manages the addition, deletion, and renaming of Virtual Local Area Networks (VLAN) on a network-wide basis. Cisco's VLAN Trunk Protocol reduces administration in a switched network. When a new VLAN is configured on one VTP server, the VLAN is distributed through all switches in the domain. This reduces the need to configure the same VLAN everywhere. To do this VTP carries VLAN information to all the switches in a VTP domain. VTP advertisements can be sent over ISL, 802.1q, IEEE 802.10 and LANE trunks. VTP

Six months training traffic is sent over the management VLAN (VLAN1), so all VLAN trunks must be configured to pass VLAN1. VTP is available on most of the Cisco Catalyst Family products.

VTP modes
VTP operates in one of three modes:

Server In this VTP mode you can create, remove, and modify VLANs. You can
also set other configuration options like the VTP version and also turn on/off VTP pruning for the entire VTP domain. VTP servers advertise their VLAN configuration to other switches in the same VTP domain and synchronize their VLAN configuration with other switches based on messages received over trunk links. VTP server is the default mode. The VLANs information are stored on NVRAM and they are not lost after a reboot.

Client VTP clients behave the same way as VTP servers, but you cannot create,
change, or delete VLANs on the local device. In VTP client mode, VLAN configurations are not saved in NVRAM. Transparent When you set the VTP mode to transparent, then the switches do not participate in VTP. A VTP transparent switch will not advertise its VLAN configuration and does not synchronize its VLAN configuration based on received messages. VLANS

Six months training can be created, changed or deleted when in transparent mode. In VTP version 2, transparent switches do forward VTP messages that they receive out their trunk ports.

VTP Pruning
VTP can prune unneeded VLANs from trunk links. VTP maintains a map of VLANs and switches, enabling traffic to be directed only to those switches known to have ports on the intended VLAN. This enables more efficient use of trunk bandwidth. Each switch will advertise which VLANs it has active to neighboring switches. The neighboring switches will then "prune" VLANs that are not active across that trunk, thus saving bandwidth. If a VLAN is then added to one of the switches, the switch will then readvertise its active VLANs so that pruning can be updated by its neighbors. For this to work,

Six months training VLAN pruning must be enabled on both ends of the trunk. It is easiest to enable VLAN pruning for an entire VTP management domain by simply enabling it on one of the VTP servers for that domain. To enable VLAN pruning for a VTP domain, enter the following command on a VTP server for that domain:

Wireless communication
Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of electrical conductors or "wires".[1] The distances involved may be short (a few meters as in television remote control) or long (thousands or millions of kilometers for radio communications). When the context is clear, the term is often shortened to "wireless". Wireless communication is generally considered to be a branch oftelecommunications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), andwireless networking. Other examples

Six months training of wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers and or garage doors, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, satellite television and cordless telephones.

Application of wireless communication Security systems

Wireless technology may supplement or replace hard wired implementations in security systems for homes or office buildings. Television remote control Modern televisions use wireless (generally infrared) remote control units. Now radio waves are also used.

Cellular telephony (phones and modems)

Perhaps the best known example of wireless technology is the cellular telephone and modems. These instruments use radio waves to enable the operator to make phone calls from many locations world-wide. They can be used anywhere that there is a cellular telephone site to house the equipment that is required to transmit and receive the signal that is used to transfer both voice and data to and from these instruments.

WiFi
Wi-Fi (for wireless fidelity) is a wireless LAN technology that enables laptop PCs, PDAs, and other devices to connect easily to the internet. Technically known as IEEE 802.11b, WiFi is faster and less expensive than standard Ethernet and other common wire-based LAN technologies. Several Wi-Fi hot spots have been popular over the past few years. Some businesses charge customers a monthly fee for service, while others have begun offering it for free in an effort to increase the sales of their goods. Wireless energy transfer Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting wires.

Computer Interface Devices

Answering the call of customers frustrated with cord clutter, many manufactures of computer peripherals turned to wireless technology to satisfy their consumer base. Originally these units used bulky, highly limited transceivers to mediate between a computer and a keyboard and mouse, however more recent generations have used small, high quality devices, some even incorporating Bluetooth. These systems have become so ubiquitous that some users have begun complaining about a lack of wired peripherals.Wireless devices tend to have a slightly slower response time than there wired counterparts, however the gap is decreasing.

Six months training Initial concerns about the security of wireless keyboards have also been addressed with the maturation of the technology. Many scientists have complained that wireless technology interferes with their experiments, forcing them to use less optimal peripherals because the optimum one is not available in a wired version. This has become especially prevalent among scientists who use trackballsas the number of models in production steadily decreases.

Ethernet
Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether. It defines a number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI networking model, through means of network access at the Media Access Control (MAC) /Data Link Layer, and a common addressing format. Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3. The combination of the twisted pair versions of Ethernet for connecting end systems to the network, along with the fiber optic versions for

Six months training site backbones, is the most widespread wired LAN technology. It has been in use from around 1980[1] to the present, largely replacing competing LAN standards such as token ring, FDDI, and ARCNET.

A standard 8P8C (often called RJ45) connector used most commonly on cat5 cable, a type of cabling used primarily in Ethernet networks.

The Internet Protocol Suite

Application Layer BGP DHCP DNS FTP GTP HTTP IMAP IRC Megaco MGCP NNTP NTP POP RIP RPC RTP RTSP SDP SIP SMTP SNMP SOAP SSH Telnet TLS/SSL XMPP (more)

Six months training

Transport Layer TCP UDP DCCP SCTP RSVP ECN (more) Internet Layer IP (IPv4, IPv6) ICMP ICMPv6 IGMP IPsec (more) Link Layer ARP RARP NDP OSPF Tunnels (L2TP) PPP Media Access Control (Ethernet, MPLS, DSL, ISDN, FDDI) Device Drivers (more)

Varieties of Ethernet Some early varieties

10BASE5: the original standard uses a single coaxial cable into which you literally tap a connection by drilling into the cable to connect to the core and screen. Largely obsolete, though due to its widespread deployment in the early days, some systems may still be in use. 10BROAD36: Obsolete. An early standard supporting Ethernet over longer distances. It utilized broadband modulation techniques, similar to those employed in cable modem systems, and operated over coaxial cable. 1BASE5: An early attempt to standardize a low-cost LAN solution, it operates at 1 Mbit/s and was a commercial failure.

10Mbit/s Ethernet

10BASE2 (also called ThinNet or Cheapernet): 50-ohm coaxial cable connects machines together, each machine using a T-adaptor to connect to its NIC. Requires terminators at each end. For many years this was the dominant Ethernet standard 10 Mbit/s. 10BASE-T: runs over four wires (two twisted pairs) on a Category 3 or Category 5 cable. A hub or switch sits in the middle and has a port for each node. This is also the configuration used for 100BASE-T and gigabit Ethernet. 10 Mbit/s. FOIRL: Fiber-optic inter-repeater link. The original standard for Ethernet over fibre. 10BASE-F: A generic term for the new family of 10 Mbit/s Ethernet standards: 10BASE-FL, 10BASE-FB and 10BASE-FP. Of these only 10BASE-FL is in widespread use. o 10BASE-FL: An updated version of the FOIRL standard. o 10BASE-FB: Intended for backbones connecting a number of hubs or switches, it is now obsolete.

Six months training

o

10BASE-FP: A passive star network that required no repeater, it was never implemented

Fast Ethernet

100BASE-T: A term for any of the three standard for 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over twisted pair cable. Includes 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 100BASE-T2. o 100BASE-TX: Uses two pairs, but requires Category 5 cable. Similar starshaped configuration to 10BASE-T. 100 Mbit/s. o 100BASE-T4: 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over Category 3 cabling (as used for 10BASE-T installations). Uses all four pairs in the cable. Now obsolete, as Category 5 cabling is the norm. Limited to half-duplex. o 100BASE-T2: No products exist. 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over Category 3 cabling. Supports full-duplex, and uses only two pairs. It is functionally equivalent to 100BASE-TX, but supports old cable. 100BASE-FX: 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over fibre.

Gigabit Ethernet

1000BASE-T: 1 Gbit/s over Category 5e copper cabling. 1000BASE-SX: 1 Gbit/s over fiber. 1000BASE-LX: 1 Gbit/s over fiber. Optimized for longer distances over single-mode fiber. 1000BASE-CX: A short-haul solution (up to 25 m) for running 1 Gbit/s Ethernet over special copper cable. Predates 1000BASE-T, and now obsolete.

10-gigabit Ethernet
The 10-gigabit Ethernet family of standards encompasses media types for single-mode fibre (long haul), multi-mode fibre (up to 300 m), copper backplane (up to 1 m) and copper twisted pair (up to 100 m). It was first standardised as IEEE Std 802.3ae-2002, but is now included in IEEE Std 802.3-2008.

10GBASE-SR: designed to support short distances over deployed multi-mode fiber cabling, it has a range of between 26 m and 82 m depending on cable type. It also supports 300 m operation over a new 2000 MHzkm multi-mode fiber. 10GBASE-LX4: uses wavelength division multiplexing to support ranges of between 240 m and 300 m over deployed multi-mode cabling. Also supports 10 km over single-mode fiber. 10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER: these standards support 10 km and 40 km respectively over single-mode fiber. 10GBASE-SW, 10GBASE-LW and 10GBASE-EW. These varieties use the WAN PHY, designed to interoperate with OC-192 / STM-64 SONET/SDH equipment. They correspond at the physical layer to 10GBASE-SR, 10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER respectively, and hence use the same types of fiber and support the same distances. (There is no WAN PHY standard corresponding to 10GBASE-LX4.) 10GBASE-T: designed to support copper twisted pair was specified by the IEEE Std 802.3an-2006 which has been incorporated into the IEEE Std 802.3-2008.

Ten-gigabit Ethernet is still an emerging technology, and it remains to be seen which of the standards will gain commercial acceptance

Six months training

Dealing with multiple clients CSMA/CD shared medium Ethernet

Ethernet originally used a shared coaxial cable (the shared medium) winding around a building or campus to every attached machine. A scheme known as carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) governed the way the computers shared the channel. This scheme was simpler than the competing token ring or token bus technologies. When a computer wanted to send some information, it used the following algorithm:

Main procedure
1. Frame ready for transmission. 2. Is medium idle? If not, wait until it becomes ready and wait the interframe gap period (9.6 s in 10 Mbit/s Ethernet). 3. Start transmitting. 4. Did a collision occur? If so, go to collision detected procedure. 5. Reset retransmission counters and end frame transmission.

Collision detected procedure

6. Continue transmission until minimum packet time is reached (jam signal) to ensure that all receivers detect the collision. 7. Increment retransmission counter. 8. Was the maximum number of transmission attempts reached? If so, abort transmission. 9. Calculate and wait random backoff period based on number of collision 10. Re-enter main procedure at stage 1.

Testing Connectivity(Trouble shooting)

Troubleshooting your home network, and your Internet connection. You should really take the basic networking course first, if you have not already done that. This will help to clear up a few networking concepts. And the next thing you need to do is to check that you are actually behind a NAT/router. If you have not a clue as to whether this is the case or not, it will become clear during this troubleshooting exercise. If you have a home network behind a NAT/router, there are a few simple tests you can perform to check your connectivity. First, you must figure out your default gateway IP address. This is the address where you send all of your outbound packets - it is the "gateway" to the outside world. You can determine this address by issuing a simple command in Win2K/XP - "ipconfig [I am assuming you know how to open a cmd window in XP/Win2K]" If you are behind a NAT/router, it is the LAN side address of the NAT/router. For Windows 9X/ME, issue the command "winipcfg" [bring up a command window to do this], which brings up a nice little GUI:

Six months training

For XinXP or Win2K, you will get the following when you type "ipconfig

/all:"

Your may have to find the correct ethernet card or NDIS driver in the drop down box. For XP of course, there is a nice little GUI which can do this for you so you don't have to do the command line thing. On the properties window of the network connection, check the "show

Six months training icon in system tray," and you can then right click on it, and bring up all the good info (only on XP tho!), once you click on the "support" tab , and then the "details" tab:"

While you are at it there, you can see the IP address of your own little PC. Make note of this. This is how the gateway is going to talk to your PC. Note the IP address of your PC - this will tell you if you are behind a NAT/router, as we are hoping here, or if you are hanging out bare on the Internet. If you have a private address, chances are quite good that you are indeed behind a NAT/router. If you have a "legal" address, there is a pretty good chance that your PC is facing the Internet all by itself. Check

Six months training this page for a discussion on IP addresses. In general, an IP address like 192.168.something, or 172.16.something, or 10.something is a private address. To check the connectivity, just issue the command "ping 192.168.1.254," or whatever the IP address is of your particular gateway. Or you can issue the command "ping -t 192.168.1.254," which just keeps pinging the gateway until you interrupt it by using CTL-C. Obviously, you should get "replies" from your gateway, and they should be pretty speedy and consistent, like a few msec. On Linux, a simple ping command will just run until you interrupt it, the opposite of Windows. So you know your connection to your NAT/router is working - your home network seems OK, at least from this PC.

Now you would like to know if your NAT/router is connecting to the Internet. The best technique is to go into the NAT/router and check to see if it has indeed "connected." Different NAT/routers report this in different ways. When the NAT/router "connects," it is assigned an IP address, a default gateway, and a DNS server. This is assigned by the ISP when your NAT/router does the initial negotiation. This could be via DHCP if you are a cable modem, or possibly pppoE if you are on an ADSL connection. PppoE also requires that you be authenticated to the ISP, i.e. your username and password are correct! See this section for some more info. Be especially mindful of the fact that the "physical layer" has to be working before any of this "PPP" or "TCP/IP" stuff will work. This means the ADSL line must be working for ADSL and the Cable Modem line must be working. So now you can perform the same ping on its default gateway, from the same PC of course. If you don't know how to do this, just use the IP address listed for your DNS server which you can learn from the ipconfig (or winipcfg) command. Be careful here, if the NAT/router is in fact not connecting to the Internet, there will be no assigned default gateway, or IP address, or DNS server!! So using the DNS server won't do you any good unless your NAT/router is connected. This site www.whatismyipaddress.com will report the WAN side IP address. This of course if the real address where you appear on the Internet. This of course only works, if you are in fact actually connected to the Internet. You have to GO to this Internet site in order for it to

Six months training read the packet you sent it and report back to you. This address will likely change over the space of days and weeks, so you cannot in general depend on it being the same. The point we are trying to make here, is that you need to find out your router's default gateway and the DNS server, when in fact your connection is working. (These will not change from day to day like your WAN side IP address). You can then use these on the PC when you want to check to see if these are in place! In fact we can construct a little script (batch file) to do just this. Here is a file I constructed and just named "test-adsl.bat" You can copy and paste it into your PC, and modify the values as appropriate. The first IP address is the default gateway of your PC, i.e. the The LAN side of the NAT/router. The second IP address is the gateway address listed in your router - this probably stays the same over long periods of time, though you may want to skip this and just use the DNS server, as specified in the next entry if you find that it changes. Beware that this can change over time as well, so you need to be careful. BSIS is just the name of my particular ISP - you can change this! The next testing we do is to actually check the operation of the DNS server, by attempting to ping several machines by name, instead of IP address. This checks to see that the actual DNS server is operating. Many problems are caused on the Internet by non-functioning, slow, or missing DNS servers. See my explanation of DNS servers for some elucidations.... @ECHO OFF ECHO Ping ADSL-Router by IP address ECHO This verifies PC-ADSL router. ECHO It must show "reply from" and be less than 50ms ping 192.168.1.254 PAUSE CLS ECHO ping your gateway ECHO This verifies connectivity to BSIS ping 205.152.56.254 PAUSE CLS ECHO Ping DNS servers. This verifies PC-INTERNET ping 205.152.37.254 ping 205.152.0.20 PAUSE CLS ECHO Ping by name-Check DNS server operation. ping www.bellsouth.net ping www.bucknell.edu ECHO AT LEAST ONE should have "reply from" PAUSE So you can use this script as a quick check of your Internet connectivity. Just put it, or a shortcut on your desktop someplace. Much, much, much simpler, and consumes zero resources compared to the connection reliability bloatware that many ISPs install on your PC! You can even add your email server in there as well, though just pinging it does not meant that the email functionality is actually working!

Six months training There are several things to be careful of in DNS servers and gateways. You are given usually two DNS servers by your ISP. But your PC will NOT use the second one, until timeouts have occurred attempting to use the first DNS server. So it is not like your PC will do a round robin between the two. It uses only a single DNS server, until it times out, and then it will switch to the secondary DNS server. The timeouts tend to be on the order of 15-30 seconds. And you must understand this - the next time it wants to do a DNS query, it reverts to the first, potentially nonworking one! So the second DNS address is indeed a backup choice, for each DNS query. The PC does not switch to the second DNS server and stay there! A lot of time, this is the delay and stalling that you are experiencing. You must also be careful of assigning static DNS servers in some of your network settings. Sometimes this is appropriate, especially when your ISP is having all kinds of DNS problems - just specify your local university's DNS server in the meantime. It will work just fine. You can use anybody's DNS server, though they may not always appreciate it. [This is becoming less and less true..... I have noticed that when I specify a different DNS server, it actually denies me! So some of the ISPs are restricting the use of the DNS server to their customers.] You should use the one assigned by your ISP, however, assuming things are working, and it should be left as dynamic, to allow the movement and upgrading and fallback mechanisms to work properly. . Here is a neat debugging tool you can use on Windows XP. Simply go into services via "run -> services.msc." Turn OFF-STOP the DNS client! You will still be making DNS queries, but you won't have all the fancy software surrounding the DNS queries, such as caching, negative caching, etc. Gateways are similar, in some ways..... Occasionally you will be on a network where there are multiple gateways out of the network. This tends NOT to be the case on simple home networks with ADSL or cable modem connections, but it can happen in more complicated environments. A PC will only use a SINGLE gateway until it times out, in which case it will switch to the backup gateway. You can get pretty fancy in your setups if you want to use a dialup as a backup for your ADSL or cable modem. You also want to be careful of specifying static settings on your home PCs. Behind a NAT/router, this can be acceptable, as long as your remember that if you ever change your home network, you must change these settings. But if your PC is connected directly to the Internet (using a firewall of course.....!), the typical ADSL or cable modem connection requires that these settings be dynamic, with the values assigned by the ISP. ISPs may change DNS servers without your knowledge, so if you have hard coded your DNS server (made it a static setting in your network properties), you may lose your browsing ability if the DNS server disappears from that address, bogs down, or fails. There are some cautions that must be exercised when using the "ping" command. You may think that you can just ping anybody and everybody. Well, this was true at one time, but many sites routinely block the ICMP protocol underneath the ping command nowadays. This is because there are exploits which can be run using ICMP commands. So if you ping www.microsoft.com and you don't get a reply, it is not because it is not there, it is just because they do not respond to your ping. Hey, if you can still browse to them, using http protocol, they are there, OK? There is another nice little command to help you find out what is going on out "there" in the Internet. Using the "tracert" command [traceroute on Linux/Unix -where you must be root] on windows is sometimes very revealing. It actually traces the likely route the packets are taking from your PC to the destination, and reports on each router hop. Try a "tracert -d

Six months training www.microsoft.com" in a command window and look at the results. The "-d" tells your PC not to resolve the IP addresses into names, which can result in faster execution, and less hangups. If you want the PC to resolve the IP addresses, just do "tracert www.microsoft.com" Don't always expect a result from the end node, and you may routinely experience intervening nodes that ignore your attempts to send them these ICMP packets. They will sometimes block the underlying ICMP protocol that is used by the tracert command in Windows. So the use of tracert can be iffy. You need to use it with caution you cannot call up your ISP and tell them that the tracert to some site is looking pretty fishy. First of all they only have direct control over their own hops. If the tracert packets make it all the the target, then there may or may not be problems in intervening nodes. Look for especially nodes that take long times compared to other nodes. Look for results that differ widely from day to day. Ping Plotter is a great little utility which you can download - shareware for the better tool, but free 3o day use. This tool does a great job accumulating statistics over long periods of time. You can see routes switches, and time of day sensitivities, etc. Another command that can be very helpful in more complicated environments is the "netstat" command. I have a whole section dedicated to this nifty little command. On your local home network, you can use the "arp -a" command to list the physical addresses and their corresponding IP addresses which are known by the PC. The physical "MAC" address is what the PC actually uses to communicate with the other PCs over the "ethernet." Addendum: 1) How to bring up a "cmd prompt." To do any serious debugging, many times you have to be staring at the infamous "command line interface (CLI)," or "DOS prompt ." Now this is a scary proposition to people who grew up in the era of the GUI - Graphical User Interface. Old timers still often prefer to deal with the CLI. To do this in Windows XP or 2K, you punch the start button, left click the "run" and then type the command "cmd." NOT the word "command." This will bring up a window wherein you can type actual commands to the computer. Pretty neat, huh? The only problem is that you have to know what to type!! This can be a problem for clueless people. For Windows 95/98/ME, you would issue the command "command." 2) How to test your newserver: [replace "newsgroups.bellsouth.net" with your own newsserver] Open a Command Prompt and type this stuff in: set local_echo=on telnet newsgrpoups.bellsouth.net 119 You should get the server banner. If not, you can't get a socket and there is no point in continuing. If you do get the banner, type the following in: authinfo user username authinfo pass password You'll either pass or fail authentication.

Six months training 3) How to test your email access: You can actually bypass your email client and speak POP3 directly to your ISP server if you like. You can use the TOP command here if your client does not do it.