What does localized heating of 1F do to carbon steel or gray cast iron?

In order to answer this question we need to understand Young's modulus and the coefficient of linear expansion of iron. Young's modulus is the physical constant that expresses the ratio between stress and strain below the proportional limit. For example, steel = 30,000,000 lb/in.2.

which means that one pound of stress or load that is applied to a 1-in. cube of steel in one direction changes that dimension by 1/30,000,000 in. (0.000000033 in.). The change in length will be a decrease if the stress is compressive or an increase if the stress or load is tensile.

Fig. 1 A partial stress-strain curve to the proportional limit for steel.

Figure 1 shows a partial stress-strain curve to the proportional limit for steel.

Coefficient of Linear Expansion of Iron

The coefficient of expansion of iron is 0.0000067/F/linear inch. The coefficient of expansion of iron rises with temperature, nearly 0 at absolute zero, rising to about 8.0 106 at 800F. To compress a 1-cubic-in. steel block that has been heated 1F (75 to 76F) from a length of 1.0000067 to 1.00000 in. requires a compressive stress or load of 0.0000067 divided by 0.000000033, which equals approximately 201 lb/in.2. Stated another way, 0.0000067 30,000,000 lb/in.2 = approximately 201 lb/in.2. Young's modulus decreases as the temperature is raised. The yield strength of mild steel is about 48,000 lb/in.2. The tensile strength of mild steel is about 63,000 lb/in.2. If we apply localized heating of 1 (75 to 76F) to a piece of steel plate, the compressive stress will be 0.0000067 30,000,000 lb/in.2 = 201 lb/in.2. If we multiply this amount by 400F (75 to 475F of localized heating), we get 80,400 lb/in.2, which is well above the yield or tensile strength of mild steel. These types of localized forces will distort the steel insofar as the steel has ductility. In some cases, such as a pipe that is installed through a steel bulkhead with excessive root opening, the first pass when cooled may crack either in the weld center or beside the weld due to extreme residual/reaction forces. When we are welding two pieces of steel together, the temperature of the weld zone is much higher than 400F. The expansion forces we have discussed are taking place, but in most cases we do not see the forces in action due to the size and weight of the pieces being welded.

A lot of these forces are taken up in the hot plastic weld zone. As the weld cools, the contraction stresses appear as visible distortion. It is no wonder that when we fusion weld steel we have to be very concerned about controlling distortion.

Types of Distortion and Shrinkage

Figure 2 shows the various types of distortion and shrinkage. When making fusion welds on fabrications, all of the types of distortion and shrinkage shown in Fig. 2 are taking place at the same time. These conditions make controlling distortion difficult. There are formulas for controlling transverse and longitudinal shrinkage for butt joints; however, the formulas lose accuracy if the cross-sectional area of the plate is greater than 20 times that of the weld. Changes in welding process, size of weld, weld travel speed, and heat input all have an effect on distortion.

Fig. 2 The types of distortion and shrinkage.

Controlling DistortionTypes of Distortion and Shrinkage

There is nothing that can take the place of knowledge and experience when it comes to controlling distortion. Each fabrication that has to be welded is unique. The following are acceptable methods for attempting to control distortion. Mechanical Control Presetting, prebending, and prespacing the plates. Temporary stiffeners, clamps, strongbacks, special jigs (that do not restrain the weld joint), and back-to-back clamping. Welding Procedure Control Use the minimum groove angle for the weld joint that will accommodate the filler metal. Maintain weld joint fitup tolerances as per the drawing, code, specification, or standard. Use backstepping or skip welding techniques. Weld outward from a central point using a backstepping technique. Weld about the neutral axis. Balance welds on either side of a centerline. Weld butt joints before fillet welds. Use chain or staggered intermittent fillet welds. Arrange the weld sequence so that each joint has the maximum freedom for the longest period. Use subassemblies. Weld before riveting. Select a welding process that reduces the heat input, such as gas metal arc welding in the short circuit metal transfer mode for gauge metal welding and in the pulsed spray metal transfer mode for austenitic stainless steels. Avoid making numerous small weld beads for a given weld groove. Utilize preheating to reduce residual, reaction, and structural stresses.

Repairing Gray Cast Iron

If we take nonductile gray cast iron, which has a tensile strength of about 22,000 lb/in.2, and apply localized heat of 400F, there is a good chance that we will crack the cast on heating. This is why careful preheating procedures and welding techniques are required when repairing thin-section gray cast irons.

Performing Interference Fits

Understanding the previous information helps us to perform interference fits of sprockets or gears to shafts. If we apply heat only to the hub of the sprocket or gear, the cooler outer circumference of the sprocket or gear will prevent the expansion of the hole and the hole will shrink when cooled. When performing interference fits, it is important to have the shaft and sprocket or gear machined so it will fit properly when heated and cooled to room temperature. A common interference fit is one half thousandths per inch of shaft. If using multiple flames, it is important to heat the sprocket or gear evenly from the outside in. The best methods of heating are to use a heating oven or induction coil. When performing through-thickness heating, a digital read-out pyrometer is preferred. Gears and sprocket teeth are hardened and tempered items. The tempering temperature is usually around 500F, so it is important to not heat the gear or sprocket above that temperature or some temper will be lost. The formula for interference fits (which can be located in the Machinery's Handbook) is 0.0000067 bore diameter F of through-thickness preheating. For More Information If you'd like to learn more about what causes distortion and how it can be controlled, the following references are suggested. 1. 2. 3. Welding Handbook, 8th edition, Vol. 1, Welding Technology, Chapter 7. Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society. Linnert, George. Welding Metallurgy, Vol. 2, Chapter 11. Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society. Metals and How to Weld Them, Chapter 10. Cleveland, Ohio: James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation.