CHAPTER 5 - OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

List of topics for this chapter :

Operational Amplifiers
Ideal Operational Amplifier
Inverting Amplifier
Noninverting Amplifier
Summing Amplifier
Difference Amplifier
Cascaded Operational Amplifier Circuits
Operational Amplifier Circuits with PSpice
Applications
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Problem 5.1 Calculate
out
V for = k 100 , k 10 , k 1 , 100 , 1 R
L
, given the
circuit in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1
Carefully DEFINE the problem.
Each component is labeled completely. The problem is clear.
PRESENT everything you know about the problem.
The value of the load resistor,
L
R , is varied over a wide range of values.
The dependent voltage source (a voltage-controlled voltage source) has a large gain (100k).
Obviously, the goal of the problem is to determine the output voltage in terms of the input (or
source) voltage.
Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.
100 k
100k V
in
1 k
+
V
s

+
V
in


+
50
2 k
R
L
+
V
out

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out
V can be determined using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, or circuit analysis. Because we
want to find a voltage, rather than a current, we will use nodal analysis.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
Use nodal analysis to find
out
V in terms of
S
V and
L
R .
At the left node or
in
V :
0
k 2
V V
k 100
0 V
k 1
V V
out in in s in
=

At the right node or

out
V :
0
R
0 V
50
V k 100 V
k 2
V V
L
out in out in out
=

+
+
+

Simplifying the left node equation,

0 ) V V )( 50 ( V ) V V )( 100 (
out in in s in
= + +
0 V 50 V 100 V 151
out s in
=
Simplifying the right node equation,
0 V
R
k 2
) V k 100 V )( 40 ( ) V V (
out
L
in out in out
= + + +
0 V ) 1 M 4 ( V
R
k 2
41
in out
L
= +

+
out
L
in
V
1 M 4
R
k 2
41 -
V

+
=
Substituting the simplified right node equation into the simplified left node equation,
0 V 50 V 100 V
1 M 4
R
k 2
41 (151) -
out s out
L
=

+
s out
L
V 100 V
) 1 M 4 (
) 1 M 4 )( 50 (
R
k 2
41 (151) -
=

+
s
L
out
V
) 1 M 4 )( 50 (
R
k 2
41 (151) -
) 1 M 4 )( 100 (
V

=
Substitute each value for
L
R into this equation to find
out
V in terms of
s
V .
For = 1 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99692283 . 1 -
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1.5 M 8 10
4
v
d
60

v
d
+
+

For = 100 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99990789 . 1 -
For = k 1 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99993507 . 1 -
For = k 10 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99993779 . 1 -
For = k 100 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99993806 . 1 -
EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.
First, the answers appear reasonable with the gain of the entire circuit approaching 2 as
L
R
increases in size.
In addition, even for = 1 R
L
,
s out
V 2 V = is a good approximation
Clearly, using an ideal op amp is reasonable.
Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return to ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.
For = 1 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99692283 . 1 -
For = 100 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99990789 . 1 -
For = k 1 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99993507 . 1 -
For = k 10 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99993779 . 1 -
For = k 100 R
L
, =
out
V
s
V 99993806 . 1 -
Problem 5.2 [5.1] The equivalent model of a certain op amp is shown in Figure 5.1.
Determine:
(a) the input resistance,
(b) the output resistance,
(c) the voltage gain in dB.
Figure 5.1
(a) =
in
R M 5 . 1
(b) =
out
R 60
(c)
4
10 8 A =
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) 10 8 ( log 20 A
4
10 dB
=
=
dB
A 06 . 98
Problem 5.3 Solve for
out
V when = M 1 , k 100 , k 1 , 1 R
L
, given the circuit in
Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1
Use nodal analysis to find
out
V in terms of
S
V and
L
R .
At the left node or
in
V :
0
k 100
0 V
k 1
V V
in S in
=

At the right node or

out
V :
0
R
0 V
50
V k 100 V
L
out in out
=

+
+
Simplifying the left nodal equation,
0 V ) V V )( 100 (
in S in
= +
S in
V 100 V 101 =
S in
V
101
100
V =
Simplifying the right node equation, 0 V k 2 V
R
1
50
1
in out
L
= +

+
in out
L
L
V k 2 - V
R 50
50 R
=

+
in
L
L
out
V
50 R
R k 100 -
V

+
=
100 k
100k V
in
1 k
+
V
s

+
V
in


+
50
R
L
+
V
out

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Substituting the simplified left node equation into the simplified right node equation,
S
L
L
S
L
L
out
V
) 50 R )( 101 (
R M 10 -
V
101
100
50 R
R k 100 -
V

+
=

+
=
Substitute each value for
L
R into this equation to find
out
V in terms of
S
V .
For = 1 R
L
, =
out
V
S
V 3706 . 941 , 1 -
For = k 1 R
L
, =
out
V
S
V 1438 . 295 , 94 -
For = k 100 R
L
, =
out
V
S
V 4208 . 960 , 98 -
For = M 1 R
L
, =
out
V
S
V 9507 . 004 , 99 -
IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An ideal op amp has infinite open-loop gain, infinite input resistance, and zero output resistance.
Problem 5.4 Looking at the circuit in Figure 5.1, what effect does
L
R have on the value
of
out
V ?
Figure 5.1
Carefully DEFINE the problem.
Each component is labeled completely. The problem is clear.
PRESENT everything you know about the problem.
Essentially, we are to determine if the value of
L
R affects the output voltage in any way.
Thus, the goal of the problem is to solve for
o
V in terms of the other variables.
R
F
R
1
+
V
s

+
+
V
o

R
L
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Treat the operational amplifier as ideal. Due to infinite input resistance, we know that the
currents into both input terminals are zero. The voltage across the terminals is negligibly
small or
b a
V V = .
Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.
Because this is a circuit problem, we can use nodal analysis, mesh analysis, or basic circuit
analysis. Nodal analysis typically works best for op amp circuits.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
Referring to the circuit below, there are three unknown nodes.
Write a node equation at node a. The node voltage at node b is already known, 0 V
b
= .
Writing a node equation at node c will only introduce an additional unknown. This gives two
equations with four unknowns. Solving for
o
V in terms of
s
V (and the resistances) implies
that we need one equation with two unknowns. Hence, we need a constraint equation to
reduce the number of unknowns.
At node a, 0 0
R
V V
R
V V
F
c a
1
s a
= +

At node b, 0 V
b
=
The constraint equation comes from a characteristic of the ideal op amp.
b a
V V =
Thus, 0 V V
b a
= =
Substitute the constraint into the node equation for node a to solve for
o
V .
0
R
V -
R
V -
F
c
1
s
= +
R
F
R
1
+
V
s

V
a
V
b

+
+
V
o

R
L
V
c
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Hence,
s
1
F
c
V
R
R -
V =
Clearly,
s
1
F
c o
V
R
R -
V V = =
We have shown that the value of
L
R has no effect on the value of
o
V , assuming that
L
R is
finite and not equal to zero.
EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.
Consider the following circuit.
Using Ohm's law,
1
a s
R
V V
I

=
From a characteristic of the ideal op amp,
b a
V V =
But 0 V 0 V
a b
= =
So,
1
s
R
V
I =
Also,
F
c
F
c a
R
V -
R
V V
I =

=
But
o c
V V =
So,
F
o
R
V -
I =
Thus,
s
1
F
o
F
o
1
s
V
R
R -
V
R
V -
R
V
= =
R
F
R
1
+
V
s

V
a
V
b

+
+
V
o

R
L
V
c
I
I
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Our check for accuracy was successful.
Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return to ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.
The value of R
L
has no effect on the value of V
o
, assuming that R
L
is finite and not zero.
Problem 5.5 [5.11] Find
o
v and
o
i in the circuit in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1
At node b, V 2 ) 3 (
5 10
10
v
b
=

+
=
At node a,
o a
o a a
v v 5 12
8
v v
2
v 3
=

But V 2 v v
b a
= =
So,
o
v ) 2 )( 5 ( 12 =
=
o
v V 2 -
m 5 . 0 -0.5m
4k
2 -
k 8
2 2 -
k 4
0 v
k 8
v v
i
o a o
o
= +

=
=
o
i mA 1 -
+
v
o

8 k
5 k

+
2 k
10 k
+

3 V 4 k
i
o
v
a
v
b
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INVERTING AMPLIFIER
An inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of the input signal while amplifying it.
Problem 5.6 [5.19] Using the circuit in Figure 5.1, calculate
o
v if 0 v
s
= .
Figure 5.1
At node a,
k 4
v v
k 8
v v
k 4
v 9
b a o a a

+

b o a
v 2 v v 5 18 = (1)
At node b,
k 2
v v
k 4
v v
o b b a

=

o b a
v 2 v 3 v = (2)
But 0 v v
s b
= =
Hence, (2) becomes
o a
v 2 - v =
and (1) becomes
o o o
v -11 v v 10 - 18 = = and =
o
v V 1.6364 -
8 k
4 k
v
a
v
b

+
+

+
v
o

v
s
4 k
2 k
+

9 V
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Problem 5.7 Express
o
V in terms of
s
V for the circuit shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1
Using nodal analysis,
0
R
V V
R
V V
F
o a
1
s a
=

where 0 V V
b a
= = is the constraint equation.
0
R
V -
R
V -
F
o
1
s
= +
=
o
V
s
1
F
V
R
R -
NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER
Problem 5.8 How does the circuit in Figure 5.1 differ from the circuit in Figure 5.1?
Figure 5.1
R
F
R
1
V
a
V
b

+
+

+
V
out

V
s
R
L
R
F
R
1
+
V
s

V
a
V
b

+
+
V
o

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Using nodal analysis,
0
R
V V
R
0 V
F
out a
1
a
=

where
s b a
V V V = = is the constraint equation.
Simplifying,
0
R
V V
R
V
F
out s
1
s
=

+
s
F 1
out
F
V
R
1
R
1
V
R
1

+ =
s
1
F
out
V 1
R
R
V

+ =
The significant difference between the two circuits is that the voltage gain for this circuit is
positive. In addition it should be noted that in the circuit of Figure 5.1, the relationship
between the output voltage, V
o
, and the input voltage, V
s
, is a simple ratio of R
F
and R
1
. For
the circuit in Figure 5.1, however, the gain can never be less than one. Since there is rarely
a case where the gain is less than one, this is not normally a problem.
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
A summing amplifier combines several inputs and produces an output that is the weighted sum of
the inputs.
Problem 5.9 [5.33] A four-input summing amplifier has = = = =
4 3 2 1
R R R R
k 12 . What value of feedback resistor is needed to make it an averaging amplifier?
In order for ) v v v v (
k 12
R
v
R
R
v
R
R
v
R
R
v
R
R
v
4 3 2 1
f
4
4
f
3
3
f
2
2
f
1
1
f
o
+ + + = + + + =
to become
k 12
R
4
1
) v v v v (
4
1 -
v
f
4 3 2 1 o
= + + + =
= =
4
k 12
R
f
3 k
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Problem 5.10 Express
out
V in terms of
1
V and
2
V for the circuit shown in Figure 5.1.
What have we done here?
Figure 5.1
Using nodal analysis,
0
k 10
V V
k 10
V V
k 10
V V
out a 2 a 1 a
=

where 0 V V
b a
= = is the constraint equation.
0
k 10
V -
k 10
V -
k 10
V -
out 2 1
= + +
2 1 out
V V - V =
=
out
V ) V V ( -
2 1
+ ++ +
We have constructed an inverting, summing amplifier.
DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
A difference amplifier amplifies the difference between two inputs but rejects any signals
common to the two inputs.
Problem 5.11 Using an operational amplifier, can we construct a circuit where
1 2 out
V V V = ?
Yes, we want to construct what is called a difference amplifier. We can do this using the circuit
shown in Figure 5.1.
10 k
10 k
+
V
2

V
a
V
b

+
+
V
out

R
L
10 k
+
V
1

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Figure 5.1
Now, verify that this circuit will amplify the difference of the two inputs.
Using nodal analysis,
0
R
V V
R
V V
2
out a
1
1 a
=

and 0
R
0 V
R
V V
4
b
3
2 b
=

where
b a
V V = is the constraint equation.
Simplifying,
out 1
1
2
a
1
2
V V
R
R
V 1
R
R
=

+ and
2
4 3
4
b
V
R R
R
V
+
=
Using the constraint equation to combine the two equations yields
1
1
2
2
4 3
4
1
2
out
V
R
R
V
R R
R
1
R
R
V

+ =
or
1
1
2
2
4 3
2 1
1
2
out
V
R
R
V
R R 1
R R 1
R
R
V

+
+
=
When
4
3
2
1
R
R
R
R
= , ) V V (
R
R
V
1 2
1
2
out
=
If
2 1
R R = and
4 3
R R = ,
1 2 out
V V V =
This was the desired case.
+
V
out

R
2
R
3
+
V
2

V
a
V
b

+
R
L
R
1
+
V
1

R
4
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Problem 5.12 [5.39] Design a difference amplifier to have a gain of 2 and a common
mode input resistance of 10 k at each input.
The input resistances are
= = k 10 R R
3 1
For a gain of 2,
= = = k 20 R 2 R 2
R
R
1 2
1
2
A property of difference amplifiers is
4
3
2
1
R
R
R
R
=
Thus,
= = k 20 R R
2 4
Now, verify the results,
1
1
2
2
4 3
2 1
1
2
o
v
R
R
v
) R R 1 (
) R R 1 (
R
R
v
+
+
=
1 2 o
v
k 10
k 20
v
5 . 0 1
5 . 0 1
k 10
k 20
v

+
+

=
) v v ( 2 v
1 2 o
=
This is the desired result. Therefore,
= =
3 1
R R k 10 = =
4 2
R R k 20
CASCADED OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
A cascade connection is a head-to-tail arrangement of two or more op amp circuits such that the
output of one op amp circuit is the input to the next op amp circuit.
Problem 5.13 [5.45] Refer to the circuit in Figure 5.1. Calculate
o
i if:
(a) mV 12 v
s
=
(b) mV ) t 377 cos( 10 v
s
=
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Figure 5.1
This is a cascading system of two inverting amplifiers.
s s o
v 6 v
6
12 -
4
12 -
v =

=
s
3 -
3
s
o
v 10 3
10 2
v
i =

=
(a) When mV 12 v
s
= ,
=
o
i A 36
(b) When mV ) t 377 cos( 10 v
s
=
=
o
i A ) t 377 cos( 30
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS WITH PSPICE
Problem 5.14 Solve Problem 5.1 using PSpice.
PSpice does not perform symbolic simulations. So, let V 1 V
s
= . Add a VIEWPOINT to the
circuit to indicate the output voltage. Set the load resistor to the desired value, save the schematic
and simulate. With the repetition of setting the load resistor and simulating the circuit, the output
voltage for each load resistor in Problem 5.1 can be verified.
12 k
6 k

+
+

v
s
2 k
i
o
12 k
4 k

+
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From the schematic,
for = 1 R
L
, =
out
V V 99692283 . 1 -
By changing the load resistor and simulating the circuit, it can be shown that
for = 100 R
L
, =
out
V V 99990789 . 1 -
for = k 1 R
L
, =
out
V V 99993507 . 1 -
for = k 10 R
L
, =
out
V V 99993779 . 1 -
for = k 100 R
L
, =
out
V V 99993806 . 1 -
This matches the answers obtained in Problem 5.1 when V 1 V
s
= .
Problem 5.15 Solve Problem 5.7 using PSpice.
Consider the following schematic.
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Because PSpice does not perform symbolic simulations, let V 1 V
s
= . We also need to choose
values for the resistors.
For the circuit above, let
=
s
V V 1 , =
1
R k 1 , and =
F
R k 10
which produces,
= = = ) 1 (
1k
10k -
V
R
R -
V
s
1
F
o
V 10 -
This verifies the answer obtained in Problem 5.7.
One must realize that Problem 5.7 was performed assuming an ideal op amp; PSpice does not
simulate an ideal op amp. Thus, the output voltage may not be an integer value even though the
calculations from Problem 5.7 would predict an integer value.
Also, the output voltage cannot be greater than V+ or less than V, where V+ and V are the
power supply voltages of the op amp.
There are three modes in which real op amps can operate. The most desirable is to have them
give the desired output. The second mode is when the op amp goes into saturation, reaching its
maximum output voltage and remaining there. The third mode is that the op amp can act like an
oscillator; its output voltage can be some type of periodic signal such as a sine wave.
Problem 5.16 Solve Problem 5.8 using PSpice.
Consider the following schematic.
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For the circuit above,
=
s
V V 1 , =
1
R k 1 , and =
F
R k 10
and
=

+ =

+ = ) 1 ( 1
1k
10k
V 1
R
R
V
s
1
F
o
V 11
This verifies the answer obtained in Problem 5.8
Also, see the comments made concerning ideal versus real op amps in Problem 5.15.
APPLICATIONS
Problem 5.17 Use an operational amplifier to change an ideal voltage source to an ideal
current source.
Consider the following circuit.
Clearly,
1
in
1
R
V
i =
In the circuit above, the op amp will maintain the current through the black box in the
feedback path at i
1
. Thus, the op amp is working like an ideal current source.
R
1
+
V
in

+
+
V
out
?
i
1
i
1
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