Atlantic University School of Medicine

Neuroscience Neurobiology of the Neuron

Characteristics of Neurons
Neurons are excitable cells specialized to transmit stimuli via nerve impulses. They vary considerably in size and structure. Neurons consist of a cell body, neurites (which extend from the cell body) and an axon (a long tubular neurite). Neurites responsible for receiving information and conducting it TOWARD the cell body are called dendrites. Dendrites and axons are often referred to as nerve fibers.

Types of Neurons

Types of Neurons
Unipolar neurons: cell body has a single neurite that divides a short distance from the cell body into two branches. One usually goes to a peripheral structure the other to the CNS. This type of neuron is found in the posterior (dorsal) root ganglion.

Types of Neurons
Bipolar neurons: have an elongated cell body from which two long dendrites extend from each end. This type of neuron is found among retinal bipolar cells and the cells of the cochlear and vestibular ganglia.

Types of Neurons
Multipolar neurons: neurons that have a number of neurites arising from the cell body. Aside from the axon, the rest of the neurites are dendrites. These are the predominate type of cell in the brain and spinal cord.

Classification by Size Golgi type I Neurons

Silver-stained Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex

Golgi type II Neurons

Silver stained section of the cerebral cortex.

Classification by Size
Golgi type I neurons: have a long axon that may be 1 meter or more in length. The axons form long fiber tracts of the brain and spinal cord and nerve fibers of the peripheral nerves. Examples of Golgi type I neurons include pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex, Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex and motor cells of the spinal cord.

Classification by Size
Golgi type II neurons : have short axons that terminate in the region of the cell of the neighboring cell body or is totally absent. They greatly outnumber Golgi type I neurons. They usually have a star-shaped appearance. These are found in the cerebral and cerebellar cortex and are often inhibitory in function.

Golgi type I Neurons

Golgi type I Neurons

Different Types of Neurons

Structure of the Neuron

Nucleus nuclear envelope nuclear pores Cytoplasm Nissl substance (rough ER-protein synthesis) chromatolysis Golgi complex Mitochondria Neurofibrils neurofilaments Microfilaments Microtubules Lysosomes Centrioles Lipofuscin (pigment material) Melanin granules Plasma Membrane & Excitation of the Plasma Membrane

Anterior gray column of the spinal cord

Structure of the Neuron

Nucleus nuclear envelope nuclear pores Cytoplasm Nissl substance (rough ER-protein synthesis) chromatolysis Golgi complex Mitochondria Neurofibrils neurofilaments Microfilaments Microtubules Lysosomes Centrioles Lipofuscin (pigment material) Melanin granules Plasma Membrane & Excitation of the Plasma Membrane

Structure of the Neuron

Nucleus nuclear envelope nuclear pores Cytoplasm Nissl substance (rough ER-protein synthesis) chromatolysis Golgi complex Mitochondria Neurofibrils neurofilaments Microfilaments Microtubules Lysosomes Centrioles Lipofuscin (pigment material) Melanin granules Plasma Membrane & Excitation of the Plasma Membrane

Posterior root ganglion lipofuscin granules within sensory neurons

Longitudinal Section

Transverse section

Structure of the Neuron

Nucleus nuclear envelope nuclear pores Cytoplasm Nissl substance (rough ER-protein synthesis) chromatolysis Golgi complex Mitochondria Neurofibrils neurofilaments Microfilaments Microtubules Lysosomes Centrioles Lipofuscin (pigment material) Melanin granules Plasma Membrane & Excitation of the Plasma Membrane

Plasma Membrane
About 8nm thick Composed of an inner and outer layer separated by a middle layer of lipid (phospholipid bilayer). Certain protein molecules lie within the phospholipid layer and span the entire width of the lipid layer (channels). Carbohydrate molecules attached to the outside of the membrane form the cell coat or glycocalyx.

Resting potential
In the resting state (unstimulated) K+ ions diffuse through the plasma membrane from the cell cytoplasm to the tissue fluid. K+ permeability is much greater than to Na+ ions so that passive efflux of K+ is greater than the influx of Na+. This results in a steady potential difference of about -80mV (inside is more negative relative to outside).

Action Potential
Stimulation of a nerve cell via electrical, chemical or mechanical stimulation results in a rapid change in membrane permeability to Na+ ions. Na+ ions diffuse through the plasma membrane into the cell cytoplasm from the tissue fluid. Results in the membrane becoming depolarized. This sudden influx of Na+ ions followed by the altered polarity produces the action potential (+40mV). Na+ permeability ceases whereas K+ increases returning the cell back to the resting state.

Refractory Period
Once a nerve impulse has spread over the plasma membrane another action potential cannot be elicited immediately. The duration of this non-excitable state is called the refractory period.

Summation and Inhibition

The greater the strength of the initial stimulus, the larger the initial depolarization and the greater the spread into the surrounding areas of the plasma membrane. If multiple excitatory stimuli are applied to the surface of a neuron then the effect can be summated. Inhibition, or hyperpolarization, is produced by an influx of Cl- ions through the plasma membrane into the neuron.

Ion Channels

Ion Channels

Ion channels exist in at least two conformational states: open and closed. Gating involves the twisting or distortion of the various subunits of a channel protein producing a wider or a more narrow lumen. Gating occurs in response to voltage change, presence of a ligand, stretch or pressure.

Ion Channels

Nerve Cell: Axon and Dendrites

Dendrites: the short processes of the cell body. In various neurons finer branches have large numbers of small projections called dendritic spines.

Dendritic spines on pyramidal neurons of the cerebral cortex.

Nerve Cell: Axon and Dendrites

Axon: the name given to the longest process of the cell body. It arises from a small conical elevation on the cell body, devoid of Nissle granules called the axon hillock. Distal ends of the terminal branches of the axons that are often large are called terminals.

The Axon
The plasma membrane bounding the axon is the axolemma. The cytoplasm of the axon is termed the axoplasm. Axoplasm does not possess Nissl granules or Golgi complex. The initial segment of the axon (first 50 to 100um) after it leaves the axon hillock is the most excitable part of the axon and is the site at which an action potential always originates.

Axon Hillock
Longitudinal section of a neuron from the cerebral cortex.

Axon Transport
Anterograde transport: materials that are transported from the cell body to the axon terminals.
Fast anterograde transport (100 to 400mm per day) refers to the transport of proteins and transmitter substances or their precursors. Slow anterograde transport (0.1 to 3mm per day) refers to the transport of axoplasm and microfilaments and microtubules.

Axon Transport
Retrograde transport: materials that are transported from the terminals to the cell body.

Synapses
Where two neurons come into close proximity and functional interneuronal communication occurs is called a synapse. Most neurons make synaptic connections to 1000 or more neurons and may receive up to 10,000 connections from other neurons.

Synapses
Communication at a Synapse takes place in one direction only. Synapses occur in a number of forms: Axodendritic Axosomatic Axoaxonic

Types of Synapses

Synapses
There are two types of synapses: chemical and electrical. Most synapses are chemical and utilize a neurotransmitter which passes across the narrow space between the cells and attaches to a protein molecule called a receptor.

Neurotransmitter Action

Neurotransmitter Action
Transmitter is released Receptor on postsynaptic cell bind transmitter ligand Ligand Gated (fast, i.e. nicotinic acetylcholine, glutamate) or G-protein linked (slow, Dopamine) Produce an EPSP or IPSP

Synapses
The apposed surfaces of the terminal axon and another neuron are called the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes and are separated by the synaptic cleft (2030nm wide).

Chemical Synapses
Presynaptic vesicles, mitochondria, and occasional lysosomes are present in the cytoplasm close to the presynaptic membrane.

Chemical Synapses
The presynaptic terminal contains many small presynaptic vesicles that contain molecules of various neurotransmitters or one specific neurotransmitter.

Chemical Synapses
Once released the vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane and discharge the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft by a process called exocytosis.

Neurotransmitter Action
Depending on the summation of various inputs into the primary cell, the cell can be excited or DEPOLARIZED, and an action potential will be initiated at the initial segment and travel down the axon. If the overall effect results in a HYPERPOLARIZED cell, the neuron will be inhibited and no nerve impulse will arise.

Inactivation of Neurotransmitter

Neuromodulators
Neuromodulators are neurotransmitters either co-released with the primary transmitter or packaged separately in other vesicles and released. They are capable of modulating and modifying the activity of the postsynaptic neuron. They may enhance, prolong, inhibit or limit the effect of the principle neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic membrane. Neuromodulators act through a second messenger system (G-proteins).

Electrical Synapses

Electrical synapses are gap junctions. There is no chemical transmitter. They are fast.

Electrical Synapses

The rapid spread of activity from one neuron to another ensures that a group of neurons performing an identical function act together. Electrical synapses are bidirectional, chemical synapses are not.

Adios