Control

Engineering

Series

FEEDBACK

CONTROL

With MATLAB

Boris J.
Paul

Lurie

J.

Enright

FEEDBACK

CONTROL

CONTROL

ENGINEERING

A Series

of Reference Booksand Textbooks

Editor

NEIL

MUNRO,
Control
Institute United

PH.D., D.SC.
Engineering of Science
Kingdom

Professor
Applied

University of Manchester

and Technology

Manchester,

1.

Nonlinear
Timothy
Computational

Control of Electric Machinery,

C. Burg
Intelligence

Darren

M. Dawson,

Jun

Hu,

and

2.
3.

Quantitative Stantine

Feedback H. Houpis

and Steven J. Rasmussen of Finite Markov Chains, A. S. Poznyak, K. Najim, Control A. Self-Learning andE. Gdmez-Ramirez Control and Filtering for Time-Delay Systems, Magdi S. Mahmoud 5, Robust Boris J. Lurie and Paul J. 6, Classical Feedback Control:With MATLAB,
Enright

in Control Engineering, Robert E. King Theory: Fundamentals and Applications,

Con-

Additional

Volumes

in Preparation

FEEDBACK

CONTROL

With

MATLAB

Boris J.
Paul

Lurie

J.

Enright

Jet Propulsion Laboratory CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology

MARCEL

Marcel DEXKER

Dekker,

Inc.

New York

\342\200\242 Basel

Library of CongressCataloging-in-Publication
Lurie, B.
p.

Data

J.
control with MATLAB cm. \342\200\224 6) (Control engineering; control

Classical feedback 1.
(Marcel

/ Boris J. Lurie,

Paul

J. Enright.

ISBN 0-8247-0370-7
Feedback

systems.

I. Enright,

Paul

J. II.

Title. III. Control

engineering

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PREFACE

Classical

Feedback Control
is

feedback
methods

controllers for engineering systems. The

widely

describesdesign and
used

implementation book

of high-performance

emphasizes
It

domain approach which

for linear
and

the frequencypresents

nonlinear

in practical controllers high-order

engineering.
for
single-input,

design

single-output

multi-output, analog and digital control systems. Modern technology allows implementation of high-performance controllers at a tools which were previously considered an very low cost. Conversely,several analysis inherent the design to low-order (and thereforelowpart of control system courseslimit the detection of performance) method, compensators. Among these are the root-locus roots calculations right-sidedpolynomial using the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, and manual transforms. These methods have been rendered obsolete using the Laplace and Fourier and are granted a brief treatment in the book, making room for loop by computers only Bode structural simulation of complexsystems, shaping, integrals, multiloop systems, and nonlinear controllers, all of which are essential for good design practice. In the design philosophy adopted by Classical Feedback Control, Bodeintegral relations are employed to estimate the available play a key role. The integrals system and to determine the frequency that maximize the disturbance performance responses and the feedback bandwidth. This to quickly estimate the attainable rejection ability is critical for system-level trades in the design of complex engineering performance is one of many the controller systems, of which Only at the final subsystems. design and only for the finally selected do the stage configuration option of the system in detail, by approximation of the already found compensators need to be designed
optimal

and multi-input,

frequency

responses.

and process global dynamic compensation is employed to provide and to transient responses. The nearly-optimal high-order stability, improve are then economically implemented analog and digital technology. using compensators The first six chapters support a one-semester course in linear control. The rest of the issues of complexsystem the considers book robustness, simulation, global stability, are used for and SPICE the book, MATLAB and nonlinear control. Throughout this is no with software simulation and required. The design; preliminary experience transform and frequency responses; student should have some knowledge of the Laplace the 2. required theory is reviewed in Appendix of feedback control, which can be used as treatment Appendix 1 is an elementary an introduction to the course. not only a textbook to make Classical FeedbackControl It is the authors' intention become engineers, enabling them to design for students as they but also a reference the transition from school to the competitive and controllers easing high-performance industrial environment. The methods describedin this book were used by the authors and tools for feedback loops of aerospace and their colleagues as the major design telecommunication systems. and criticism our readers We would be grateful for any comments, corrections, may or addressed take the trouble to communicate to us, via E-mail b.j.lurie@jpl.nasa.gov CA 91109. to B. J. Lurie, 198/326, JPL, 4800 Oak Grove Drive,Pasadena

Nonlinear

Acknowledgment.

We
Ahmed.

thank

Alia

Lurie

for technical

editing

and

acknowledge

the
many

generous help

of

Asif

We

greatly

appreciate previous discussionson

ill

iv

Preface
Professor the

control issues with

of

and collaboration, comments and advice of John O'Brien, laboratory, and especially Propulsion Daniel Chang, Edward about the in the told the authors (who jump-resonance Kopf Drs. Alexander attitude control of the Mariner 10 spacecraft), Abramovichi, loop Thomas Bak, DavidBayard edit the chapter on adaptive systems), (who helped Dimitrius Chen (who contributed Boussalis, 7), Ali Ghavimi (who Appendix Gun-Shing contributed to Appendix A13.14), FredHadaegh (who co-authored several papers on the digital which 13 is based), John Hench (who contributed signal profiling Chapter function in Section 5.11), Kenneth Wei Min Liu, Mehran Mesbahi, GregoryNeat, Lau, and corrections made by Samuel John Spanos, and Michael Zak. Suggestions Sirlin, Professors Smith allowed us to improve the Osita and Bird, Nwokah, Randolph Roy and Dr. Jason the Modisette read manuscript suggested many changes and manuscript. of a mechanical snake control in corrections. Allan Schier contributed the example A13.15. To all of them we extendour sincere gratitude. Appendix
Isaac

Horowitz,

our colleagues

at

Jet

Boris J.

Lurie Paul J. Enright

Contents

ix

Chapter

INTRODUCTION
8.1

CONTROLLER DESIGN
QFT

TO ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF
245

245
pole

8.2

Root locus and

8.3 8.4

8.5

State-spacemethods LQRandLQG .
H^,

methods placement and full-state feedback

247 249

253
matrix inequalities

^-synthesis,

and linear

255

Chapter

9
257

ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS
9.1

Benefits

of adaptation to
dynamic

the

plant

parameter

variations

257
259

9.2
9.3

Static and
Plant

transfer

adaptation function identification plants systems

259
260
261

9.4
9.5
9.6

Flexibleand
Pilot signals

n.p.

Disturbance and noiserejection

and

dithering

262
264

9.7

Adaptive

filters

Chapter

10

PROVISION

OF GLOBAL
of the

STABILITY
feedback
systems
path,

266
and

10.1
10.2
10.3

Nonlinearities

actuator,

plant

266
267

Types of self-oscillation
Stability 103.1
10.3.2
Absolute

analysis of nonlinear Local

stability
linearization

269
269

Global stability

270
270

10.4
10.5

Popov criterion

271
to passive

10.5.1
10.6

Analogy

two-poles'connection
Popov

271
274
275

10.5.2 Different forms of the criterion Applications of Popov 10.6.1 Low-pass system with 10.6.2 Band-pass system with
Absolutely

criterion feedback feedback.

maximum maximum

10.7

stable

systems

10.7.1

Nonlinear
Reduction

10.7.2
10.7.3
10.8

with nonlinear dynamic dynamic compensator to equivalent system

compensation

....

275 275
276

276
277
278

Designexamples 11

Problems

286

Chapter

DESCRIBING FUNCTIONS

289
289

11.1

Harmonic

balance

11.1.1

11.1.2

Harmonic balance analysis

Harmonic

289
290

balance

accuracy

CONTENTS

PREFACE
TO

iii

INSTRUCTORS

xiii

Chapter

FEEDBACK

1.1
1.2 1.3

AND SENSITIVITY
control

l
1 3

Feedback

system
negative

1.4

Feedback: positive and Large feedback

Loop

gain
Gain

1.4.1
1.4.2
1.5

and phase
and

frequency responses
responses

4 6
6
9
10

phase
diagram

Nyquist

Nichols chart 1.4.3 Disturbance rejection

Example

11
12
nonlinearity

1.6
1.7
1.8

of system feedback

analysis
on the

Effect of
Sensitivity

actuator

15

17
finite

1.9

Effect of
Automatic

1.10
1.11
1.12

plant parameter level control signal compensators a look ahead

variations

18
19
20

Lead and

PID

Conclusion and

20

1.13

Problems

21

Chapter 2
FEEDFORWARD,

2.1
2.3

MULTILOOP,
feedforward
and

AND

MIMO

SYSTEMS

.31
31

Command

2.2 2.4

Prefilter
Error

the

feedback

path equivalent

33
34

feedforward

Black's feedforward method

Multiloop

35
36
37

2.5
2.6
2.7

feedback

systems

2.8
2.9

Local, common, and nestedloops Crossed loops and main/vernier loops

Manipulations

38
functions...

of block

diagrams

and calculations of transfer

40

2.10

MIMO feedback systems

Problems

43
46

Chapter

FREQUENCY

RESPONSE
of
Approximate

METHODS
requirements

3.1
3.2
3.3

Conversion

time-domain
relations

to frequency domain

52 52
52

3.1.1
3.1.2

Filters
transient

56
response

Closed-loop
Root locus

58

59

vi

Contents

3.4

Nyquist
Robustness Nyquist

stability criterion
and criterion

61
margins
with

3.5
3.6 3.7
3.8 3.9

stability for a

system
loop

an criterion

unstable

plant with poles at the

origin

63 67
69
. . 71

Successiveloop closurestability
Nyquist diagrams for the Bode integrals

transfer

functions

74
functions

3.9.1
3.9.2 3.9.3 3.9.4

Minimum Integral Integral Integral Gain

phase

of feedback of resistance of the integral

74 75 76

3.9.5 3.9.6
3.10

over
relation

imaginary part finite bandwidth

78 78
79

Phase-gain

Phase calculations
From

81
the

3.11
3.12
3.13

the

Nyquist

diagram to

Bode

diagram links

83
85 m.p.

3.14

Non-minimum phase lag Ladder networks and parallel connections of Problems

86

88

Chapter 4

SHAPINGTHELOOP
4.1

FREQUENCY

RESPONSE

94

Optimality of the

compensator

design

94
96

4.2

Feedback maximization
4.2.1 4.2.3

Structural Example
Reshaping

4.2.2 Bodestep

design of a system having

the a loop

96
97

4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6

response

with a

Bode step. .

. 100
105
106

feedback

response

Bode cutoff
Band-pass
Nyquist-stable

systems
systems

107
108 110
110

4.2.7
4.3

Feedback bandwidth limitations 4.3.1 Feedback bandwidth 4.3.2 Sensor noise at the system

4.3.3 4.3.4
4.3.5

Sensornoise
Non-minimum-phase

at

the

output actuator input

shift

Ill 112
113

Plant tolerances
Lightly and

114
flexible

4.3.6
4.3.7
4.4

damped non-collocated

plants; collocated 116

119

control

Unstable plants
in MIMO
parallel

4.5
4.6

Coupling
Shaping

systems
responses

120
121

channel

Problems

125

Chapter 5

DESIGN COMPENSATOR
5.1

130

Accuracy

of the

loop shaping

130

5.2

Asymptotic

Bode diagram

131

Contents
5.3

vii

Approximation
Lead

5.4
5.5
5.6

and

of constant-slope links lag links

of links

gain response

133
135

Complexpoles
Cascaded

; . .

137

138
141

5.7
5.8

Parallelconnection
Simulation ofaPID
Analog

controller
controllers

143
146

5.9
5.10

and

digital

Digital compensator design

146
integrator transforms

5.10.1
5.10.2 5.10.3

Discrete

trapezoidal
and

5.10.4 Block
5.10.5
5.10.6 5.10.7
Compensator Aliasing

Laplace Design sequence

Tustin
diagrams,

146 148

151
and computer

equations, design

code

151
153 156

example
for

and

noise the fundamental

5.11
5.12

Transfer function Command profiling

Problems

157
159

159

Chapter
6.1

6
170

ANALOG CONTROLLER IMPLEMENTATION

Active

RC circuits
Operational

170
amplifier
differentiator

6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3

170
171

Integrator and
Noninverting
Op-amp Transfer

6.1.4

configuration
range, with

. 172 packaging
and

6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.7

dynamic functions

noise, and multiple

(.

173
174
176

poles

zeros

Active RC filters Nonlinear links

and

178
element value domain

6.2

Design 6.2.1 Cauer

6.2.2

iterations and

in the Foster

180
180
182

RC two-poles
chart controlled

/?C-impedance

6.3 6.4

Analog compensator, analogor digitally Switched-capacitor filters 6.4.1 circuits Switched-capacitor

of compensator 6.4.2 Example Miscellaneous hardware issues

183
184

184
185
186

design

6.5

6.5.1
6.5.3

Ground
Stability
tunable

186
187
testing

6.5.2 Signaltransmission
and
issues

189 190

6.6

PID
6.6.1

controller

6.6.2
6.7

PID compensator
TID

190
192
one

compensator

Tunable compensator with

variable

parameter

193
193
194

6.7.1
6.7.2
6.7.3

Bilineartransfer

function

6.8
6.9

Symmetrical regulator Hardware implementation

measurements

196
196

Loopresponse
Problems

200

viii

Contents

Chapter

7
205

LINEAR
7.1

LINKS

AND SYSTEM SIMULATION

analogies
transfer

Mathematical

205
205 208

7.1.1
7.1.2 7.1.3

Electro-mechanical analogies
Electrical

analogy to heat Hydraulic systems

of unilateral
Structural

209
211
211

7.2

Junctions

links

7.2.1
7.2.2

design

Junction variables
Loading

212
213

7.2.3
7.3
transfer

diagram and

Effect of the plant

function
Effect

actuator

impedances

on

the

plant

7.4

of feedback

7.4.1 7.4.3 7.4.5

7.4.2 Blackman's formula

Parallel

uncertainty on the impedance (mobility) feedback with and force sensors Large velocity feedback

214
215

215
216

217
217

7.4.4 Series feedback 7.5

Effect Flowchart

7.6

7.6.1
7.6.2
7.6.3 7.6.4

Compound feedback on feedback of load impedance for the chain connection of bidirectional two-ports
Chain

218

219 220
220
223 224

connection

of two-ports

DC motors
Motor output Piezoelements
mobility

224
and

7.6.5
7.6.6
7.7

Drivers,transformers,

gears

225
227

7.8

Coulomb friction Examples of system modeling

Flexible

227
230
230 230

structures
system Impedance (mobility) of a lossless Lossless distributed structures Collocated control Non-collocated

7.8.1
7.8.2 7.8.3

232
232

7.8.4
7.9

control

Sensor noise

233
sensors

7.9.1

Motion

233
and

7.9.1.1

Position

angle

sensors

233

7.9.1.2 Rate sensors

234
235

7.9.1.3Accelerometers
7.9.1.4

7.9.2
7.10

Effect

Noise responses of feedback on the

235 signal-to-noise
system
ratio

236

Mathematical

analogies to

the

feedback

237
237

7.10.1
7.10.2

Feedback-to-parallel-channel analogy
Feedback-to-two-pole-connection
time-variable

analogy

237
238

7.11
7.12

Linear

systems

Problems

240

x
11.2

Contents

Describing
11.3.1

function
for

11.3

Describingfunctions
Exact

symmetrical
formulas

piece-linear

characteristics

....

291
292

expressions

292
296

11.3.2
11.4

Approximate

Hysteresis
Nonlinear Two NDC

297
links

11.5
11.8

11.6
11.7
11.9 11.10 11.11

nonlinear with
with

phase advance for large-amplitude signals the feedback loop link single nonlinear nondynamic
yielding links in channels

. . . 300

301
302

NDC

parallel

NDC made with local feedback Negative hysteresisand Clegg

Nonlinear
feedback
interaction

between

Integrator the local

304 306 310

and

the

common

loops
systems
intermodulation

311
312
313

11.12 NDC in multiloop 11.13 Harmonics and

11.13.1

Harmonics
Intermodulation

313
314 315

11.13.2
11.14 11.15

Verification Problems

of global stability

317

Chapter

12

PROCESS INSTABILITY

322
322

12.1
12.2

Process

instability
stability

Absolute
Jump-resonance

of the

output process.

322
324

12.3
12.4

Subharmonics

327
327

12.4.1
12.4.2

Odd subharmonics
Second
dynamic

subharmonic
compensation

328
329

12.5
12.6

Nonlinear

Problems

329

Chapter

13

MULTI-WINDOWCONTROLLERS

13.1
13.4
13.5
13.6

331
331
333

Composite Multi-window

nonlinear control

controllers and to

13.2
13.3

Switching between hot

Windup,

controllers

a cold controller

335
336
339

and

anti-windup

controllers
. . .

Selectionorder
and tracking Time-optimal control
Acquisition

340

13.7

343
343

13.8
13.9

Examples
Problems

347

APPENDICES

349
Feedback Introduction

Appendix 1
Al.l

control,

elementary

treatment

349
349

Contents
A1.2

XI

Feedback Al.2.1

Al.2.2
Al.2.3

control, elementary treatment Feedback block diagram

Feedback

349

349
350

control

Links
control

A1.3

Why

cannot
Dynamic

be perfect
links

352 353
353
354

Al.3.1
A1.4

Al.3.2 Control accuracy limitations More about feedback

355
355

Al.4.1
Al.4.2

Self-oscillation

Al.4.3
Al.4.4

Loop frequency
Control

response
design

356
frequency responses . . .
357

system

using

Some

algebra

357
358

Al.4.5
Al.4.6

Disturbance rejection
Conclusion
responses

359

A1.5

New words
Frequency

359
360

Appendix2
A2.1 A2.3

Frequency responses
function and function

360
362 the s-plane

A2.2 Complextransfer
Laplace
transform

362
363 365
poles

A2.4
A2.5 A2.6

Laplacetransfer

Poles and zeros of transfer functions Pole-zero cancellation, dominant

and zeros

366

A2.7

Time-responses
Problems

367
367 positive

A2.8
Appendix
Appendix

3
4 A4.1 A4.2

Causal systems, passivesystems,and Derivation of Bode integrals Integral of the real part Integral of the imaginary part

real

functions

...

371

372 372

372
373

A4.3
Appendix

General relation
Program for phase calculation

376
379

Appendix 6
Appendix

Appendix Appendix

Appendix 9

Genericsingle-loop feedback system Effect of feedback on mobility of a function on a parameter Dependence

Balanced

383

384
385

bridge

feedback
for

Appendix 11 Discussions

10 Phase-gainrelation
Compensator

describing

functions

386

387
387
negative

All.l
A11.2 A11.3

implementation

A11.4 Elements A11.5 Plant

Feedback: positive and Tracking systems

(links) transfer

388

of the function

feedback system
uncertainty

388 388
389
390
390

A11.6 The Nyquist criterion stability A11.7 Actuator's output impedance A11.8 Integral of feedback

391
391
391

A11.9
A11.10
All.ll

Bode

integrals

The Bode phase-gain relation What limits the feedback?

392

xii

Contents

A11.12 Feedbackmaximization
A11.13

392
in

Feedback
Nonminimum

maximization
phase

multi-loop

systems

A11.14 A11.15
A11.16

functions

394 394
394

Feedback controldesignprocedure
Global

stability

and

absolute and

A11.17
A11.18

Describing function
Multi-loop

stability nonlinear dynamic

395

compensation

. . ,

395

systems

396
396

A11.19 MIMOsystems
A11.20

The Bode's
Design

book

397
398

Appendix 12
Appendix

sequence

13

A13.1
A13.2

Examples
Industrial

399
furnace
mirror

temperature
of a

control

399

A13.3
A13.4 A13.5
A13.6

mapping spectrometer control with an NDC Telecommunication repeater control Attitude of a flexible plant
Rocket

Scanning

400
402 403
404

booster

nutation

A13.7
A13.8

Voltage

regulator

with

a main, repeater

vernier, and

local loops

405
407

Telecommunication

Distributed regulators
Saturn

409

A13.9

flight control system A13.10 PLL computer clock with duty cycle A13.ll Attitude control of solarpanels
V S-IC

410
adjustments

411 411

A 13.12

Conceptual design of an
Pathlength

antenna

attitude

control
Bode

412

A13.13
A13.15
Appendix

control motor

of an

A13.14 MIMO
14

optical delay line

417
steps . .

control

having loop

responses with

430
431

Mechanical snakecontrol Bode Step toolbox

432

BIBLIOGRAPHY

441
445

NOTATION
INDEX

449

TO

INSTRUCTORS

The book presents the preparesthe

Plant
reader

design
industry,

techniques

which

the

authors

found

most

useful

in

designing control systems for

for research

telecommunication,

and

in the

area of high-performance
the

space programs. It also

nonlinear

controllers.

of control (plant) is object of effective frequency response over the range feedback or by a rather simple input/output mathematical model. Classical not utilize the plant's internal does variables and/or their estimates design for compensation, unlike the full-state The feedback approach. appropriate loop are achieved responses by a stand-alone high-order compensator. These are the reasons this book starts with disturbance and feedback, rejection, loop shaping, compensator design, and not with extensive plant modeling.

characterizedeither

and compensator. In
by

classical control,

its

measured

Book architecture. The

of,
1
roughly

speaking,

four

systems, feedback,modeling

contained in this book is organized level Each considers linear design layers. layer and simulation. The layers are the following:
material linear elementary

as

a sequence and nonlinear

Control system analysis: elementary the effects of nonlinearities, and

Control

feedback simulation
and

system
in

design:
depth

feedback
(Chapters one-semester

theory
3-4)

design
by

of theory, a short description methods (Chapters 1-2). of linear single-loop systems

implementation

developed
(Chapter

followed

methods

5-6).
first

This completesthe 3
Integration

course in control.

of

linear

and

nonlinear

utilization of the effects (Chapter 7) followed by

4

of feedback
a brief

subsystem models into on impedances, various

alternative

the

system

model,
methods

simulation

survey of
9).

controller

design

methods

and
11),
and

of adaptive systems (Chapters8 and

Nonlinear
methods
composite

systems study of elimination

nonlinear

with

practical
reduction

design
of

or

process

methods (Chapters 10 and instability (Chapter 12),

layers.

controllers
layer

(Chapter 13). on
the

Each consecutive
of

is based

preceding

For example,

introduction

absolute

primitive

stability and Nyquist treatment of saturation

stable effects

systems in the

precisely in links'input and output impedances on the plant uncertainty in the third layer is based on the elementary feedbacktheory the effects of plant tolerances on of the first layer and in available the second the feedback developed layer. and allows This architecture the multifaceted character of real life design, reflects stability
then

are

treated

more

second layer is preceded by a and absolute first layer; global stability the effects of the fourth Treatment of layer.
in the

illustration

of the

theory by real

system exampleswithout

excessive

idealization.

Design
Propulsion
\342\200\242 A

These controllers

of high-performance controllers. are examples those chosen among designed by the authors of the book at the Jet various robotic missions. for Laboratory space

examples.
are

The

following

other and several of the controller for a retroreflector carriage prototype All these is in Section 4.2.3. described controllers of the Chemistry Spacecraft and controllers are high-order and nonlinear, control plants with structural modes, include a high-orderlinear part with a Bode step.
xiii

xiv

To

Instructors

digital controller for the Mars Pathfinder high-gain Seqtion 5.10.5. \342\200\242 controller for the STRV spacecraftcryogenic Switched-capacitor
\342\200\242 A nonlinear

antenna
cooler

pointing

to

Earth,

vibration

rejection,
\342\200\242 Vibration

Section 6.4.2. in the model damping

Section 7.1.1 and Example2 in Section 7.7. \342\200\242 Mars Global attitude control, Surveyor

of a spacestellar
briefly

interferometer,

Example in

2 in

described

Example
in

1,
in

Section 13.6.
\342\200\242

Microgravity

accelerometer

analog
thermal

feedback
control,

loop, described
described

detail

Example
\342\200\242 Cassini

2, Section
Narrow

11.9.
in detail
in

View Camera

Section

7.1.2

and in Example
\342\200\242 More mapping

design Space

3, Section13.6. are described examples

controller,

in

spectrometer

Section

Deep

Network

Section

A13.10;

klystron radar, Section 13.6; Cassini computer a feedback-feedforward attitude controller digital

13; in particular, Cassini Appendix A13.2; high-voltage power source for

clock

PLL,

for

DS-1
attitude

Limb Sounder spacecraft solarpanels,SectionA 13.11; Microwave control of the Chemistry spacecraft,Section A13.12; and Space optical delay line control, Section A13.13.
(The

antenna

Interferometer

book's

cover

depicts
simulation

Chemistry, Cassini, and

and

DS-1
in

spacecraft.)
the

Software.
MathWorks,

Most
using only

design

Inc. Some

can be given assumed, and

order

but \302\256, examples can use SIMULINK

examples

book

use MATLAB
the

\302\256 from

MATLAB a small

alone.
logspace,

No

preliminary

knowledge

course introductory of MATLAB is

subset of
on,

MATLAB

commands

title, set, grid, hold hold off, Ip21p, Ip2bp,format, roots,poly,

laplace,

of their

introduction:

bode,

conv, rlocus,
bilinear,

listed below in the zp2tf, step, gtext, tf2zp, inv, linspace, plot(x,y),
is used, residue, functions the design

inv,

invlaplace,
and described

impulse.
the

Additional

MATLAB

linmod, ezplot, written by the

authors the

in Appendix

book.

If SIMULINK is
should

14 may used as a major

block

complement design

tool,

students

methods described in how should be taught

to plot

in SPICE be shown how to make simulations (SPICE examples given in this book are listed in the Index). These examples can be bypassedin are given in Chapter 5. Some simple C codeexamples other specialties. teaching

EE majors

Bode diagrams from

also

diagrams

(see pp. 228,250).

Frequency responses.The
frequency

design

methods
for

taught
proving

frequency responsemethods.
Laplace

book,
impulse.

experience with practical applications of the in this feedback system design as described is required, transform with MATLAB commands step and the transforms are performednumerically
No

responses.

The j-plane is

used only

in this book are based on several theorems essential for

previous in the and

EE
the

students

prerequisite

to the

know the frequency responses from the control course. Mechanical, chemical,

Signals
and

aerospace

and Systems course, engineering

majors know frequency responses from the courses on dynamic responses. If needed, for these specialties can be taught 2, either before using Appendix frequency responses or in parallel with Chapter 3. Appendix 2 contains a number of problemson the Laplace transform and frequency responses.

To Instructors
Undergraduate control,

xv

also

include

should be omitted mechanical/aerospace/chemical engineering majors when extra to be bypassed are listed frequency responses. The sections
beginning

The first 6 chapters,which constitute some material better suited for a graduate from a one-semester course, especially when
course.

first course in This material the course is taught to time is needed to teach the at the in abstracts
the
course.

of each

chapter.
Appendix 1 can

The material from

Digital

be used for

an

introductory

lecture.

controllers,
best

simple.The
continuous

way

controller,

a digital

form;

thus,

is needed. The

links

conversionformulas

and C make MATLAB, SIMULINK, digital controller design of designing a good discretecontroller is to design a high-order break it properly into several links, and then convert each link to command is all that two small tables of formulas or one MATLAB of digital controllers must be low-order, so there is no need for functions. The accuracy of the Tustin is for high-order transform

adequate, so there is no need for The digital control design and courses on DSP, estimation,

pre-warping.

can serve
adaptive
The

as

a prerequisite

for

the

following

special

digital control.
input

Analog controller implementation.

most

frequently

electrical,

the

output

signal

of a

of a modern mechanical actuator and sensor is typically electrical,

is

the

are analog, electrical. always Very often, the signals compensators are thereforealmost which allows implementation of the summer and compensator as analog electrical circuits in electrical and as well mechanical/hydraulic/thermal control systems. controllers are easier and cheaper to design,implement, and troubleshoot, Analog

manufacture

than digital in many applications. of the all specialties. Nonetheless, engineers one-semester course, and can be used for
need

Therefore,
chapter
self-study

need
or

Chapter 6 is important not be fully covered as a reference later,

for

the

during
when

a
the

for practical

design arises.
course.

Secondone-semester
semester course
(it

Chapters

7-13

can be
for

used for
and

the

second

one-

can

be a

engineerswho took only structural Chapter7 describes

and sensors. important
and the
In

graduate course), and, the first course.

design

self-study

as a

reference for
motors,
actuator

and
tailoring

simulation
the

systems
feedback

with

drivers,

particular,

it shows
plant

that

output

impedance

of
in the

the

is

to reduce the

tolerances

and to

increase the

outer loop.

introduction to quantitative feedback theory and HM control time-domain control based on state variables. students need not be taught Undergraduate adaptive systems design since practical control systems need to be designed as adaptive. But the need for some adaptive rarely the engineer should be aware of the major systems does exist.Therefore, concepts, of adaptive and limitations control. He must be able to recognize the need advantages for such control, and, at the same to achieve the time, not to waste time on trying in The material 9 will enable to how him either out to impossible. Chapter figure design an adaptive system himself, or to understand the language of the specialized literature. The design of high-order nonlinear controllers is covered in Chapters 10-13. These methods have in been effective but are far from being design proven very practice, finalized. Further research needs to be done to advancethesemethods.
a short Problems.

Chapter8 gives

Design

problems

with

mechanical

plants

are suitable for

both

ME

and

xvi

To Instructors
problems

EE majors. Additional
convey
problems
insights

for EE

majors can
explicitly.

be found
A booklet

in

not

presented

in the

text

[9]. Some problems with solutions to the

is available

for

instructors

from

the publisher.

FEEDBACK

CONTROL

This Page Intentionally

Left Blank

Chapter 1
I
FEEDBACK

AND

SENSITIVITY

1 introduces the basics of feedback control. The purpose of feedback is to and disturbances. insensitive to plant parameter variations make the output Negative, and discussed and along with sensitivity positive, and large feedback are defined the Nyquist of frequency and the disturbance response, rejection. The notion diagram, criterion is presented in Chapter Nichols chart are introduced. 3.) (The Nyquist stability are explained at an elementary level control and block diagram Feedback algebra to this chapter. Laplace transfer in Appendix 1, which can be used as an introduction
Chapter

functions

are

described

in

Appendix

2.

1.1

Feedback
to

control

system

It is best
the

with an example. Fig. 1.1 (a) depictsa servomechanism regulating of an antenna. Fig. 1.1 (b) shows a block diagram for this control system letters stand for the signals' The made of cascaded elements,i.e. Laplace capital of the linear links. This block diagram functions and also for the transfer transforms
begin elevation

links.

shows

a Single-Input

single-output
elevation Evidently

Vi, which is the commanded actual elevation of the antenna. is also referredto as single-loop. commanded
elevation _

(SISO) system. There is one input command, is the U2, which angle, and just one output, there is one feedbackloop, and so the system
Actuator
Elevation

Error

Compensator Measured elevation

Driver

Plant (a)

feedback path,
elevation

angle sensor

CE.

(b)

BU,,

or

TE

Fig.
The

1.1

Single-loop feedback system some sort of

at

feedback function and

the
most case

transfer U\\,

contains path B. Ideally, the error

error

sensorfor
value

the

output

measured output
the

BUt

value

the

E =

and has the commanded equals

variable
practice,

U\\-BUi

output

of the

summer is zero. In

of the

time the

is nonzero

but small.

C is applied to the actuator A, in this amplified by the compensator a motor regulator (driver) and a motor. The motor rotates the plant P, the antenna is the object of the control. The compensator, actuator and plant make up itself, which the forward path with the transfer function CAP. If the feedback were not path present, the system would be referred to as open-loop, and the output [72 would simply

The error

equal the product

The

CAPU\\.

return

signal

which goes

into

the

summer

from

the feedback

path

is TE,

2
where ratio.

Chapter 1.
the product The output
E=UX-ET

Feedbackand
the hop

Sensitivity

T=

CAPB

is

called

transfer

function, or the

return

of the summer

is

A.1)

so

that

the

error

A.2)
T + l

whereF \302\261= T +
seen
that

1 is the

when

the feedback

return difference and is large, the error

its magnitude is small.

IFI is

the

feedback.

It is

in for steering a toy car (using wires) is shown Example 1. A servomechanism 1.2. Another The command is a Fig. regulated by joystick potentiometer. voltage U\\ of the motor produces voltage identical potentiometer (angle sensor) placed on the shaft makes the error small so the shaft The feedback to rotation proportional angle. Wangle that the sensor voltage approximates the input and therefore the motor shaft voltage, tracks the commanded joystick angle. angle

Fig. 1.2 Joystick control

of a

steering

mechanism

The arrangement of a motor with an angle sensor is often called or servomotor, simply servo. Similar servosare used for animation purposes in movie production. The system of regulating aircraft control surfaces using joysticks and servoswas termed to replace bulky mechanical \"fly by wire\" when it was first introduced gears and cables. The required high reliability was achieved by using four independent parallel analog electrical circuits. link The telecommunication between the control box and the servo can certainly also be wireless.
Example

2. A

phase-locked

a voltage-controlled
frequency

is

proportional

combinesthe functions the phase difference feedbackmakes the

only

loop (PLL) is shown oscillator (VCO). The VCO to the voltage applied to its sensors
the
and

in Fig.

is input.

1.3. The plant an ac generator

here

is

whose

of phase
between

input

summer:

input

phase

difference
the

signal and the (phase error) small,

with

so mat

The phase detector its output is proportional to of the VCO. Large output
the

output
the

signal has
the

a small

phase In other

difference compared

the

input

signal

and, therefore,
with

same

frequency.

words,

PLL

synchronizes

the VCO

input

periodic

signal.

Chapter 1.
input

Feedback and

Sensitivity

phase
Phase

periodic signal

error
Compensator

frequency

output

control

detector

VCO

periodic

signal

Fig. 1.3
Analog

Phase-locked loop

and

receivers
synchronizing

and

in telecommunications PLLs are widely used (for tuning digital for recovering the computer clock from a string of digital data), for several motors' and for many other angular positions and velocities,

purposes.

1.2 Feedback: positive and negative The output signal in Fig. 1.1(b) is U2 = ECAP,
output

transfer

function

of

the

to as

the ciosed-loop
U2

transfer function, is:

system

with

and from A.2) Ux = EF, so the the feedback loop closed,commonly

input-to-

referred

~ ECAP _ ~ CAP EF F [/,

_ that

,13)
reduces
the

Itis
l?l.

clear

the feedback is

input-output

signal

transmission
\\F\\

by the
(although

factor
the
has
H72I>

The

system
IF1

said
that

to have
positive).

\"negative\" feedback when

This
feedback
definition

> 1

expression
to do with
i.e.,

is certainly

was

developed
LEI

in the
and

1920s and
output

the fact

\"negative\"

reduces
in

the error
output

the

produces The

a negative
logarithmic

increment
values

the

level

when

the level

is

expressedin
\"Positive\" We

feedback
feedback will

adhere
without

for example) preferredby engineers. is said to be \"positive?'if IFI < 1, which makes \\E\\>\\UX\\. increases the error and the level of the output. of \"negative\" to these definitions and \"positive\" feedback (and use
(in dB, marks) since 4, are basedon
positive only very

these terms
be studied in
Whether

quotation 3 and Chapters

important

theoretical

developments,
amplitude

to

these

definitions.

of the return sometimes in

the feedback is ratio (and not

elementary

or on

negative the sign

depends on the at the feedback

and
as

phase

summer

is stated

treatments
numerical

of feedback).
examples.

Let's considerseveral

1. The forward CAP is 100 and the feedback Example path gain coefficient path coefficient B is -0.003. The return ratio Tis -0.3. Hence, the return difference F is 0.7, the feedback is positive, and the closed-loop 100/0.7 = 143 is greater gain coefficient than the open-loop coefficient. gain

Example 2.

The

forward

coefficient is 0.003. The return feedback is negative, and the open-loop gain coefficient.
It

the feedback gain coefficient is 100 and path T is 0.3. Hence,the return difference F is 1.3, the 100/1.3 = 77 is lessthan the gain coefficient closed-loop

path ratio

is seen

that when
transfer

T is small,
function

whether

the feedback

is positive or negative

depends

on the

sign of the

about the

loop.

4
the feedback is always
Example is

Chapter

1.

Feedback
and

and Sensitivity is negative.

When IT! > 2, then

\\T + II negative.

> 1

the

feedback

I.e.

when

171 is

large.

therefore

3. The forward 100. The return

path

gain

coefficient
is

difference

closed-loop
Example to

gain coefficient is 9.9.

4.

is 1000 and B = 0.1. The 101, the feedback is negative,

forward return

return

ratio and

the

In the

previous example, the

-1000,

is still

becomes -100. The negative, and the closed-loop gain coefficient

and

the return ratio

path transfer function is changed difference is -99, the feedback

is 10.1.

1.3

Large

feedback
the

Multiplying

numerator

and denominator

of A.3)

by

yields

another

meaningful

formula:
V\302\261 = \302\261L

= \302\261M,

Ux

B F

A.4)

where
M=
T \342\200\224 = \342\200\224\342\200\224

F
Equation

T+l
A.4)

A.5)

indicates

that the
the

closed-loop transfer
by

function

is the
the

inverse
feedback

of
and

the

feedback

path

transfer

function

multiplied

the

coefficient
F\302\273 T,

M. When
coefficient

is
the

large,
output

i.e.

when

171 \302\273 1,

return

difference

the

M~ 1,

becomes

U2~\302\261VX.

A.6)

the One result of large feedback is that transfer function depends closed-loop be constructed of precise path which can usually nearly exclusively on the feedback is since the of the This feature of fundamental parameters components. importance have large uncertainties. In a system actuator and the plant in the forward path typically the affect of theseuncertainties on the closed-loop characteristics is with large feedback, small.The larger the feedback, the smaller the error expressed by A.2).
Manufacturing

an

plant

without

feedback

actuator may be much Using feedback the inexpensive powerful, precise, and reasonably
According

that is sufficiently and precise to handle the powerful An imprecise or can be prohibitively expensive impossible. be and a sensor also may relatively inexpensive. precise cheaper, to form a actuator and the sensor can be combined cheaper
actuator
system. antenna

dividedby B. If B = 1, as

to A.6), the If the elevation

shown

elevation

angle

in

Fig. the

1.1

equals

the command
should be

angle is required to be q, then

command

Bq.

transfer function is just M 1.4(a), then the closed-loop and V21=1Vu i.e. the output U\\. Such U2 follows (tracks) the commanded input a star or a tracking systems are widely used. Examples are: a telescopetracking the position of a knob rotated by the on the roof of a vehicletracking planet, an antenna tool following a probe on a model to be inside the vehicle, and a cutting operator
in Fig.

copied.

Chapter1. Feedback
\022

and

Sensitivity

error CAP
10\"

(a)

(b)
system,

Fig. 1.4 (a) Tracking

shows Example 1. Fig. 1.4(b)

(b) voltage
unity

follower
The

an
and

amplifier
output only

with

feedback.

error voltage

is the
voltage

difference

between

the input
input

is 104,

the error

voltage constitutes
the

nearly equals

voltage,

output this arrangement is commonly

voltages. 10\024 of the

If the

amplifier gain coefficient voltage. Since the output

called

a voltage

follower.
so that M = T/(T+ 1)= were to then T would become 110. This would make M = 0.991, an increase of 0.1%, which is reflected in the output signal. Without the the variation of the output of feedback, signal would be 10%. Therefore,introduction in this case reduces the variations 100 times. feedback negative output signal - it would increase the feedback would do just the opposite Introducing positive in the closed-loop input-output variations transfer function.

Example 2.

that Suppose

T=

100,

If P 0.9901.

deviate

from its nominal

value

by

+10%,

3. Example diagram shown in

Consider
Fig.

the

voltage

regulator
differential

shown
amplifier
and

in Fig.
with input

1.5(a)

with

its

block

1.5(b).

Here, the
E)
and

is the load resistor RL. The constitutes the feedbackpath.

plant

of output plays the

current dual

/ to input voltage role of compensator

10 A/V
actuator.

high

The

potentiometer

The power supply voltage is VCC. with the voltage division ratio B

(ratio transimpedance and output impedances

1 r \302\246

> B
\342\200\224

4-

Tb k

*'

\342\200\224*\342\200\2241

(a)

(b)
(a) schematic

Fig. 1.5

Voltage

regulator:

diagram, (b) block diagram

ratio The and the return is E=U\\-TE, input voltage is the error amplifier is set to B = 0.5. T= 10B/?L. Assume that the load resistor is 1 kQ and the potentiometer ratio is T = 5000. the return Consequently, The command is the 5 V input (when the command is constant, as in this voltage

commonly calleda reference, and the control system is called a regulator). = 9.998 V. The VCC Hence,the output voltage according to A.4) is 10x5000/5001 12 V to 30 V would be appropriate. this value, should be higher than
case,

it is

6
When

Chapter 1.

Feedback and

Sensitivity

voltage

is

the load resistance is reduced by 10%, the feedback the without will be 10% less. With the feedback, T decreases by 10% and the output = 10x4500/4501 0.002% less. The feedback reduces the only

output

9.99778 i.e.

voltage
output

voltage
This

variations
example
the

voltage to
feedback same

10%/0.002% = 5000times. also illustrates another feature of that the regulator indicates loading
alters

feedback.Insensitivity
output
from

resistance
very

dramatically is

the output
shown

impedance
in

high

of the output is very low. The to very low. (The

true

impedance

the follower will be studied in detail

for

Fig.

1.4(b).)

The effects

of

feedback

on

in Chapter

7.
responses

1.4 Loop
1.4.1
The

gain and phasefrequency

and phase
the

Gain
sum
with

responses of the
is same

(or the

signal
the

difference) of sinusoidal signals same The summation frequency.

vectors

frequency

is a sinusoidal
of

simplified

when

signals are representedby

signal

on a

amplitude

and the

phase of the

complex plane.
vector

The modulus

a vector

the sinusoidal equals

equals
the

= IC/ilsin(cot + q>0 is representedby Signal \302\253i = number + jWilsiiupi. U{ complex It/ilcosqh = + lt/2lsin(oot Signal w2 q^) is represented by = number l/2 lt/2lcos(p2 complex +/l?/2lsinq>2. The sum of these two signals is

the phase shift of the signal. vector i.e. by the Ut = \\Ui\\Zqh

vector

the

l/2 = It^LZq^,

i-e.

by

the

u= i.e. Ret/

lt/lsin(cot

+ q>) =

(it/jlcostpi
and

+ (ll/ilsinq>i +l?/2lcos(f>2)sina>t
= Imt/j

+ Il/Jsinq^osart, + U2.

= Ret/,
of the

+ Rel/2
m,

imU

+ Imt/2,
vectors

i.e.

U =

Ux

Thus, the

vector for

the sum

signals

equals the sum of the

= 4sin(oot

for the

signals.

0.866+J0.5. If
0.425
number)

Example 1. If
+./0.425.
1.29 Example

+ n/6), it is represented by the vector 4Zn/6, or + it is n/4), sin(oot by the vector 6Zn/4, or represented The sum of these two signals is represented by the vector (complex = 1.59Z 0.622 rad or 1.59Z35.6\302\260. +/0.925
= 6 m2
the

= E + TE of 2. Fig. 1.6 shows four U\\ diagrams phasor possible and In cases the feedback summer at some (a) (b), presence signals frequency. \\F\\ < 1 and the feedback at fed back signal TE makes \\E\\ > It/J; therefore, is positive. In cases (c) and (d), \\E\\ < \\U\\\\, and the feedback at this frequency frequency

at the

of
this

is negative.

\"<

TE

\"TE

(a)
Fig.

(b)
Examples

(c)
(a,b)

(d)

1.6

of phasor diagrams for

positive

and (c,d)

negative feedback

Chapter

1.

Feedback

and Sensitivity
where co is transfer input,

Replacing the Laplacevariable

understood to be the function. The transfer
and generally
frequency function

s by /co in a Laplace transfer function, in rad/sec, results in the frequency-dependent is the ratio of the signals at the link's output

and

ratio and the return Therefore, the return signal frequency. difference are functions of frequency. To accurately track rapidly commands, varying i.e., commands with substantial content, one has to make the feedback high-frequency over a sufficiently wide frequency range. large Plots of the gain and phase of a transfer function vs. frequency are referred to

depends on the

genericalryas the
The loop
magnitude

frequency

response.

frequency
expressed

\\T(jai)\\

response is defined by in decibels (dB) is referred

the
to

complex function as the loop gain.

T(ja>).The

is usually loop phase shift which expressed in sometimes the phase) of the loop transfer function with logarithmic frequency scale are often called Bode diagrams, in honor of Hendrik W. Bode, who, although he did not invent the diagrams, of using them for did develop an improved methodology feedback system design,to be explained in detail in Chapters 3 and 4. The plots can be of

T(jco)

is the

The angle degrees. Plots of the

gain

(and

drawn

using angular frequency co or

Example
num T(s) =

/= co/Bji)in
5000
s3

Hz.

3. Let
5000

den

s(s + 5)(s+ 50)

+ 55s2

+250s

+0

where

and num., den are the numerator The frequency responses for in

denominator

polynomials.

the loop gain

and
degrees,

dB,

201ogi7X/ca)l,
shift

the

loop phase

in

plotted over range with

A8O/ji)argT(/co), the 0.1 to 100 rad/sec

the

can be

software

package
Mathworks

MATLAB Inc. by the

w =
% %

\302\256 from following

script:

10
2);
Frequency

10
(rad/sec)

Iogspace{-1,
scale

log

of
w

angular

frequency

num

bode(num,den,
The

den = [1 55 250
w)

= 5000;

0];
Fig. decreases

-180

plots

are shown
rapidly

in

1.7.

-270

The
with
the

loop gain

10'

10\"

10'

10' and phase

and the slope of frequency, even gain response gets

higher

Frequency (rad/sec)

steeper at
is

frequencies;

this

Fig. 1.7

MATLAB

plots

of gain

typical
The

for practical control

gain

loopresponses

systems.
loop

is OdB

at

9 rad/sec, i.e.,

i.e., at 9I{2%) <=> 1.4 Hz. The phase

the phase

shift

gradually

changes

from

-90\302\260 toward

-270\302\260,

lag increases from

multiply

to 270\302\260. 90\302\260

MATLAB

function

conv

can be

used to

the

polynomials

s, (s

+ 5), and

Chapter

1.

Feedback

and Sensitivity

(s + 50)in

the

denominator:

a = [1 0]; b ab = conv(a,b);

= [1 5];

den = conv(ab,c)

[1

50];

typing help
window,

More information the MATLAB about functions used above can be obtained in the MATLAB working bode, help logspace, and help conv
and
function

by
of a

from the
can

MATLAB
done

manual. using

Conversions MATLAB

from functions

one to

another

form

rational

be also

to zero-pole

form) and

zp2tf (zero-poleform
ratio

to transfer

tf2zp function).
expressed

(transfer
as a

function

/co,is

Example 4.

The return

from

Example

1,

explicitly

function of

500\302\260

At

frequency with

co =

2, T=

1OZ-11O0 and

F=9Z-115\302\260,

so the

reduces

frequency.

At frequency co =

9,

7\"\302\273 1Z-16O0

and

feedback is negative. 171 F = 0.2Z -70\302\260, so the the solid the 0 dB

feedback

is positive.
of

The Bodeplot line. The loop gain

line
at

the

crossover

171 for a typical is shown in Fig. tracking system decreases with increasing frequency. The diagram where, by definition, frequency/b \\T(fb)\\ = 1.

1.8 by
crosses

Gain, dB

negative

feedback,

positive

negligible

feedback,

feedback,

Fig. 1.8

Typical

frequency

responses

for T, F,

and M

seen that
becomes

The frequency responseof

the

the

feedback

IFI is

shown

feedback

positive

in

(Le.. 20log\\F\\ the neishborhood of fu. and

is negative
and 20
loe\\F I -\302\273 0.

>

0)

then

line. It can be a to certain up frequency. becomes negligible at higher

by

the dashed

frequencieswhere
The

F-\302\273 1

by the dotted line. The gain closed-loop system responseis shown input-output is OdB (i.e., the gain of large feedback. The is 1) over the entire bandwidth coefficient feedback. This hump, as is of the near the crossover a result hump frequency positive will be demonstrated in transient in an 3, results oscillatory closed-loop Chapter and should therefore be bounded. response,

Chapter

1.

Feedback

and Sensitivity

9
whose degrades

In general,feedback
dominant the system's
feedback.

improves

the tracking

Fourier

components belong to the area accuracy for commands whosefrequency

system's accuracy for commands of negative feedback, but content is in the area

of positive

1.4.2

Nyquist

diagram

to look at the from negative to positive feedback, it is helpful To visualizethe transition as the 0 to T on the varies from \302\260\302\260. This is to as of referred plot frequency plot T-plane or the Nyquist diagram and is shown in Fig. 1.9. Either Cartesian (ReT, ImT) polar coordinates(ITI and arg T) can be used.

T-plane

T-plane

(a)

(b)
diagram

Fig. 1.9

Nyquist

the

feedback

Cartesian and (b) polarcoordinates; is negative at frequencies up to ft

with (a) be of

The Nyquist in feedback tool diagram is a major system design and will 3. Here, we use the diagram discussed in detail in Chapter only to show the locations and positive feedback in typical control systems. the frequency bands of negative At the distance to the diagram from each the is in, and frequency, origin distance
frequencies,

the

from the
which

-1

point

is

IFI.

It can

be seen that
there.

\\F\\ becomes

less than

1 at higher point -I
or

means the

else

frequency unacceptably large. In practice, Nyquist are commonly diagrams plotted on the logarithmic L-plane with rectangular coordinate axes for the phase of and the gain T, as shown in Notice that the critical point -1 of the T-plane maps to point 1.10(a). Fig. (-180\302\260, OdB) of the L-plane. The Nyquist avoid this point should diagram by a certain margin.
this

The Nyquist diagram the closed-loop gain

feedback is positive should not pass excessively

will be

close

to the

critical

at

the Example 1. Fig. 1.10(b) shows L-plane T= B0s +10)/O4 + 10/ +20/ + s) chartedwith MATLAB num = [20 10]; den = [1 10 20 10];
[mag,

Nyquist
script

diagram

for

phase]

= bode(num,
Nyquist

den);
diagram')

plot(phase,

title('L-plane
recommended

20*loglO(mag),
-240

'r';

-180, 0, 'wo')
-180 -150

grid Itis

set(gca,'XTick',[-270

-210

-120 -90])
transfer

for

the reader

to

run

this

program

for modified

functions

10
and

Chapter
to observe

1. Feedback and
polynomial

Sensitivity

the effects

of the

coefficient

variations

on

the

shape

of the

Nyquist diagram.
L-plane

Nyquist

100
gain,

diagram

L-plane

dB

50

\\

-50

-100
(a)

/ -270-240-210-180-150-120 -90
(b)

(a) typical

for

Fig. 1.10 a well-designed

Nyquist diagrams on the L-plane, system and (b) MATLAB generated

for Example

1.4.3 Nicholschart
The

Nichols

chart

is an L-plane
in

template for the

When

mapping diagram

from for

A.5),

and

is shown

Fig.

1.11.

the

Nyquist

T to M, accordingto T is drawn on this

template,

the curves

indicatethe

tracking

system

gain 20

log IMI.

80\302\260 0\302\260 10\302\260 20\302\260 30\302\260 40\302\260 50\302\260 60\302\260 70\302\260 90\302\260

deviation

in phase

from

-180\302\260

Fig.

1.11

Nichols chart

Chapter 1.
It is
(-180\302\260,

Feedback and

Sensitivity

11
critical
the

seen

that

the

closer
\\M\\

the
and

OdB),

the larger

is,

Nyquist diagram therefore, the higher

case

approaches the
is the

point

peak of

closed-loop

in Fig. 1.8. The limiting response indicating that the system goes unstable. Typically, than two times, i.e., not to exceed 6 dB. Therefore, the Nyquist diagram should not
frequency

has

\\M\\

approaching

infinity,
more

IMI is

allowed to increase not

into

penetrate

the

area

bounded

by the

line marked
Consider

\026

dB\".
which

several examples
loop

make
the

use of
loop

the Nichols chart.

shift is
-150\302\260.From

Example 1. The
feedback

gain
gain

is 15 dB,
is

phase

the Nichols

chart, the closed-loop

is negative.

-1.4dB.

The

feedback

is 15-1.4=

13.6dB.

The

Example 2. The loop gain chart, the closed-loop gain is

positive.

is

1 dB,

6dB.

the loop phase shift The feedback is 1 -6

is -150\302\260. From

the Nichols
feedback

= -5dB. The
shift

is

Example 3. Nichols chart, the

feedback

The loop gain

closed-loop

is

-10dB,

the loop

phase

is

-170\302\260.

From

the

gain

is -7

dB. The

feedback

is -10

- (-7)

= -3 dB.The

is positive.

1.5

Disturbance
are or

rejection
signals

Disturbances plant

actuator,

which enter the as shown in Fig. 1.12,

pointing

feedback

system

at the

input

or

output
at

of the
system

and cause system,

in

undesirable signal
might

the

output.
gravity,

In the
The

antenna

control

disturbances
the

be

due

to wind,
and

temperature

changes,

and imperfections
characterized

motor, by
time

the gearing,

the or,

driver.

frequency
disturbance

disturbances can be domain, by the Fourier

spectral

either

their

time

history,

in
the

transform

of

this

history

which

gives

density.
31

command ^_

-f

Fig. 1.12

Disturbance sources in

a feedback

system
the

The frequency response

of the

effect

of a

disturbance

calculated in
calculated:

the

it

is

same way that the output the open-loop effect (D\\AP,

output can be to a command is frequency response for divided example) by the return
at

system's

difference

F.

In Fig.
combined

1.12, three disturbance sources are

at the
signal,
output

shown.

Since effect

in linear
sum

systems,
of the

the

effect

of

several

different

input
the

signals is the

effects

of each separate

the disturbances

produce

output

12

Chapter 1,

Feedbackand

Sensitivity

The effects of the disturbances is negate the feedback on the output are reducedwhen and increasedwhen the feedback is positive. Disturbance rejectionis the major purpose for using negative feedbackin most control systems. There exist systems where there is no command at all, and the disturbance rejection is the only of introducing feedback. Such systems are called homing purpose

systems.
signal
which

typical

example
given

is a
to

homing

missile

which
the

No explicit

command is
is

the missile.

Rather,
The

the

deviation

from
the

the

target.

is designed to follow the target. missile receives only an error feedback causes the vehicle's

surfaces to reduce aerodynamic and feedback reduces the large

without an explicit command

attenuate

is

error can be error Another effectively. the active suspension, which

error.

This

consideredas a disturbance,
popular
uses
type

motors

of a system or solenoids to

the

vibration

propagating

from the base to the

in

payload. is temperature the

Example

1. The
when

feedback
the
by

a temperature

Without

feedback, within the chamber changes changes by only 0.06\302\260.

Example

temperature
6\302\260. With

outside
feedback,

control loop of a chamber the chamber changes,the the temperature of a

varying
within

100.

chamber

2, Gusty The

winds

disturb

the

orientation

contain
oscillating.

various

frequency components, some slowly in the antenna attitude feedback

radio telescope.The
in time

winds
rapidly

and others

control The
for

but frequencies, and at rapidly),

attenuated

drops
0.1

with

frequency

(since

motors
5.
times

loop is 200 at cannot move the huge disturbance

very

low

antenna

Hz

the feedback

is

only

by

the

feedback

accordingly, 200
Detailed

the effect

components are and 5 of steady wind,

similar

times for the 0.1 Hz gust components. be given in the next section.

calculations

for a

example

will

To
some
(or

further

reduce
that

the

higher
will

might be introduced
from

adjust

smaller mirror in the optical the power amplifier of the

feedback loop frequency disturbances, an additional the position not of the entire antenna dish but of dish to the receiver front-end path from the antenna
transmitter).

1.6
We

Example
proceed in

of system
now

analysis

antenna elevation control system with the analysis of the simplified the 1,1 (b). Assume that the elevation is IV/rad, angle sensor function feedback path coefficient is B = 1, the actuator transfer function (the ratio of the output and the antenna is a rigid Nm/V, body torque to the input voltage) is A ~ 5000/(j + 10) = is torque, the \342\200\242/ variable with the moment of inertia The plant's input 5000kgnV!. is the elevation angle, i.e., the plant is a double integrator with variable gain output of an integrator is l/s, the transfer coefficient 1/7. Since the Laplace transform function is of the plant
shown

Fig,

P(s)

= l/(//).
shown

As
produced

in Fig.

1.13, the torque

and

t appliedto
the

the

antenna

is the

sum of the

torque

by the actuator
known

the

disturbance

wind torque tw.

wind

It is
approximately

that proportional

for to

large

antennas,

torque

spectral

density

is

Chapter

1. Feedback and Sensitivity

13

'
)

command

\342\200\236_

Compensator

elevation

Js2

Fig.

1.13
of

Elevation
the

control

system

block
antenna

diagram
elevation

The spectral proportional to

density

disturbance

in the

angle

is therefore

1
+ + 2.1s3

0-7)
0.2s2

in

The spectral density plot of the elevation angle is shown

the

disturbance in

Fig.

1.14,

dB

normalized to lOOdB at co = 0.01. The spectral at lower frequencies. Large is larger density these at be introduced feedback must

100

80 60

1 \\

Feedback

in dB

frequencies to rejectthe
The plotted
w
% % num

disturbance.

response frequency using MATLAB with:

=

of A.7)

can

be

40 20 *\"**\342\200\242-,.\\
n

/, logsc

-20

logspace(-2,1);
range

-40

Spectral

o.r-^i

s
of the

frequency

0.01
=

to
1;

10 rad/sec

bode(num, den,
The

den

[1 2.1

0.2 0 0];
w)

elevation angle disturbance, in units: before the feedback relative solid was introduced, line; with the

Fig.1.14

density

compensator

transfer

function is

feedback, dashed line

+ 05) 50(s + 0.05)(s

s(s

(this

simple

compensator
The loop
transfer

makes
function

the

system

work

reasonably

well,

although

not

optimally).

is

T(s)

= CAP

5000
s +10

x-

5000/

i.e.
T(s)

num

50(j+0.05Xif+03)

_ 50.?2

+275if+0.25

den
difference

The return
F(s) =

is
+ den)lden.

T(s) + 1 = (num
transfer

A.8) = T/F

The closed-loop

function

M(s)

= numl(num

+ den).

14
The

Chapter 1.

and Feedback

Sensitivity

for

plots of the gain and phase for the with: MO'oo) can be made in MATLAB w = logspace(-l,l);

loop

transfer

function

T(j(ti), for F(j(o),

and

% 0

den = [1
num
g

= [0

0 0 50

15 50
den,

freq

range

0.1
addition

to 10

rad/sec

num on

+ den;
w)

27.5 0.25];

0];

% % % %

equal length of the vectors

the

% makes

allowable

bode(num,
hold

for

T
M

bode(g,
bode(num,

den,
g,

w)

for F

w)

hold

off

for

The The labels are placedwith plots are shown in Fig. 1.15(a). one at a time, using MATLAB command gtext (' label'). The low frequencies and is negative up 0.8 rad/sec.

mouse feedback

and

is large

cursor, at

50
\302\246-?!L CD \"O

L-plane

200

Nyqilst diagram

S 3:

F
T
\302\246*,

150 100

-50 10

10\"

10'
\\ l M

50

Frequency

(rad/sec)
0

-120

|-150

f>

1-180

-50

a--210
-240 10\"

/
-100 -270

-240

-210

-180

-150

-120

10\"

10'
(b)
control

Frequency

(rad/sec)

(a)
Fig. 1.15
at lower

frequencies,

for the elevation (a) Loopfrequency response Tand F overlap; at higher frequencies, (b) L-plane diagram Nyquist

system:

7 and

M overlap.

is nearly flat up to 1.4 rad/sec, i.e., up to gain response 201oglMI at 0.8 rad/sec. The hump on the gain response does not exceed the rule which satisfies mentioned in Section 1.4.3. More precise 6dB, design in methods will be studied the design following chapters. line in Fig. 1.14, The plot for disturbances in the system with feedback, the dashed from the is obtained feedback disturbance the by subtracting response (in dB) spectral or directly by dividing A.7) by A.8). The disturbances are greatly density response, reduced by the feedback. The mean square of the output error is proportional of the squared to the integral to with linear of the axes. The scales calculate the spectral density plots required in the mean square error can be generated with MATLAB and the areas under reduction
The

closed-loop
gain

0.2 Hz.

The

is

peaking

Chapter 1.

Feedbackand

Sensitivity

15

the responses found or the mean square error can be directly calculated graphically, MATLAB functions. using The in Fig. 15(b). The diagram avoids the JL-plane Nyquist diagram is shown critical 20 dB from below, by 40 dB from above, and point by significant margins: by the 42 from by degrees right. the compensator gain coefficient in the system with the Nyquist is increased 5 times, i.e. by 14dB, the Nyquist diagram 1.15(a) shifts from below decreases from 20dB to 6 dB. up by 14 dB and the margin If the loop gain is increased by (approximately) 20 dB, the Nyquist shifts diagram return ratio 1 at a the becomes certain up by 20dB, gain frequency, and the closed-loop at this frequency therefore becomesinfinite. As we already mentioned in Section 1.4.3, this is a condition for the system to become unstable. Similarly, if the loop gain is reduced by 40 dB, the Nyquist diagram shifts down, at some frequency the return ratio for stability becomes 1, and the system becomes unstable. Using the Nyquist diagram in in 3. will detail be discussed Chapter analysis
Example

1. If
in

diagram

shown

Fig.

transient response of the closed-loop the 1 radian command Step the elevation angle (\"increase instantly 1 radian\") is found with:
The
system

1.6 1.4
by gain ir

to

;reasec

12

'

nomina case

num

=
= num

den
g =
grid

[0
[1

0 0 50
15 50 + den;

0 0 0];
step(num,

27.5 0.25];
g)
0.4
0.2

\\l

is shown The step-response doesn't rise case. The output

as would
2 be

/
in Fig.

seconds

slightly
reasonable
shape

it rises by then overshoots by 30%, then with undershoots, and settles to 1 radian in about 10 seconds. This accuracy
ideal:

1.16, nominal instantly by 1 radian 1 radian in less than

/
4
Time

but

6
(sees)

10

of

the

closed-loop
effect

transient

response

is

Fig. 1.16 Output to 1 radian step

response

command

typical

and, commonly,

acceptable.
of the

can be

Nyquist diagram passingcloserto the critical point with transient response. The response generated = 0.2*den The response is increased\". is shown den 1.16, curve \"loop gain Fig. much more and is quite oscillatory. faster, but it overshoots

Example2. The
seen
on

the

closed-loop

1.7

Effect of
can
the

feedback on the actuatornonlinearity

and power-hungry. be relatively expensive, bulky, Economy heavy, when be as small as actuator However, using small actuators, possible. requires that we have to accept the fact that these actuators will not be able to reproduce signals of such be designed without distortion. The controllersmust amplitudes relatively large We a is failure such that this effect will not cause a catastrophic real). (and danger quite
Actuators

3 and later, in Chapters will consider these issuesin Chapter of Because the output any actuator is limited, the power

9-13.
input-to-output

relationship
limits

invariably

saturates

when

the

input

amplitude

is large enough.

Saturation

the

16
amplitude of the output Fig. 1.17(a) by the dashed solid curve.
output

Chapter

1.

Feedback

and Sensitivity
saturation

signal.

The
many

ideal (hard)
actuators,

characteristic

is shown

in
the

line. In

the saturation

is soft

as shown

by

without
output feedback

with

feedback
* - \342\200\242 _

Input

input

(a)

(b)
characteristic

Fig. 1.17
When

Input-output

of the actuator and (b) dead-zone

increases,

with

(a)

soft saturation

the

amplitude will

of the

input

the

ratio

of

the

output

to the link

input

decreases, or, loosely speaking,

(This
gain

the
in

gain

coefficient
11.)

of

the

saturation

decreases.

reduction

be studied
the signal too

Chapter

feedback about Large If the input characteristic. saturation curve is not yet

actuator level

changes
that the

the shape
the

of

the

input-output

is such

slope
can

(differential
be

flattened

out, then

differential

large

and

the

closed-loop

differential
characteristic

transfer
shown

function

gain) of the may remain to B~x. The close quite

feedback

of a by the dotted line is therefore a segment the reduces nearly straight line. (The slopeof the line is shallow since the feedback in a system with soft saturation, the inputTherefore, gain.) input-output differential when the feedback is larse. curve as hard saturation output appears The dead-zone characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.17(b). Large feedback reduces the differential coefficient and therefore makes the input-output input-output gain as shown characteristic shallower curve. Therefore, at any specified by the dotted and particularly for the output marked by the amplitude of the output signal, amplitude thin dashed the feedback is larger. Relative to this line, the input signal amplitude with the part of the input signal that causes no response in the output due to input amplitude, the dead decreases. zone, reduces the relative width In other words, the feedback of the dead zone. This in control systems which feature allowsthe achievement of high resolution and linearity use actuators and drivers with rather large dead zones (such actuators and drivers may less from the power supply like push-pull be less expensive or consume line, power

closed-loop amplitude

valve class B amplifiers or hydraulic spool briefly described in Section amplifiers, mechanical 7.1.3, or the motors with gears). of the distortions caused by a small deviation Next, consider the output signal the output of In response to a sinusoidal input with actuator from linearity. frequency/, with amplitude the nonlinear forward Vi and path consists of a fundamental component called nonlinear additional Fourier products. The ratio of the amplitude components is the nonlinear of a nonlinear to the amplitude of the fundamental product product

coefficient.

Consider one of
forward disturbance

these

products

having
the

frequency nf
nonlinear

and

amplitude

U^ny

If the

path

is
source

approximately added to the

linear,
output

product

can

be viewed

as a

as shown

in Fig.

1.18.

Chapter1. Feedback

and

Sensitivity

17

P
of nonlinear

Fig. 1.18
Now,

Equivalent

representation

distortions
feedback,

in

the

actuator and

compare
feedback

two

cases:

first, second

the system
input

without

second,
output

the
of the

system
amplitude

with

and

with the

signal

increased

so that the

signal

U2 is preserved. In the nonlinear product at the system's

output,

case, the disturbance, is reduced by the

i.e., the
value

amplitude

of the

feedback.
bv the

Therefore,the nonlinear value offeedback at the Example 1. Without

amplifier

product
frequency

coefficient for a of the product.

closed-loopsystem

is reduced

the nonlinear distortion coefficient in feedback, is 5%. When feedback of 100 is introduced over the entire frequency interest, the coefficient becomes0.05%.
Example

an

audio

band of

feedbackin
A

third

frequency

amplifier is used is very large amplifier harmonic of the 67 MHz signal 200 MHz that falls within
2.

An

to
at

amplify

signals

of several

TV channels.

The

the

but drops to 5 at 200MHz. frequencies an undesirable nonlinear product with produces the band of a higher channel. The frequency
lower

feedback reduces the amplitude

of this

product

5 times.

in the telecommunication feedback amplifiers Low nonlinear distortion invented by in the 1920s, alloweddevelopment of long-haul Harold Black at the Bell Laboratories of and the Bell Black multi-channel telecommunication systems. The works and for the Laboratories' scientists Hendrik Bode established the basis Harry Nyquist domain of feedback and feedback maximization. This enabled systems design frequency an increase in the number of telephone channels over telecommunication expensive to cables. Later, these methods were the feedback control applied systems to maximize and of accuracy operation. speed

1.8 Sensitivity
Sensitivity

functions

are

generally

parameters' deviations
function,

from

normal

although

numerically
sensitivity

used to quantify the of a transfer function. can happen to be equal to

of

undesirable Sensitivity

effects is not
to

of some

transfer

one.For control
transfer
function

engineers,

of

particular
An

interest is the
infinitesimal

the

closed-loop

the

plant

parameter variations.
relative The
infinitesimal
function

relative
Uj/Ui.

change in the plant in change d(U^Ui)/(U2/Ui) feedback system sensitivity

transfer the

function closed-loop
the

dPIP system
ratio

causes an transfer
of

is defined as

these

changes:

= d(V2/Vl)/(V2/Vx)
dP/P

= dWog(U2
rf(logP)
the better.

/VQ]

'

The smallerthe U2 _
?/,
CAP

sensitivity,

From A.3),

CAPB

+ l '

18
then

Chapter1. Feedback P
U2/Ul
Therefore, S =

and

Sensitivity

5 =

d(U2/Vl) _
dP

P(CAPB

+ l)

[CA(CAPB+l)-C2A2PB]

CAP
Harold

+ lJ (CAPB
Black,

(CAPB

+ l)

as was established by

\342\200\224.

A.10)

The sensitivity

is small

when

the

feedback

is large,

and

the

feedback or in

reduces

small

variations
\\F\\

in

the

output

variables,

expressed either in
is 10 changes

percents

logarithmic values,
by 10%,

times.

Example

1. When
transfer

the

feedback

and

the

plant

magnitude

\\P\\

changes

the closed-loop
the

function the

by
and

only 1%.
the

Example 2. When
closed-loop
When

feedback

is 10

plant

magnitude

IF I

changes

by 3

dB,

gain
the

changes transfer

by 0.3

dB.

function depends on some parameter q (temperature, this dependence can be characterized etc.), voltage, by the pressure, power supply = find the T he chain rule can then be used to sensitivity of sensitivity 5pq [dPfP]f[dqfq], a closed-looptransfer function to q, i.e., the product of the sensitivities: Sx5pq.
plant

3. The feedbackis Example When the value of this element changes

Since
by

10,the
changes

plant's

sensitivity
the

to one
closed-loop

of its

elements

by 20%,

transfer

is 0.5. function

1%.

the actuator and compensator transfer functions enter the equation A.3) in the in as the effects of variations the actuator similar formulas describe and P, way of a large-feedback closed-loop transfer functions. Since the sensitivity compensator and accuracy 1, lesser response to the feedback path is nearly of the compensator actuator implementation is acceptable than the accuracy of the feedback path.

same

Example 4. The
actuator

feedback

is

100, the

plant

gain

uncertainty

is 3dB. When

the

and

compensator

uncertainty
uncertainty

of
will

the

forward

implementation accuracy (together) is 0.2dB, the total the closed-loop path gain is 3.2 dB. Due to the feedback, dB.
uncertainty

be 0.032 path

If

the

feedback

uncertainty is 0.042dB.

is, say, 0.01 dB,

the

total

closed-loop

response

1.9 Effectoffiniteplantparameter
Plant

variations

furnace can

be quite being used up. The

For example,payloads in a temperature-controlled while mass of a rocket changes the propellant is be controlled mass of a cart whose position or velocity must of inertia of an antenna about one depends on what is placed in the cart. The moment axis might depend on the angle of rotation about another axis. for calculation of closed-loop response tool Sensitivity analysis is a convenient error sufficient accuracy when variations are small. When and provides parameter plant the plant P deviates from the nominal is more than 50% of Po, plant Po by AP which better the Horowitz sensitivity (after IsaacM.Horowitz) can be used: for accuracy
parameters

often vary widely.

different.

The

Chapter 1.

Feedbackand

Sensitivity

19

A.11)
[AP]/P0

This is the
With

the

perturbed
inverse

of

relative changes, where the plant perturbed value P = Pa + AP. the same both for cases and the nominal the input U\\ kept V^ output, = + It can be shown that the Horowitz sensitivity is the A?/2. ?/& output U2 the feedback for the perturbed plant (see Problem 8):
ratio

of finite

CA(P0+AP)B+ l
Again

F
renders
the

A.12)

it is seen that feedback negative large insensitive to plant parameter variations.

closed-loop

transfer

function

P = 200, and found to be

AV2

Example 1. If the
the

nominal

value

of the
this

plant

is Po

= 100,

the

perturbed
output

feedback

is F

= 50 (with

plant
variation

is
is

P),

then the

relative

V 2o

100 50

A.13)

1.10 Automatic signal levelcontrol

The

block

diagram

of automatic

volume control
is to system of the signal
maintain

in

an the
at

AM carrier
the

Fig. AM

1.19. The detector,

goal for the control in spite of variations

receiver is shown level constant

in
at

the

strength

antenna.

Antenna

reference

Fig. 1.19
The
antenna

Automatic

carrier

level

control

is amplified and applied to the and applied amplified 1000 times at the output of the detector is the sum that appears to very-low-frequency component that is proportional
signal multiplier

is further

the audio frequency 0.5 Hz removes then the reference B is with voltage. compared multiplied by is applied to the second The error signal processedby the compensator input of the for the RF When the feedback is large, its transfer function signal. changing multiplier, level the carrier error small and the output approximates reference/B. gets

with

corner

M. The signal from the to the AM detector. The signal of the audio component and the the carrier. The low-pass filter B of the and the carrier signal, amplitude
multiplier

Example 1. If,
amplitude
amplitude

for

example,

at

the

modulator

at the

detector

reference = 0.5 V, B = 0.5, C = 100,and ratio T=50. is 0.001 V, the return input = x to + 0.98 V which l)B] reference TI{{T equals
reference/B

the

RF carrier

The carrier
is very

close

to the desired

carrier amplitude

= 1V.

20
Since

Chapter 1.
RF signals

Feedback and

Sensitivity

change

over a very large range, the gain in the feedback loop can feedback must be large even when the RF signal is the smallest acceptable (when the signal level is only slightly larger than the level of the always well when the loop gain noise), and, on the other hand, the system must perform present an additional 80dBdue increases 60 to to the increase of the by signal at the antenna. accordingly.

can vary

The

1.11
Compensator

Lead

and PID
design

compensators

will be discussed in Chapters 3-6. However, to make this chapter a course on servo design, we present below rules for simple design two most used types of the compensators. We assume (Dt, has been already frequently chosen (it must be, typically, at least 10 times lower than the frequency of the plant structural the and sensor and noise at not be must mode, (Dt, excessive). imperfection A lead the plant transfer C(s) = k(s + a)/(s+ b) is often used when compensator function is close to a double integrator. The zero a \302\273 and the pole b = 3@^The 0.3(\302\273b, \302\253 k is adjusted for the loop gain to be OdB at a^, k coefficient Lead b/[a>b'xPlant((%)]. are used in the Problems 42-44. compensators A PID compensator transfer function + q) is tuned by C(s) = P + Hs + Dqsl(s P (proportional), / (integral), and D (derivative). The adjusting three real coefficients: coefficient to confuse with the plant) P \302\253 / <, 0.2^0^. The coefficient (not VPlant((%). = a lead.) The coefficient D is0 for a single-integrator becomes (If / 0,the compensator for a double-integrator 4a>b. plant and, approximately, O.3P/c0b plant. The pole q \302\273 are The fine-tuned either or compensator parameters experimentally using a model and plotting computer simulated and closed-loop mathematical plant open-loop The loop phase shift at <% [i.e., step-response. frequency responses and the closed-loop be between and -150\302\260 must -120\302\260 (as shown in Fig. 1.15). The arg 7X<Bb)] kept degrees in Chapters 5 and 6. hardware and software is described compensator implementation

short self-contained

1.12 Conclusion
The

and a lookahead
in this
can

control systems.

of single-loop linear chapter enables some analysis even some control and also probably design systems that feedback vastly the demonstrate The system performance. examplesin improves in order to 13 should start to become and Still, interesting Appendix comprehensible. need to with close to the best the topics performance design systems possible, following be mastered: \342\200\242 to improve of prefilters and feedforward paths the closed-loop responses; addition \342\200\242 for in a real and of control since, systems multiloop example, design analysis the there also a antenna attitude control exists feedback loop stabilizing system is \"nested\" within the main loop; motor rate which - since the feedback \342\200\242 maximum of feedback systems with available accuracy design some fundamental is limited, as we will learn, laws; by material

presented

The reader

\342\200\242

implementation building performance;

of controllers mathematical

with analog and

digital

technology;

\342\200\242

models
the

of

plants

and

control

systems

to evaluate design of

system

\342\200\242

analysis controllers.

of

the
(The

effects of
controller

link's
the

nonlinearities, having

for

system

and the Bode

nonlinear

and

Nyquist

diagrams

Chapter in Fig. when the actuator

shown

1. Feedback and
nonlinear

Sensitivity

21

1.15 must
becomes

include

elements

to ensure

the

system

stability

overloaded.)

1.13

Problems
feedback and sensors, draw block diagrams for actuators, plants, (a) temperature and (b) pressure in a chamber, (c) machine element, (d) luminescence of an illuminated angular velocity of a rotating surface, (e) frequency of an oscillator, (f) pitch, yaw and roll of an airplane.
Using

proper

names

for the

systems

controlling

When

a control

back need be performed decibel

number

system

fast. 0 1

is being designed, To do this, the

1

conversionsfrom
following

numbers

table

must

to dB and be memorized:
20n

1.12

1.4

6 2
dB, i.e.

10

20

3.16

10

10\"

Then,

dB say, what is 30 dB? 30 dB = Or, what is 54 dB? 54 dB = 60dB - 6 dB,

10

+ 20

31.6 \302\253 30 times.

i.e. 1000/2= 500times.

18 dB;

Convert Convert

to dB:

(a) 100;
(f)

to numbers:

(b) 200;(c)3000;(d)5, (e)8. 110 dB; (g) 63 dB; (h) 12 dB; (i)
(b) -0.01;

0) 30 dB. (g) 10; (h)

-10;

3 Tis equal
Calculate
large

to

(a) 0.01;
M,

(c)0.1;(d)
whether

-0.1;

(e) 2.72;

(f) -0,9;

F and

and

conclude

the feedback is positive

or

negative,

or negligible.

For T= 99 and B equal to (a) 0.01; (b) 0.1; (c) 1; (d) 0.05; (e) 2.72; (f) 3, calculate the closed-looptransfer and find the error E and the command U% to functions, make the output ik = 10.
The

open-loop

gain

coefficient

is 3000, the
difference,

(b) 200, (c)3000,(d) 5, (e) 2.72. What are the feedback, return positive or negative feedback?
The

closed-loopgain
and

coefficient

is (a)
the

100,
of

return

ratio? Is

this

case

open-loop gain coefficient is 5000, the closed-loop gain (b) 200, (c)3000,(d) 5, (e) 2.72. Is the feedback large? How much will the closed-loop gain when, because of changes in the plant, the open-loop gain

coefficient

is (a)

100,

coefficient coefficient

change becomes

6000?
In

an

antenna
is

elevation
430

control system, the

feedbackis large,
motor

the

antenna

moment
What

of

inertia

kgm2, the

three-phase
sensor
angle
1.5\302\260; (e)

10kW

with

painted green, and the angle be the command for fie elevation
(a)
30.5\302\260; (b) 15.5\302\260; (c) 3.5\302\260; (d)

gain coefficient 0 = 0.1V/degree.

to be
2.72\302\260; (f)

gear

ratio 1200:1 is
must

30 mrad?

Use the
the
following

MATLAB

commands

numerator
coefficient = 10;

and

zeros: 1, 3, 8; poles: 4, 35,100, 200; = 20; zeros: 3, 3,9; poles: 400; 4, 65,100, 6,35,100, 600; (c) k= 13; zeros: 1,5,8; poles: k = 25; zeros: 3,7,9; poles: 5,65,300,400; (d)

conv and/or zp2tf the denominator polynomials and poles: k, zeros,

to calculate the
for

coefficientsof
having

the

functions

the

(a) k

(b) k

22

Chapter
(e)
(f)

1. Feedback and

Sensitivity

k=
k=

2.72; zeros:
20; zeros:

poles:4,165,150,500; zeros: 500; 1,50,80; 6,35,300, (g)k= 1300; poles: 400. 300, 5,150, (h) k= 150; zeros: 3, 70, 90; poles:
3, 4,12;
the

1,1,2.72; poles: 1,10,100,100;

9 Use
(a)

MATLAB

command

root

and/or tf

2zp to

calculate

the

poles and

zeros of

the function
+ 900); B0s2 + 30s + 40)/{2s4+ 10s3+ + 300); (b) (V + 3s + 4)/(s4 + 2s3+ + 100s2 + 2000); (c) A Os2 + 10s +40)/Bs4 20s3 + 5s3 + 50s2 + 300); + 200)/(s4 (d) (s2+ + 200)/(s4 + 2.72s3 + 50s2+ 272); + 27.2s (e) + 150). (f) (s2 + 10s + 8)/(s4 + 2s3 +

20s B.72s2

20s2

100s2

12s2

10

Use the MATLAB command and third-order second-order,

);

bode

to plot the frequency

response

for

the

first-order,

functions

(bI00/(s+10J;

(cI000/(s+10K.

Describe the correlation between

the

slope

of the

gain-frequency response and the

phase shift.
Plot times.

the

response at
11

step time-response.
higher

frequencies

Describe the correlation betweenthe slope of the gain and the curvature of the time-response at small
response

Use MATLAB to and second-order + 10); (aI0/(s

plot

the

frequency

and step

time-responsefor

the

first-

functions

(bI00/(s2 + 4s+100);

(cI00/(s2
(d) IOO/^ frequency

2s+100); correlation

Describe the
Find the
polynomial

+ s+IOO).
between

the step

time-responses and the shapes

correlation

of

the

the denominator roots; Describe

responses.
roots,

between

the denominator

the shapes

of the frequency responses, and the

step-responses.
and

12 Use MATLAB

to convert the function to a ratio of polynomials frequency response for the function + 30)(s+ 55)(s + 100)(s + 1000)]; (a) 50(s + 3)(s + 12)/[(s + + 60(s (b) 3)(s 16)/[(s + 33)(s + 75)(s + 200)(s+ 2000)]; + 22)/[(s + 40)(s + 65)(s + 150)]; + 2)(s (c)10(s + 250)(s + 2500)]; (d) -20(s + 2)(s + 26)/[(s+ 43)(s+ 85)(s (e) 2.72(s + 7)(s+ 20)/[(s + 10)(s + 100)(s +1000)]; + 66)(s + 77)(s + 8800)]. + 2)(s + 44)/[(s + 55)(s (f) -25(s
For

plot the

13
14

Example

in Section
MATLAB.

1.3.1,

find

F{s)

and

M(s), and

plot

their

frequency

responses
When

using

ITI monotonically decreases in control systems), what to Fand happens

With

relation

to frequency

(as

in

most

feedback

M?
in Problem

15

the

return

loop frequency

responses for (a),(b),(c),(d),(e),(f).

ratio equal to the

function

12, and

0=1,

plot

the

closed-

Chapter

1. Feedback

and

Sensitivity

23

16

With the

return

ratio

equal

to the
for

function

in Problem

12, and

0 = 4, plot
and
for

the

closed-

loop frequency
17

responses
in

(a),

(b), (c), 12
the

(d), (e), (f).

as the
return
return

Considering

functions

Problem

ratio,

B=10,
(a),

closed-loop frequency responses and (e), (f).

ratio responses

(b), (c),

plot the (d),

18

on the L-plane for the functions Plot Nyquist diagrams (a) B0s* + 30s + 40W2S4+ s3+ s?+ 3); + 2s3 + 2i + 3); (b) (s* + 30s + 4)/(s< (c) A0s2 + 10s +40)/Bs4 + 2s3 + i + 3); (d) (s2 + 20s + 5)/(s4 + 5s3 + ? + 3). What feedback

19

needs to be introduced
harmonic

in an

amplifier

with

harmonic

coefficient

5%,

for the

resulting

coefficient

to be

0.02%?

20

the third harmonic coefficient in a feedback an amplifier with open-loop is at the frequency of the fundamental harmonic coefficient of 5%, if the feedback and the return ratio is inversely 272, (a) 100; (b) 200; (cK00; (dL00; to the frequency. proportional
Find

(e)

21

Before introduction
what is the dead

of feedback,

zone after
of is this

the

feedback

the actuator dead zone was (a) 5 N; of 50 was introduced? the maximum actuator output after the feedback of 30 was introduced?

(b)

200 mrad;

22 Before
23

introduction What

feedback,

signal

was

100 m/sec.
The

parameter

open-loop gain is (a)80dB; (b) 100dB; (c) 120dB.The closed-loop 20 dB. Because of plant parameter variations, the open-loop gain reduced What is the change in the closed-loop gain?

gain is by 1 dB.

24

The feedback is 80 dB. Plant

uncertainty
in

gain

is

uncertain

within

\302\2611.5dB.

What

is

the

the

closed-loop

gain?
constitute

25

In

an

amplifier,

variations
26

differential gain variations be when 40 dB of feedbackis introduced?

0.1 dB.

What

will

these

The
gain

open-loop
coefficient

gain coefficient is (a) 1000;(b) is 20. Because of plant parameter

What

2000;

(c) 50,000. the variations,

The closed-loop open-loop gain is

reduced

by 5%.

is the

change

in

the

closed-loop
0.5.

gain? gain is
uncertain

27

The feedbackis (a) 200; (b) 100;(c)1;(d)

What

Plant

within

\302\26115%.

is the

uncertainty

in

the

closed-loop (cI;
the

gain coefficient? (d) 0.5.

temperature

28 The feedback is (a) 10; (b) 100; is 0.1 dB/degree.When temperature

how

The plant's
changes

sensitivity

to

the

by

much

will the

-6 degrees, by

output

change?
in

29

Tubes

were expensive
feedback
improved

the

(regenerative)

was
the

feedback also
the

of the received signal). the above Illustrate The forward path consists of a using the following example. tuned at the signal frequency 100 kHz an amplifier. The resonancecontour and function-is forward transfer the 10000/(s2 +12.5s+ 6282), where path angular
bandwidth

early days of tube radio receivers, and positive used to increase the amplifier The positive gain. of the regenerative receiver (but narrowed selectivity

24
velocity

Chapter 1.

Feedbackand

Sensitivity

is expressed in krad/sec. The feedback path coefficientB = -0.0077. the gain response of the receiver without and with regenerative feedback. By how much does the feedback increase the receivergain? What is the sensitivity at the frequency of the resonance? How do small deviations in the amplifier's gain affect the output What needs to be done in the feedback path to keep the signal?
Plot

closed-loopgain
What,

constant?
opinion,

in your
the

will happen

when the

amplifier

gain

coefficient

increases

by 2%

but

feedback

path is

not

adjusted?

By 2.5%?
feedback) the gain

30

In

the

B=

previous

example,
then

0.001 and selectivity.

introduce negative feedback(degenerative

0.01. Explain the

with

B =

effect of the feedbackon

and the

31 32

Prove

that

Horowitz value

sensitivity
of the
With

equals 1/F.
perturbed

The

nominal

of the

feedback is 20.
Horowitz

plant is 30, the

the

value

is 50. of the

The
output

perturbed

value

nominal

plant, the
in

value of the

would
when

be 10.
the

Using
changes 33

sensitivity,
nominal

find the
to

change

the

value

output

plant

from

perturbed.

The perturbed value of the plant is 30, the nominal value is 50. The nominal value is 10. Using of the feedback is 20. With the perturbed plant, the value of the output the Horowitz sensitivity, find in the value of the output when the change plant to perturbed. changes from nominal Derive the expression for the Bode sensitivity for the following links: P, A, C. Give links? numerical examples. What is the required implementation accuracy for these can be derived by using For example, the plant A.3) while A.10) sensitivity keeping (/i constant:

34

dU2/U2 _ ~ PdU2 =
dP/P

U2dP
plant
for

\" 1 ' CAPBUl dP 1+CAPB F

UXCAPB

l+CAPB

Therefore,

the

implementation
the

accuracy can
system

be IFI
function. output

times

worse

than

the

required accuracy
35

closed-loop
the

transfer

Derive

an expression
function

for

Bode

sensitivity
link

of the
Give
positive,

to

variations

in the
including

transfer
cases

of the

feedback

where

the feedback

is large (negative),
of

path

B.

numerical
and

examples,

negligible.
chart

36

From the frequencyhodograph

the

closed-loop
plot

gain
frequency
if

frequency response of a
response
with

T plotted

on the Nichols
tracking

in

Fig. 1.20,

find

system

(assuming

B = 1)

and 37

this

logarithmic

frequency
Nichols

scale.
chart,

Prove

that

is

coordinates give 20 loglFI.

plotted

upside-down

on the

the

curvilinear

Chapter

1.

Feedback

and Sensitivity

25

0\302\260 10\302\260 20\302\260 30\302\260 40\302\260 50\302\260 60\302\260 70\302\26080\302\260 90\302\260

phase

deviation

from

-180\302\260

Fig.

1.20
with

Locus of
frequency

Ton the
0.05 boom

Nichols

chart 2 mrad
Find

38

A periodic
in

spacecraftis caused by
the

disturbance

magnetometer

Hz and amplitude oscillation.

the

value 2.72

in pointing of of feedback arcsec.

pointing
(a)

to less than

control loop at this frequency required 0.1 mrad; (b) 34 urad; (c) 12 nrad; (d)

for reducing

the disturbance

0.2 mrad;

(e)

39

The disturbance spectral density is described (a) by the function (b) /c/[(s + 2)s]; (c) W[(s + 5)s]; (d) */[(s + 10)s];(e) k/[(s + 2.72)s]. The return ratio is 1000(s + 20)/[(s+ 1)s]. Plot the relative disturbance without and with the feedback. density
depicted voltage

spectral

40 For the voltage regulator

feedback
known

in on the

Fig. 1.4,

and the
formula

output

load resistor

derive the dependence

R\\_.

of

the

By

comparison

with the
the

equivalent

V= emf x Ri/(Rt + Rs), find voltage at a source terminal: the of Rs output impedance voltage regulator.

for the

41 Consider a current
B is the current Therefore, the
regulator output

regulator

sensing represents
high.

resistor,
current

output

in Fig. 1.21. Here, schematic diagram shown at the output. feedback i.e. the system has current in the load Ri is stabilized by the feedback, and the of the a current source. Hence, the output impedance

with the

regulator must be

26

Chapter

1. Feedback and

Sensitivity

vcc

Fig. 1.21

Current

regulator

The reference is much voltage is 0.5 V. The output impedance of the amplifier larger than ft + B. Set B for the output current to be (a) 0.1A; (b) 0.25 A; (c) 0.5 A; (d) 0.4 A; (e) 2.72 A; (f) 0.66 A; In each case find the return ratio and the output impedance of the regulator. 42
A temperature is shown at

the

was measured and the experimental was approximated by transfer response = 200\302\260C/kW.) function + 25)]. The P{s) = 500/[(s + 0.1)(s (At dc, when s = 0, P@) transfer function C = 8(s + 1.6)/(s + 0.2). The thermometer transfer compensator
function

the gain coefficient 2

control loop is shown block joints. The

kW/V.

heater is a voltage-controlled
function (in

in Fig.

1.22. The

dimensionality

of the power

source

signals with

The

transfer

\302\260C/kW)of

the

loaded

furnace

is 0.01

v7\302\260C. The

command

is 4

V.

command

Controller

Heater

Furnace

with payload
temperature

measure of the

temperature

Electrical thermometer

ure

8(s +

volts

s+

kW

500
(s + 0.1)(s + 25)

\302\260C

Ml

volts

0.01

V/\302\260C

Fig.

1.22

Temperature

regulator

the return ratio and the feedback at dc (in a stationary regime). Find the loop transfer function and transfer function. Plot Bode input-output for the loop transfer and for the input-output transfer function function. diagrams Plot the L-plane Nyquist whether the diagram enters the area Check diagram. surrounded by the \026 dB\" line on the Nichols diagram. Plot the output time-response for the 0.01 V step command. Plot the output to the step disturbance -100 W applied to the time-response some undesired cooling effects. input of the furnace that represents

(a)

Find

(b) Create a
threshold Explain

SIMULINK output

model.

Include

2kW. Plot the results.

mirror

responses

in the heater model a to command steps of different

saturation

with

amplitudes.

43

scanning

with an

angular

velocity

drive

is shown

in

Fig.

1.23.

Chapter

1. Feedback and

Sensitivity

27

angular
velocity

sensor

Fig.
The

1.23

Mirror drive

is shown in Fig. 1.24. The controller velocity control loop motor 10(s + 30)/[(s+ 300)s].The (with driver) is a source with transfer function 300 (rad/sec)/V (the voltage-controlledvelocity actuator control loop). The mirror might have an internal velocity angular angular differs from the angular of the motor because of flexibility of the velocity velocity motor shaft and the mirror The plant transfer function inertia. ratio of the mirror (the to the motor angular is P(s) = 640000/(s?+ 160s+ angular velocity velocity) At dc, the plant transfer function is 1. The gain coefficient of the angular 640000). velocity sensor is 0.01 V/(rad/sec). mirror

angular
is

transfer

function

C(s) =

velocity

motor shaft

command^

^
I

^
measured

Controller

Diver and

motor

angular

velocity

Plant dynamics

\021

angular velocity

Angular

velocity

sensor

an tgular velocity

10(8+30)
sjs+300)

300

rad/sec

640000
s*+160s*640000

volts

0.1

rad/sec

Fig.1.24
(a)
Find

Angular

velocity

control

transfer Plot Bode transfer function and input-output function. transfer function and for the input-output transfer function. Plot an L-plane the diagram enters the area Nyquist diagram. Determine whether surrounded by the \026 dB\" line on the Nichols diagram. Plot the output time-response for the 1 V step command. to step disturbance -0.1 rad/sec applied to the Plot the output time-response the inaccuracy of the dc permanent motor input of the plant that represents magnet caused by switching between, the stator windings. the
for

loop

diagrams

the

loop

(b)

Create

SIMULINK

model. output

Include

heater model. Plot Explain the results.

responses

a saturation with to command steps

threshold
of

2kW

in the

different

amplitude.

44

the a torque drive is shown in Fig. 1.25. The goal is to maintain in the cable so that the force of the of the lifting a prescribed profile torque pulley is shown in Fig. 1.26. The load will be as desired. The motor torque control loop from the torque to the angle, is out of the function plant dynamics, i.e., the transfer the pulley torque directly at the feedback loop since the torque sensor is measuring
A

pulley

with

motor.

28

Chapter

1.

Feedback

and Sensitivity

Fig. 1.25
The

Torque

regulation

in a

pulley

The controller transfer function gain coefficient is 0.1 V/Nm. with an appropriate 100). The actuator (a motor driver) is a voltage-controlled source with transfer function 30 Nm/V. The disturbance torque torque due to the motor imperfections is 0.1 Nm.

is C{s) = 0.8(s+

torque

sensor

15)/(s+

torque

command

angle

Fig. 1.26
Find the loop transfer diagrams for the loop Plot an L-plane Nyquist
(a)
surrounded

Torquecontrol
the input-output transfer function. Plot Bode and for the input-output transfer function. Check whether the diagram enters the area

function
transfer

and
function

by the the

Plot the
Plot function.

the Nichols diagram. torque time-response for the 0.01 V step command. torque time-response response to the disturbance torque
\026

diagram. dB\" line on

as a step

(b) plant

Assuming moment

that the
of inertia

pulley

radius xm2,

is 0.1 m

is 0.02 kg

i.e., the

transfer

function is 20/s2, plof the position command (assume that at zero time the load is on the ground). Create a SIMULINK model. Include in the driver model a (c)
Explain

and the load mass is 2 kg, i.e.,the and its plant is a double integrator time history in response to a step torque
saturation

with

threshold

2kW. Plot the results.

SIMULINK 1 V for

output

responses

to command

steps of

different

amplitude.

(d)

With

command: 2 seconds,

in time history to the following response plot position the duration of 2 seconds, 0 V for the duration of the next and -1 V for the duration of the next 2 seconds.

of torque schematicdrawing control in a drilling rig. of torque control in a lathe, for keeping constant the (f) Make a schematicdrawing to the cutting tool (there could be several kinematic force applied possible

(e)

Make a

schemes).

Chapter 1.
45 An x-positioner is shown motion to translational 0.5 mm/rad.

Feedbackand

Sensitivity

29

in
motion

Fig. 1.27. A ball of a table

screw converts the along the x-axis,

motor with

rotational gear

ratio

Ball power

screw

Moving Table

source

_ ~

Motor

command

t Optical
Motor position

sensor

controller

Fig.

1.27

A positioner

with

an

optical

position sensor

The positioner control is shown in The controller transfer loop Fig. 1.28. actuator the is a C(s) = 0.03(s + 20)/(s+ 70). The (the driver with motor) source with transfer function 500 (rad/sec)/V. voltage controlledangular velocity is the ratio of the position to the velocity, i.e., A/sH.5. The plant transfer function The gain coefficient of the optical position is 0.2 V/mm. The disturbancein sensor
function the

angle

represents

the

ball

screw

imperfections.

command

position

Fig. 1.28

Position

control

function and input-output transfer function. Plot Bode (a) Find the loop transfer function and for the input-output transfer function. diagrams for the loop transfer Plot an L-plane Nyquist Check whether the diagram enters the area diagram. surrounded diagram. by the \026 dB\" line on the Nichols Plot the output time-response for the 0.01 V step command. Plot the output time-response to step disturbance - 0.1mm. response If the a has dead zone of 0.02 dead zone of the mm, what is the resulting gear

entire closed-loop system?

(b) Create a SIMULINK

driver
amplitude.

model.

Include
output

and

motor model. Plot Explain the results.

responses

a saturation with threshold to command

3000

steps of
station

rpm

in

the

different

46 The signal at an antenna of an and due to changing reception

automatic

AM

receiver

conditions.

varies 100 times, from The linearized (differential)

level

control

at the

largest

signal level is

1000.What

loop

to station gain of

is the

range of the

30
output signal
47

Chapter1. Feedback
carrier variations?

and

Sensitivity

The

functions.

of M on dependence It is known that

the complex

plane of the circles?

What

plane of
function.

the Why

formulas of this chapter are bilinear other function maps a circle(or a straight line) from onto a circle (or a straight in the complex variable line) then are the coordinate curves in the Nichols chart not
many

T and

a bilinear

48
49

is the

reason

for

using

voltage pad would

followers?

A common

electric heating
What

has

thermal
if

control.
were

What

would

happen

if

it is

left

under the blankets?

happen

there

no thermal control?

Answers

to selected problems
Heater,

(a)

furnace

with payload,

thermometer.
but

3 (b) F= 0.99, M
21
31

= -0.01,

the feedback is positive

negligible

(i.e.

IFI\302\253 1).

(a)

0.1

N.

Given the values P functions, from A.9):

and

PQ

for

the

nominal

and the

perturbed

plant

transfer

[
S

CAPB

CAP0B

Po

[l+CAPB
CAP0B

\\+CAP0B] =
l+CAPB

p~Po
Notice the
to the
peculiarity

F'

l+CAP0B
of this value.

formula: the
while

changes
true

in

the
right

nominal
plant

plant value,
The

the

feedback

in the
(since

left side (in Sh) are is calculated side the

relative

for the

perturbed
(current)

opposite

is also

nominal

and

perturbed

values
to

can be
feedback,

swapped).
the

48 Due

the

voltage
the

follower

has

high

input
from

and
its

low

output

impedances,

and
when

it

relieves

preceding

signal source

voltage

being

reduced

the

load
will

is connected.

49 The temperature
the

be kept
blanket

thermal

control,

safely low the consumed

may

by

reducing

temperature under the

power will
unsafe

be

the consumed power. Without and the constant, nearly

reach

levels.

Chapter

I
FEEDFORWARD,

MULTILOOP,
is equivalent
function.

AND MEMO
to
using

SYSTEMS
a prefilter, or using a methods enable to obtain desired the function with any arbitrary compensator input-output closed-loop transfer transfer function. the compensator transfer function can be chosen as Therefore, the feedback, while the desired i.e., required to maximize the disturbance rejection, function is obtained a closed-looptransfer by using an appropriate feedback path, command feedforward, or a prefilter. While the command feedforward scheme and its equivalents do not affect disturbance rejectionand plant sensitivity, the error feedforward scheme and Black's feedforward increase disturbance rejection and reduce plant sensitivity. feedback as those Bode, Multiloop systems are defined, following having a nonlinear in each loop. This definition element reflects the importance of (saturation) into account the large uncertainty in the signal transmission of the saturation link taking caused by the signal amplitude changes. are studied: local and common loops, Major practical types of multiloop systems nestedloops, crossed loops, and the main/vernier loop configuration. The methods for equivalent of block diagrams are described. transformation The of multi-input ends with an introduction chapter multi-output (MIMO) systems, and matrices in the forward and in the feedback coupling, decoupling path. Typical
The

command

feedback path

with

feedforward scheme a specified transfer

All of

these

MIMOsystems are discussed, with examples. 1 from Section 2.1 and Sections2.3 and Example
introductory

2.4

can

be omitted

from

an

control course.

2.1
The but

Command
accuracy also

feedforward
function system transfer certain signals forward

of the

can
and

be improved

not

only

by the

feedback
or by are

by feeding

some combination

of

feedback

and

the combining feedforward. There for specific

signals at the are several

the

load,

feedforward
schemes

each having schemes,

briefly described

decisive

advantages

applications;

below.
is referred
function

The
Fig. 2.1.

first

type

The transfer

of the

to as command feedforwarding and command feedforward path is

is

shown

in

where

Po is

the

nominal

plant

transfer

function.

Fig. 2.1

Command

feedforwarding

31

32

Chapter 2. Feedforward, Multiloop,

input-output

and

MIMO Systems

The

transfer

function

summing

the

transmission

propagation. In each path,

of the system with command is found by feedforward functions of parallel paths of the input-to-output signal the feedback reduces the transmission F times:

This

transfer
vanish,

function
and

and To'1
from

1 in two cases: first, C -> \302\260\302\260 and both T~x when approaches the when transfer function does not deviate much second, plant

nominal plant transfer function Po, i.e., P0**P and, therefore,To\302\273T. = 0 (open-loopcase),it follows directly from the block diagram C For example, if (and, from the formula) that the input-output transfer function is (JPJP) ~l. certainly, The transfer function can also be expressed as input-output
the

known

TAT

+ l)

M0

T(T0+l)

M
+ 1).
Mo

whereMo
small,
feedback
then

TJ(T0
M

If the

deviations

of the
transfer

plant P
function

from

the

nominal

value Po
when

are
the

\302\253

and

the system
can

approaches
the

1, even

is not

The command

large.
feedforward

substantially

improve

accuracy

of the
the

output

band where response to the command, especially over the frequency cannot be made large. There are three limitations however on using feedforward:
\342\200\242 The function known If the uncertainty well. pretty be then cannot made closeto P, and Po large, feedforward decrease drastically.

feedback

the

command

plant
is

must

be

in the plant transfer the advantages of the

command
\342\200\242 The

power

of the

numerator

polynomial

should be

smaller than

the

power

of the feedforward of the denominator, for the

of

path

transfer

function

transfer

function

to be

feasible.
feedforward: at higher small and, therefore, decreases; however, making frequencies too would an excessively the large large making path gain produce of and the would become saturated. at the actuator the actuator, signal input \342\200\242 with substantial A plant with substantial pure delay would using feedforward imply
a limit
bandwidth

There is also

on the

the command

IPI typically feedforward

IPOI too

phase advancewhich
sensitivity

is not

feasible.
the feedback about change or the disturbance rejection.
the

The command feedforwarddoes not to the plant parameter variations,

plant,

the

Example 1. Biological,
well

robotic,

and

both in slow and fast

modes of operation.
is performed.
provide

many other engineering In the slow mode,

systems must
high

perform

accuracy

must

be

available, as when surgery also be able to act fast and

high

must The same actuators (muscles,motors) acceleration for the plant, as when hitting a ball
the

or jumping. good but

The need

accuracy
slow

of the fast
motion

not be

as good as the

components of
of the

motion

must control

be reasonably using eyes

accuracy

slow mode action.

closed-loop

High-accuracy

can be

achieved with

or

Chapter2. Feedforward,

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems
the

33
fast

The feedback other positionsensors. however, doesn't suit configuration, mode since the speed of the feedback action is bounded by the delays

action

in the
and

feedback
must

loop. To make

the

actuators

move the
maintaining

plant

with

the maximum

speed
the

acceleration

of while they commanded directly.

are capable

a reasonable

accuracy,

actuators

be

The blockdiagram

requirements

is shown

command into commands local sensors wideband (fast) feedback loopsusing (inner loops) which accurate. variables The plant output (average speed, direction of motion, controlled by the outer feedback loops.

a feedback/feedforward system to answer these conflicting in Fig. 2.2. The commander transforms the general input for the individual actuators. The actuators are equipped with
of make etc.)

them are

Fig.2.2
At

Feedforward

system

with fast

actuator loops and slow outer

the

loops
the

low

frequencies

(i.e., for
At

system operates closed-loop. gains roll down and the command

controlled

output variables,

the

gains are high and fast (for motion), the compensators' higher frequencies feedforward become dominant. For each of paths transfer function system input-output
compensators'

slow motion),

the

much more approximates 1 over the entire frequency range of operation, although at where lower the feedback in is The transition accurately frequencies large. accuracy from the slow to the fast mode is gradual, since the gain of the compensator gradually decreases

with

frequency.

When the motion comprisesboth slow and fast components, the outer feedback (aswhen adjusting the general direction of running) loops control the slow components while for the fast components, only the inner loops are closed.

2.2 Prefilter and

The

the feedback path

function

equivalent

block

with transfer

in the

command

path

preceding prefilter.

the

command
This

summer has return

ratio

(same as the
ratio

feedback

summer)

in Fig.

2.3 is calledthe

system

B = \\IR.

closed-loop response RT/(T+ 1).The system in Fig. 2.4 has return and closed-loop response B~*T/(T+ 1). These two systems are equivalent if
T and

34

Chapter

2. Feedforward,

Multiloop,

and

MIMO

Systems

Kp->

C/B-+

P \302\246>

14 1 v_yn
Fig. 2.3

System

with

prefilter

Fig. 2.4

System

with

feedback

path

With R = IIB = \\IM0, function MIM0, the same

the systems as that for

in Figs.
the

system

2.3 and 2.4 have the closed-loop transfer in Fig. 2.1. Therefore, all three systems
in

are potentially
and feedback
Figs.

equivalent.

A system
be

path, can always

2.4.

having all three links: feedforward path, prefilter, transformed to any one of the systems equivalently
modify

2.1,2.3,

make
change

The three equivalent it closer to the

the feedback The

methods desired,

compared
sensitivity.

and the input-output transfer function can with the system in Fig. 1.1 (b), but do not

or

the

system design is performedin two stages: first, the compensator C is defined; then, R, or B, or the feedforward (APo)\021. path the feedback transfer function must The compensator be chosen so as to maximize - as will be shown in Chapters 4 and 5. Once designed, of interest over the bandwidth should not be compromised during the the next stage of the design, which compensator This goal can be is the implementation of a suitable nominal response. closed-loop a of or or the feedforward achieved choice B, R, path. by proper the effects of the compensator Since the feedback reduces variations, parameter and the feedback link these links need not be precise. The tolerancesin the prefilter The required to the output so these links do need to be precise. contribute error, directly of the on the the feedforward of accuracy path depends implementation accuracy
at different and may be different function, frequencies. knowledge of the plant transfer and the feedback to integrate the prefilter, the compensator, It might seem attractive can be designed a generalized linear subsystem which link into using some universal the since the sensitivities and index. However, this is not recommended performance the design are quite different; be implemented with which the blocks should accuracies of these blocks is to a large extent independent; and it is much easier to design these

blocks oneat
2.3

a time.

Error

feedforward
an

Fig. 2.5(a)describes

entirely

different

scheme

known

as error

feedforwarding.

AJB
Load

p B
(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.5

Error

feedforward

Chapter

2. Feedforward,
function

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems

35

The input-output
CAXP
Ux and \\

transfer

is

B.1)
CAxPB
U2\342\200\224U1/B.

+ CAxPB

if

A2=l,

then
plant

The

function
calculated

to the
as A

parameter

of sensitivity variations (and to

the system
variations

input-output

transfer

in

C and

Aj) can

be

If A2is made closeto 1, the sensitivity approaches zero. of this method of sensitivity reduction are restricted Practical applications by the in the design of the output For an electrical amplifier with a difficulties summer. system a bridge-type known load, the output summer can be made using signal combiner as the bridge prevents the output from the upper path shown in Fig. 2.5(b); from signal the It is more difficult to with into feedback going path. implement a mechanical system
-A2)/F. such properties.

2.4
Finally,

Black's feedforward method

consider

feedforward method for sensitivity which was reduction, the the same time he invented feedback method. around Black, by the method. Note that no feedback appearsin this system. The upper Fig. 2.6(a)depicts The the main and the lower one is the error compensation error is one, path. signal path and the of the main the the command is difference between Ux output path, signal is amplified and added to the measured via the B-path. The error by the error path error in the main path. so as to compensate for the initial system's output,
Black's

invented

Harold

1/8

8 Error

\302\253\302\246{

1/8

(a)

(b)
system:

Fig. 2.6

Black's feedforward
transfer

(a) general,

(b) ideal case

The input-output
If either
The

function

is

AM

or AE

sensitivity

or both equal of the output

MB,

the

input-output

to variations

transfer in AM is

function is

\\IB.

C \342\200\224

1-AE

B.2)

1+ -

ACB

36

Chapter
the

2. Feedforward,
is requested

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems

in Problem 11). is two nearly equal signals,and the difference between signal the error is small. In this case the actuator Ae can be low-power. Such an actuator can be made very precise. When the gain coefficient of this actuator is AE= IIB, the sensitivity D is also zero. B.2) becomes zero. In this case the output effect of the disturbance order to make AM and AE each In these conditions in equal to 1/2?, and preserve in actuators' actuators these are commonly spite of variations parameters, both stabilized by internal or by some adaptive automatic feedback Also, in adjustment. gain the case where both of the transfer functions are MB as in Fig. 2.6(b), the feedforward scheme fails, the remaining one takes the provides redundancy: if one of the actuators full load and the input-output remains unchanged. gain substantial delays, In some physical systems, the links AM, B, and AE incorporate as do not and shown in 2.7. These the use of xE delays respectively xM, tB, Fig. prevent + feedforward if they are properly compensated by insertion of delay link tM tB in the signal path to the first summer, and delay link xB + % a* the output of the main channel. Then, the phase difference between the signals reaching the summers remains the same, of the system is transfer function and the only difference in the resulting input-output extra the delay % + nB + xEformula

(derivation of

If B a 1/AM)

the

error

Fig. 2.7 This method

Black's feedforward with

delay

compensation

for telecommunication is often employedin low-distortion amplifiers of MHz to tens of GHz,but it is not hundreds for from with systems, signals frequencies when control extreme to common in control There be systems systems. may applications
accuracy

is required.

2.5
Linear

Multiloop feedback systems

systems

can

always

be transformed to
in Fig.

another

configuration

with

a different

number of loops, as illustrated 2

2.8.

(a)

(b)
Modifications

Fig.2.8

of a

linear system

Chapter 2. Feedforward, In accordancewith

which

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems
systems,

37
only

Bode's

definition

of physical

multiloop

comprise

nonlinear

saturation-type

elements

Fig.

definition

and 2.9, system (a) is a single-loop system, is related to the problem of stability actuators are always nonlinear. Such systems will

are counted. For example, in (b) is a three-loopsystem.This system whose analysis of practical systems be studied in Chapters 4-13.

the loops

(a)

Fig. 2.9 In this chapter, operation,i.e., for

by
2.6
unity

Single-loop

(a)

and three-loop

(b) feedback
in

systems
the

we
small

will

amplitude

analyze feedback systems signals, with saturation

only

linear

state of
replaced

links

equivalently

links.

Local,
(a)

common,
depicts

and nested
feedback
feedback

loops
to gain This

Fig.2.1
much

local

links is reduced
larger

variations depend on the

by

in the

loops. The sensitivities local loop. The total

in

each

of the

the product

of all these feedbackvalues.

than

gain

parameter chain of these reduction effect is

shown

link's

in this

arrangement

the

common-loop

arrangement,

in

Fig.

2.10(b).

ft '

I)

I)

(a)

Fig. 2.10
If each
then

Local

loops

(a) and

the common looparrangement

gain

(b)

of

the

three

links

with nominal

coefficient

to

same system

degree of accuracy, provide value of feedback.In this case the

the same

is much

higher

than

required closed-loop gain the closed-loop gain kr/(T+

feedback

it is

k has the same tolerances, to enloop each stage by the

1^/A+ 1) of

the

single-loop

if

of

the

system

with local

loops.
the

This is why
gain gain

common-loop

resulting

is important.
into

is preferred in For control systems, this

amplification consideration

where techniques is not important

but

since the

can

need to be taken

be increased by adding inexpensive account when designing analog

stage

gain blocks,

this

effect

does

compensators.
coefficient

Example 1. Each

of an

amplifier has

gain

of 50.

The feedback

38

Chapter

2.

Feedforward,

Multiloop, and MIMO Systems in time.

be

about each stage needsto be at least 10 to make the gain coefficient stable is used, the total amplifier Then, when local feedback gain coefficient will When the common loop configuration is used, the gain coefficient will be much
12500.

125.

higher,

Local loops are can be nested as

These loops by large feedback to make its gain accurate and also to manipulate the output of the driver. The actuator makes the actuator-plus-driver subsystem impedance loop accurate and stable in time. The outer loop improves the accuracy of all links in the the forward The nested is for several path, including plant. employed loop arrangement be in detail to discussed in because the feedback reasons, Chapter 7, primarily bandwidth in the outer loop cannot be made arbitrarily The inner wideband large. loop is about the electrical amplifier (driver), the intermediate the bandwidth loop is about actuator narrow outer loop, about bandwidth the plant. (motor), and the rather
often

made

about links

with

large

parameter

variations.

shown

in Fig.

2.11. Here, the driver and stable in time,

amplifier

is enlooped

fcfi

Driver
i

position

Bo

currentor voltage
Sa

force or
velocity

4 r\342\204\242 BP

Fig. 2.11

Nested feedbackloops of a driver

have
implemented

For example, amplifier. The

variations large local
forward

consider
op-amps

without
supply

the typical case feedback

with
gain An

an operational
and

due to power

feedback loop about

and temperature voltage the driver amplifiers

very large changes.

will

uncertainty

reduce

easily implemented of the tolerances

the

If op-amps are used in path to only that of the compensator, plant, and actuator. the compensator, they must also have large local feedback. at the output of The variables that are fed back in the inner loops can be different: at the output the the variable can be the voltage or the current, and of the driver, the plant the velocity (rate) or the force. The choice of these variablesalters actuator, For transfer function P which is the ratio of the output to the input variables of the plant. a rigid about the actuator makes feedback force example, in a position control system,
a double while the rate feedback makes the plant a single body plant integrator the is an electromagnetic motor, rate feedback about integrator. When the actuator will feedback about the driver. (Theseissues motor is typically accompanied by voltage be studied in more detail in Chapters 4-7.)

2.7

Crossed
feedback

loops and
loops

main/vernier loops
are

Crossed
circuitry

shown

parasitic coupling. Crossed dc feedback

in amplifiers,

in Fig.
loops

2.12. Such loopsare

used
in

often bias

formed stabilization

by

are frequently

as in

the

amplifier

illustrated

in Fig.

2.12(b).

Chapter2. Feedforward,

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems

39

p
i

(a)

(b)
crossed

Fig. 2.12

(a) Crossedfeedbackloops, (b)

dc loops

in

an

amplifier

For high control accuracy overa large range, the actuator must be fast and dynamic If such an actuator is not if and available, powerful. large changes in the output variable actuators can be employed: need not be fast, then an arrangement of two complementary the main actuator and the vernier actuator which is orders-of-magnitude faster but also orders-of-magnitude two lesspowerful. and show block (b) equivalent Fig. 2.13(a) diagrams
The

for the main/vernier

main

actuator

provides most
its

loop arrangement. of the

but

action

applied

to the

plant

(force,

voltage

etc.). However,

due to
LP,

large

low-pass
components,

link

the

main

represented in the block diagram by the actuator cannot render fast signal components.These
inertia
rapidly

which is

smaller

in amplitude

changing,

are

provided

by the vernier
it

actuator.
From

is rather channels.

the diagram in Fig. 2.13(a), it is apparent what the actuators are doing, but out how to design the difficult to figure in the main and vernier compensators For this purpose, the diagram in Fig. 2.13(b). is modified as shown

LP

P hi2

B1
(/\302\246

\"

H
(b)

+#

ftJ

u.

S
Fig. 2.13

LP

Feedback systems

with

the main

and vernier loops

40
Now,
it

Chapter

2.

Feedforward,

Multiloop, and MIMO Systems

is given to the vernier system operates.The command loop tries to reduce the error rapidly. summer, However, when the error is large, the vernier actuator becomes saturated and cannot compensate - the vernier disturbances in the This situation is corrected is high-frequency system. \342\200\224 desaturated the main The of the vernier is actuator to by loop. output signal applied the feedback summer of the main loop. The command for the main loop is zero since the desired value of the vernier actuator for slowly varying signal components is output zero. (Therefore, is no physical command summer there in the main loop in the command in summer the main in is shown to Fig. 2.13(a); loop Fig. 2.13(b) only the of the how The slow but main simplify works.) explanation system powerful
is clear
the

how the

and

vernier

actuator

actuator unloads the vernier actuator Two examples of such disturbances.

but large amplitude and commands are described in Appendix 13. can be extended to a three-loopconfiguration, By the same principle,the system etc. Each extra loop provides an economical way to improve the control accuracy by a few orders of magnitude. The feedback bandwidth of each subsequent loop increases. Due to the difference in the loop bandwidth, is rather easy to accountfor loop coupling the system stability analysis, both in linear and nonlinear modes of operation. during
from

slow

a system

stellar interferometer (a high resolution optical orbiting on an orbit about the the of the optical earth), placed lengths paths from the two primary mirrors to the summing point must be kept equal to each other. and must be adjusted The optical path lengths are measuredwith laser interferometers, with For the purpose of this adjustment, a nanometer in one of the accuracy. paths the light between additional variable delay is introduced by bouncing mirrors. The is regulated by three means. position of one of these mirrors The mirror is mounted on a piezoelectric actuator. The piezoelectric actuator can but its maximum displacement be controlled with nanometer (stroke)is only accuracy, is moved by a voice coil. (A voice 50 |xm. The small platform bearing the piezoactuator coil is an electromechanical actuator based on a coil placed in a field of a permanent in loudspeakers and hard disk drives where voice coils are widely magnet; employed Example

1.

In the

instrument

to

be

they position

the

reading/writing feedback

lower sinceits

actuator maximum stroke is much can be moved on wheels along a set of rails. is the vernier for the is the vernier for the cart, and the piezoelement The coil voice and the cart desaturates the voice coil. The voice coil desaturatesthe piezoactuator, and the optical path length coil. The entire control system is able to adjust voice rapidly in is in control described detail 13.13.) Appendix system very accurately. (The

heads.) is limited by

The accuracy of the voice coil control loop is some mechanical structural but the resonances, on a cart that 1 cm. The voice coil is placed longer,

2.8
functions

Manipulations
block
to

transfer of of block diagrams and calculations

Equivalence
configurations

diagram
transformed

transformations the

facilitate purpose

the

conversions

of various
diagram

standard

ones for

of analysis.

For example, the

in

Fig. 2.14(a)
which

can be

into

the

signal

transformation,

is taken while preserving the forward path transfer

diagrams the
function

the node from (b) and (c) by changing value at the branch output. In this signal are ratio and the feedback loop return

preserved.

Chapter 2. Feedforward, Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems

41

\302\273 a \302\273Q

c \302\246?

\342\200\224p+-

> \302\273O

-r+>

0
>\342\200\224 ab>

I\342\200\224nn\302\253\342\200\224i

I\342\200\224r^ui

(a)

(b)
Feedback

(C)
transformations
evident

Fig. 2.14
For
the

system

equivalent

transfer

function

calculation,

the

following

rules

apply:

is reduced b\\ the value of the feedback in the A) Transmission alone a forward path in the path. loop that includes links there are several parallel forward paths, the total transfer function can be B) When the paths, found by superposition of the signals propagating along i.e., summing the
path

transfer

junctions.

in Fig. 2.16 is obtained from the diagram in Fig. 2.15 by Example 1. The diagram taken at different points are The equivalencetransformations. by signals multiplied of the branches additional blocks' coefficientsso that the signals at the outputs remain

the same.

>(P\302\273

c *\302\251\302\246*

> \302\273(D

Fig.

2.15

Block diagram of a feedbacksystem

Fig.

2.16

Feedback

system

with

tangent

loops

The diagram in Fig. 2.16 has tangent loops, i.e., loops with unity forward paths. reduces the signal transmission by the value of According to A.3), each tangent loop feedback in the loop. There are two forward return rations bga and cdeh, so that paths and two loops with the transfer function is

abcde

1+ bga Often, instead

signal

+ bga)(l of

+ cdeh) block diagram

in

B.3) representations, systems are described by

the

the

flowchart

exemplified

Fig.

2.17.

42

Chapter 2. Feedforward, Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems

C-cdehJ

Fig. 2.17 Systemflowchart

Example

representation in Fig.

2. The

gain

coefficient

of the
two

as the
tangent

graph

shown

sum

of transmissions

along

parallel

paths,

divided

2.18 can be calculated by the feedback in the

loop:

C-2x5I0

1+5x6

= -2.26.

Fig.2.18
Next,
to

Flowchart

consider

nested
loop

the

loops

between

in loops. As shown the same nodes, we obtain

single loop has the

functions.

transfer

function

2.19, by converting all nested loops parallel loops. The equivalent equal to the sum of all the nested loop transfer
Fig,
several

Thus,
C)

the third rule the loops

can be formulated:
input-output

When

are nested, the

by

transfer
ratios

transmission

divided

the

sum of

all loop return

rule.

and

function 1.

is

the

forward

path

The three rules constitute

Mason's

>O-^

\302\273o \302\2730

PO

e *3 1

>

-f-bdg-abdeh

(c)

Fig. 2.19

Transformation and

of (a)

further

to (c)

nested loops to (b) parallel loops a single equivalent loop

Chapter

2. Feedforward,
transfer

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems
with

43
loops

Example 3. Fig. 2.11 is

The

function

for the

system

nested

shown

in

CDAP

DBD
where

+ DABA

+ CDAPBP +1
transfer

B.4)

D is

the driver

function.

it is often possible to prove the equivalence diagram manipulations, in a single-input, control schemes. For example, command singleposition form is sometimes into several to output system paths position, velocity, and split into three acceleration and these three signals are separatelyfeedforwarded command, a low-pass different summing points; the sensor filter to output is often passed through the of the signal), attenuate sensor noise (as well as some components and then the filtered and the unfiltered sensor are fed to different linear signals summing points; filters are used to estimate the output position, velocity, and and these acceleration, the some block to form the signal driving actuator; signals are combined linearly links named predictors, plant and time-invariable models, diagrams include linear If the equivalence of these block diagrams to the block shown in estimators. diagrams the achievable often, this can be easily done), Figs. 2.1, 2.3, 2.4 is proved (very is no better than of the of control whatever the that these name, schemes, performance be inferior if the block standard control system configurations. (The might performance the order of as in are chosen that were to limit the compensators, diagrams inherently of 1 in other the block On the some hand, 8.) Example Chapter potentially equivalent diagrams may have certain advantages from the implementation point of view.

With

the block

of different

2.9
Multi-input

MIMO feedback systems

multi-output

(MIMO)
controlled

systems

have several
For

output
commands
variables

variables are
is 2,
could
and

simultaneously.

the

number

of outputs is

3,

this

is

command and several inputs, if the number of example, a 2x3 The controlled system.

be,
same

for example,
body.

angles of

different

bodies

or

angles

in different

dimensions of the

The number of feedbackloopsdoes not necessarily correlate with the number of a multiloop and outputs. Very the often, inputs system is employed to improve of a single-input, (SISO) performance system. For example, the systems single-output shown in Figs. 2.11 and 2.12 are multiloop SISO systems. in Fig. 2.20 where different An example of a MIMOsystem is shown plant of the plant for each variables The transfer function are regulated by separate loops. The from the actuator to the sensor input. transfer output loop is the plant transmission function

from the ith actuator output to the jth line is calleda coupling transfer function. zero, then the multi-loop system is just a set of cases, coupling exists but is small.

sensor
If the

input (i coupling

5*7)shown
transfer

by
functions

the dashed
are

all

individual

single-loop

systems.

In many

Chapter

2.

Feedforward, Multiloop,
Plant

and

MIMO Systems

C,

A,

L
Decoupling
matrix

4-

Sensor 4-

M \\<

\\ Decoupling

matrtx

4- Sensor 4-

A,

Plant

$
Fig. 2.20

*
(a)

V
(b)
system

->

2x2 MIMO decoupling matrix can

with loops
in

to

control

nearly

independent
the

variables.
forward

The

be placed

(a) the feedback

path or (b) in

path.

Most often, actuators are relatively and their number in engineering expensive needs to be reduced to a minimum. as a rule, only one actuator is systems Therefore, a to do below 3 offers moves assigned specificjob (Example exceptions): one actuator the plant in one direction, the second in another, etc. Or, in the case of an electrical

signal generator, one actuator

amplitude,
the
the

varies

the

signal

frequency,
quartz

the

second

third

one,

the temperature

of

the

resonator,

one the signal etc. Because of this,

in Fig. 2.20 are already to a large extent loops in the block diagram of the plant matrix i.e., the terms on the main decoupled, (from plant actuators diagonal to plant sensors) are substantially terms. bigger than the off-diagonal for by using a decoupling matrix, Coupling between loops can be compensated whoseoutputs the action of an appropriate actuator. The decoupling reflect matrix only makes the feedback loops independent of each the design and other, simplifying the system performance. The decoupling can be done in the feedback path improving by the sensor readings, or in the forward decoupling path by decoupling the signals going to actuators. Either method can make the loops independent of each other, but there is the methods: the matrix substantial difference between needs to be precise when placed and can be less precise when in the forward path. in the feedback path, placed matrix for linear plants can matrix of A decoupling be found by inverting the If the coupling transfer do not contain pure known coupling transfer functions. functions or an is causal and can be implemented with a digital matrix delay, the decoupling the are not known since However, parameters analog computer. plant exactly, is never perfect. decoupling

actuator

The following
actuator

types

of multi-loop
type

local

feedback, vernier
decoupled variable.

power, and
When

nearly

control

in practice: systems are most often encountered and in with actuators differing in speed where each of the actuators affects a dominantly

control

specified output systems are typically

and biological importance, engineering complex with mechanisms large aggregation of severalSISO and relatively wideband feedback in each loop and a complex precisioncommander need not be very fast but the commands to the mechanisms. When the action producing slower common feedback loops are added to is of prime concern,additional accuracy the output variables - as shown in Example 1 in Section 2.1. control precisely
fast action is
utmost

of

arranged

as an

Example 1. The
well as
between
the

azimuth

angle
the

of the
would

antenna

elevation,

and

the result
azimuth

be

in Fig. 1.1 (b) a 2-input, 2-output

might

be

regulated

as

the

elevation

and

loops

is

typically

small,

system. The coupling and can be calculated

Chapter2. Feedforward,
and compensated which
results

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems

45

in practically
attitude

decoupling the loops.

Example 2. separate loopsfor

are commonly arranged as three about the x-, y-, and z-axes. The spacecraft the transfer function inertia matrix is not symmetrical about all the axes. Therefore, the other axes, and the one axis depends on the rotation about angle and velocities about be considered as three separate SISO systems. are coupled and cannot three controllers bandwidth of interest can over most of the frequency be achieved Gooddecoupling matrix where the spacecraftparameters are well known and the decoupling transfer over some frequency calculated. for functions can be accurately However, ranges, example, at the slosh modes of the propellant in the fuel tanks, the spacecraft parameters matrix is not very accurate. much and the calculated have decoupling larger uncertainty in the feedback in the control loops as The uncertain coupling necessitatesa reduction will be discussed later, in Section 4.4.
Spacecraft

controllers

rotating

the

spacecraft

Example 3.
appropriate
transports

Multiple

actuators

of

the same

type

can

be

used

to achieve
plants
the

the

is the use power and/or balance. An example is one of the is shown in Fig. 2.21. The output

attitude

and velocity

(i.e.,

this

block

diagram

shows

of multiple power variables defining only a part of the

4i

on jet
airplane

entire

control

system).
r-

OEOC

d k
u
Plant

Fig.

2.21

Several
redundancy,

parallel power
i.e.,

plants

system

The

arrangement

provides

one-engine-out

capability
support

(OEOC).
this

or manual) Special control modes (auto may be necessary to For this additional feedback purpose, loops using operation. surfaces are applied so that a single actuator can power the plant MMO event that the other actuators fail. The system is a multiloop

sort

of

aerodynamic

control

independently system.

in the

4. In a TV set or in Example More than 90% of the loops control of the loops control image color and tape. The
tuning majority

a VCR,

there are several hundred feedback loops. electrical variables (currents, voltages), and some of the brightness, speed of the motors, and tension
but

of

the

loops are
controlling

analog,
the

some

are digital,

particularly those for

the

receiver

and for

display.

system

is conventionally

designed

with

frequency

domain

feedback This, say, 300 x 300 MIMO were methods, as ifjthe loops

i.e., as if the system were merely a combination independent, to be controlled are to a large extent independent, variables dominant in the 300 x 300 matrix. Only seldom is someprimitive
forward

of 300 SISO systems. terms i.e., the diagonal

decoupling
in

The

are

used

in the path to

path.

The
variables

calculate the

matrix is sometimes included decoupling fed back from the sensors' readings.

the

feedback

46

Chapter 2. Feedforward, Multiloop, The design

and

MIMO Systems

of a MIMOcontroller

as

a combination

of several independent

loops

of structural It simplifies the system testing and advantages design. and troubleshooting, improves reliability, and simplifies the work of modification in redesign. To meet these goals, most engineering devices are designedstructurally, of the mathematically attractive idea of combined spite optimization of the entire 300 x 300 multivariable system which, must produce at least as good or better ideally, - but at the of of the structural the performance
has

the

important

price

losing

advantages

approach.

2.10

Problems
system

1 For a tracking
find

the

value

of the

1) with prefilter flthat

(B =

T equal makes

to (a)

5; (b) 20; (c) -80; (d)

transfer

120;

the closed-loop

function

equal

(e) 2.72 to

1.

Find

the

compensator

a prefilter so that in both systems.

and feedback path the system is equivalent

transfer to the

coefficients

system

for a system of Problem 1, with

without

AP

= 10

Find the without a

compensator C and
prefilter,

feedforward

with

the system of Problem 1.

0=1,

and

with

AP

path = 10,

gain coefficient

FF

for

system

so

that

the

system

is equivalent to

4
5

link B in the feedback an expression for the input-output

Include

path

in the transfer

block diagram
function.

depicted in
the

Fig.

2.1.

Derive

C=

2, A

= 1.

nominal

plant

coefficient ranges without Calculate feedforward path. Does the feedforward affect the ratios of the minimum input-output gain coefficient?
6

Plant gain coefficient P gain coefficient Po = 15. the input-output gain

is uncertain

within

10 to

20 range, and
and

with
to

a
the

maximum

The

frequency
7

loop gain coefficient ranges is the benefit

is

inversely

proportional

to

the

frequency.
block

At

what

of using

feedforward

most

important?

model includes a linear Plant F\\s) = 10/(s + 10), the actuator link with threshold coefficient -4=10 followed by a saturation
0.35)/(s+3). command
Plot

is
the

C{s) = 0.3(s+ is 0.1 a(s + 10)/(s+ a). The The feedforward function path transfer from 0 to 10 Hz. sinusoidal, with possible frequencies with MATLAB. Choose coefficient a such that the responses frequency
1, and
to

gain

with gain

signal
What

is the

amplitude at the input bandwidth of the

the

saturation

block

will

not

exceed

the threshold.

feedforward?
but

8 Same problem
simulations

as the previous one, with MATLAB, find a by trial

the

input

signal

is a

and error.
Wi + W2 to
Wi if:

step 1V. Make

Find

the

Bode
= 50

sensitivity
W2

of transfer

function

(a)

Wi =
W\\

100and

= 2;

(b)

and W2 =
W2

(c) W=-9and (d) W, = 10/s and

10
Find

50;
100/s2.

= 10;

Wz =

the

Bode
(Hint.

sensitivity
Use

to the

transfer First,

functions employ

of the Bode

Fig. 2.13.

the

chain rule.

sensitivity

links P, Am, for a

and

Am in

single-loop

Chapter

2.

Feedforward,

Multiloop, and MIMO Systems

and

47

system for
multiply

the

composite
function

the

channel transfer
example.

composite

link including the main link Bode sensitivity by the to variations in one only

vernier

sensitivity channel.)

channels; then, of the composite Give a numerical

11

Derive the

expression
in Fig.

for

the

sensitivity
two

system
the

shown

2.6. Compare
coefficients

rest

(b) when

of the links' gain Ae deviates by 3 2.6,

dB from

the

to variations in Am of Black's feedforward (a) when -4m = 10 and the values of are nominal, i.e., <4e = 1 and S = 0.1, and nominal value of 10.
cases:

12

In

Fig.

when

>4M

is (a)

Ae = 95, B = 0.01.Find the 100; (b) 105; (c) 150.

sensitivity

of the

output to

variations

in Am

13
14

in the described previous (saturation threshold) in find the maximum output in the error amplifier. signal For

the

conditions
output

problem,
the

maximum

signal

main
What

amplifier to be Ams is the conclusion?

amplifier

and considering the

= 10,

In

Black's

feedforward
Using

system
the

shown
rule,
find

in

feedback %
transfer

chain

Fig. 2.6, the the sensitivity

error

Ae

has

intemal

of the

system's

input-output

function
loops,

to the error
according

amplifier

gain

variations.
are

15

How
Fig.

many

to Bode's

definition,

in the

systems diagrammed

in

2.22?

(a)

\302\246Ch
\302\246*&-+

(c)

Fig.

2.22 Feedback
coefficient

systems

16 (a) In

with temperature by \302\26130%from the the nominal, the actuator changes by nominal, and plant transfer in the driver loop is 30 dB, and in 2 dB. The loop gain function is uncertain within the actuator loop (with the driver loop closed) is 10 dB. Find the total uncertainty in the plant loop gain.
Fig.

2.11,

the driver

gain

changes from +15%

48 (b) Same
uncertainty

Chapter2. Feedforward,
problem

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems
uncertainty

but

the

driver

is

\302\2612dB, and

plant
(b)

gain coefficient uncertainty is \302\2612dB. loop loop

gain

is

\302\2613 dB,

actuator

(c) Same problem actuator loop.

as

in

but with

in driver

loop 40 loop 20

dB and 20dB in dB and 20dB in

the

(d) Same problem as

actuator

in

(b)

but with

gain

in driver

the

loop. and one low-power fast actuator. 2.10.

17

a pair of actuators, one high-power and Explain why sluggish, and very fast, should typically cost less than a single powerful
Find

and

18 19 20

the

input-output input-output
multi-loop

transfer

function for the

system shown
in Fig.
in

in Fig.

Find

the

function of the

system shown

2.15.

For the
transfer

function

feedback described system and the sensitivities to variations

find Fig. 2.11, in driver, actuator,

for the

the input-output and plant.

shown

21

Derive

expressions

for

input-output

transfer

functions

systems

in

Fig. 2.23.

22

z' are

matrix (a) Calculatethe decoupling related to the actuator outputs

for the
x, y,

system where the sensor readings

z by:

x',

y',

x'= 2x+0.2y+0.3z,
z?

/ = 0.1x+2.1y+0.1z,
-

0.04x+0.1y+1.9z.

Since the diagonal terms

x=
A

are dominant,
x is
these first approximations

0.5*',
better

y = 0.5/,

z<=0.5z'.
found

to y and z into
x\302\253 0.5x'

to approximation trie first equation: -

by

substituting

0.05/
better

- 0.075z'.
approximations
with

Proceed
the

with

to y, z
script:

Compare these

with expressions

exact

solution found

MATLAB

A = [2
ans

0.2 0.3;
0

0.1 2.1 0.1;

0.040.1 1.9];
-0

inv(A)

.5038

-0

-0

.0235

.0094 -0.0243

-0 .0443 0
.4795

.0772

-0

0 .5291
form

.0215

for the solution in the Draw the flowchart Problem also numerical values in, (See using implementation of the decoupling matrix
and

shown
for

in

6.10

Fig. 2.24, an analog

and put the computer

six op-amps

(two quad op-amp

IC)

18

resistors.)

Chapter

2. Feedforward, Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems

49

,
(a)

a >i

*)

ko

><>\342\200\224>o

1
(f)

1N*>\342\200\224\302\273\302\246

0
I b

o
a
(9)

a
(b)

\\

e1

?>

\\

e1

0
a

O
c

(d)

0
f

0
d (j)

0
e1
\302\273o

c
(e)

Fig. 2.23

Flowcharts

Fig.

2.24

Decoupling
for the
x, y,

matrix flowchart

z' are

matrix (b) Calculatethe decoupling related to the actuator outputs

system where the

z by:

sensor readings

x',

y',

50

Chapter2. Feedforward,
x'= 2x+ y+0.3z,
y'

Multlloop,

and

MIMO Systems

0.1x

z' =
by

0.4x+0.5y+1.9z.
the coefficient

+ 2y+0.5z,

inverting

matrix

with

MATLAB.

(c) Same

as (b) for:

y= 3x+0.4y+0.3z,
z1

/= 0.3x+2.1y+0.2z,
=

0.04x

+ 0.1y+1.9z.
for:

(d) Same as (b)

x'=

2x+0.1y+0.1z,

y'=
Same

z' = 0.04x+0.4y+1.9z.
as (b) for:

0.1x+3.1y+0.1z,

(e)

x' =

y'=
z' =
(This

x +y
x

- z,
and three
fri

-y+z,

-x + y + z.
of three

arrangement

piezoactuators
system oscillator

load cellshas been used

6.4.2.)

in

the

spacecraft

vibration
quartz

isolation

described

Section

23

The frequency of a

power supply
transistor
environment

voltage

(the from

voltage

that participate
changes 5 V to 6

on the crystal and on the depends temperature of the changes the capacitances of pn-junctions in the the resonance The of contour). temperature 10\302\260C to 70\302\260 C. The power supply voltage uncertainty

The oscillator elementsare placedin a small compartment (\"oven\") equipped an electrical heater and a temperature sensor. The temperature and the dc return ratio is 600. The dc voltageare regulated loops. The thermal loop by control and 5 V, and the stabilizing loop return ratio is 200. The referencesare 70\302\260 voltage the quartz close to 70\302\260 and the power supply voltage, temperature loops maintain
with

range

is from

V.

close to

5 V.

frequencyof

and the transistor, the dependencies of the crystal voltage crystal temperature and on the power supply of the in the are well approximated references by linear neighborhood and -lO^Hz/V. maximum with coefficients 10~4Hz/\302\260C The dependencies and are 60\302\260 the environment disturbances in temperature (when voltage and 1 V (when the power supply is 6 V). Fig. 2.25 voltage temperature is 10\302\260) for calculations of the effects of the disturbances. shows the flow-chart

For the

employed
oscillation

quartz

on the

-10-3

Fig.2.25

Flowcharts variations

temperature

the effects of the representing on variations of the oscillator

voltage and
frequency

Chapter 2. Feedforward,
the

Multiloop,

and

MIMO Systems

51

the voltage
the 24

in the dc voltage also affectsthe power dissipated the oven temperature with the rate 20\302\260C/V. The No decoupling flowchart a double-input represents single-output system. between the control is required is small since the coupling and oneloops directional, from the voltage to the temperature loop.(The effect of temperature on
since
transistor

The loopsare coupled

and,

consequently,

loopis negligibly
the total

small.) Af due

Calculate

environment

range of the frequency variations voltage. temperature and the power supply

to the

instability

of

is 0, redundancy is always Prove that, generally, when provided. sensitivity W= (aw+ of Use bilinear relation dependence b)/(cw+ d) for the general function transfer function Won a link transfer w.) system

(Hint.

linear

Chapter
I

FREQUENCY
Some

RESPONSE METHODS
to control

in frequency domain expressed others are most often formulated in time rise The latter need to be converted into the overshoot). frequency-domain specifications in order to use frequency-domain design methods. Formulations of the time-domain and the simple, requirements are commonly very are also simple. The requirements can be equivalent frequency-domain formulations

(such as disturbance domain (such as

requirements

systems are
while

typically

rejection), time and

some

translated

between

the domains

with

pass

considered.
The

Since most control systems are of the low-pass filters are reviewed for future references. Typical closed-loop frequency responses for
Nyquist
introduced

simple

approximate

relations. type, responses

and

of standard systems

low-

homing
its

tracking

are

stability
and

margins are
The
with

criterion is the Nyquist

derived and
stability

applications
stability

reviewed.
discussed.

Stability

and

the absolute

criterion is developed for multiloop stability analysis systems' Feedback systems with unstable plants are analyzed with the Nyquist criterion and with the Nyquist-Bode criterion. The effect of saturation on the discussed. system stability is briefly Static error reduction is considered for systems of the first, the second, and the
Nyquist-Bode
loop
successive

closure.

servo types.
The

of minimum phase (m.p.) function is introduced. notion The theorem is considered of equality to zero of the integral of the feedback in over the frequency axis. The Bode integral real part of a function is applied to evaluation of the
of the impedances. The Bode integral imaginary part of a function estimation of feasible changes in the loop gain response. and the significance of the Bode general phase-gain The meaning the phase from a given clarified, and the procedure for calculating is

dB

of
to
are

applied

relationship gain

response diagram
function

is is
of

explained.

The problem of

finding

the

Bode

diagram

from a
is derived
for

given

Nyquist
transfer

considered.
Non-minimum phase lag is studied. A criterion two m.p. parallel paths to be m.p. of MATLAB and SPICE is illustrated The use

for the

feedback

system

modeling and

analysis.
When

the

book

is used

for

3.9.3canbe bypassed.
3.1

a single-semester

introductory

control course,

Section

Conversion
Approximate

of time-domain
relations

requirements

to frequency domain

3.1.1
Since

and in sinusoidal components, by the sums of their signals can be substituted do not interfere (i.e., the superposition linear links, the signal principle components are fully characterized by their frequency responses. The formulas applies), linear links with the Laplace transform method are often derived for the Fourier using complex conversions between transform is also used to make variable s = a +/co.The Laplace we will write W(s) domain responses. For brevity, the time domain and the frequency

52

Chapter3. Frequency
even
already
when

Response

Methods

53
the

we

only
with

mean
using

the

frequency

response

W(j(a).

We assume
2 can
links

reader

is

familiar

Frequency

responses

frequency responses. If not, are widely employed for

Appendix

be of help.
and

characterizing
best

design

specifications.
commonly

The feedback
specified

response required

for

disturbance

are domain since the disturbances in domain. characterized by their spectral i.e., density, frequency High-order by their frequency responses. compensators and plants are also most often characterized is commonly The time-domain on the other hand, characterization, applied to distortions. A or a which are without to transfer signals step-function systems required is and the series of step-functions is usually employed as the input test-signal, output in time domain. specified of a linear system, conversion between the Given a mathematical description is and and time easily performed specifications by computer. frequency responses function and the Laplace transform transformation between the time-domain Analytical and can be obtained in MATLAB The invlaplace. expression by functions laplace with standard time and frequency responses can be plotted MATLAB plotting to be able to make the commands (or with SPICE Yet, it is important simulation). of creation for the purposes and analysis of conversion approximate mentally and comparison specificationsto systems and subsystems, resolution of the trade-offs, of available versions of conceptual the simple This can be done using rules design. described below. The 3dB bandwidth is the bandwidth of a low-passsystem up to the frequency where the gain coefficient decreases 42 times. i.e.. by 3 dB. For the first-orderlow-pass transfer function al(s + a), the 3 dB bandwidth is the pole frequency in

frequency

rejection is most often

/P

=
in Fig.

f.log.sc. 3.1(a).

as

shown

The time
is

responseof

such

a link

to step function

input

1 -exp(-af)

(see Section A2.2 in

Fig.

Appendix

2).

It is

shown

in

3.1(b).

The line

tangent

to the

at. The
found

time response

at

t =

0 is

time

it

takes

the signal to

rise to 0.9 is

from

the equation

1to

exp(-afr)= 0.9
Fig. 3.1
C.1)

be

(a) Frequency
(b) time

response and
for first-order

response

link a/(s + a) In other words, rise time is approximately one-third This rule is employed for calculating the of the period l/fr related to 3 dB bandwidth. bandwidth for not the rise time to be required longer than prescribed. 1. A a 10\" diameter telecommunication antenna, dish, to be placed on a Example balloon in the Venus needs to to be Earth with 0.5\302\260 flying pointed atmosphere, accuracy. The rate of the attitude variations of the balloon can reach 5\302\260/sec. Therefore, the rise time of the antenna control system must be smaller than 0.1 sec which translates attitude

54
into the

Chapter3. Frequency

Response

Methods

frequency

of at least 3 Hz, or, approximately, 3 dB closed-loopbandwidth the crossover These calculations of the required feedback bandwidth are /b>1.5Hz. accurate for the conceptual design, even though the transfer sufficiently closed-loop function will be not first-order for which was derived but higher-order. C.1)

For higher-order transfer the rise time is still functions, low-pass roughly of the frequency response is approximated by C.1) where under/p the cut-off frequency the transient response is more complicated, understood. and the deviation of However, from the desired the output step-function is commonly characterizedby the five time ts of settling time t,, settling parameters shown in Fig. 3.2: delay time td, rise within the dynamic error envelope,overshoot, and steady state error, all (static) of them required to be small. , overshoot
i

iinii i r 11n 11 ^
till Ml HUM

outpu \302\246> \\j

0.9

static

error

^uency
a\302\247

0.1
delay

/
\\

time rise

settling

0
time

time
Fig.

time
3.2

time
Fig. 3.3
domain

Time-response
input time-derivatives

to
At

step-function

Relations between the frequency and time domain regions

for the
value
n

zero
high

time,

the first

vanish
the

systems with

an

nth-order

pole at

frequencies

as follows

from

initial

Laplace
flattens

transform theorem
the time-response relate
and

(see SectionA2.3 in Appendix small times and increasesthe

The coefficient
Fig. the
initial

2). Therefore, time. delay

to

increasing
transform

at

and

the

final

coefficient at lower frequencies

at
higher

value Laplace
the to the

theorems

the
the

gain
gain
in

time-response

at longer times,
at

frequencies,

time-response
smooth
is predominantly

smaller

times,

as is indicated
coefficient

3.3.

For a

transient

low-pass system with response at specific times

relatively

responses, we cam affected by the gain

assumethat

at frequency intervals. Numerically, according to C.1), the time-response is mostly affected by the gain coefficient at and around 0.3 Hz, i.e., the time of 1 second the output at the time of 1ms, by the interval; by the gain over the 0.1 to 1Hz frequency etc. gain over the 1kHz to 10kHz interval, to the operational bandwidth and in Fig. 3.2, the rise time corresponds Therefore, error time to the lower-frequency gain. The static the settling corresponds corresponds to the dc gain. It is zero when the dc gain is one. An also exists between the slope of the logarithmic gaincorrespondence important curvature. For the gain and the time-response frequency response (Bode diagram) the time the shown in with constant gives Laplace transform Fig. 3.4(a), slope responses the time increases with in the shown highdelay Fig. 3.4(b). Particularly, responses slope of the gain Bode diagram. asymptotic frequency over

specific

Chapter 3. Frequency ResponseMethods

55

frequency,

log. sc.
(b)

time

(a)
Fig.

3.4

Correlation between the slope of gain-frequency of time-domain and the curvature step-response
and

response

From
roughly

the

gain

reconstruct

the slope of the the time-response at

very

gain

response

at specific

specific times. Notwithstanding

for system analysis
1.3 is its

frequencies, we can
the
and

relations'

they render imprecision, and tuning. iterating

useful

leads

computer-aided

Example 2. The
frequency

plant

in the

PLL

in

Fig. to

a VCO.

It

is an
but

integrator
the

since

the

input signal proportional output applied to the phase detector is the phase. Therefore,the VCO transfer function is kls when where k is some coefficientthat characterizes the VCO gain coefficient &/co. Thus, co increases twice (by an octave), the gain coefficient decreases twice (by 6dB), i.e., the

co of

the VCO is

variable

slope of
There of slopes

the

gain exist

response plants

is - 6 dB/oct. which are double

integrators

kls2

and

triple integrators
-18

kls3. The

their

gain

responses
the

are, respectively, -12 dB/octand

plant

dB/oct.

Example

3. When
closed-loop

and

the loop also has

this

gain

responses

-18 dB/oct, the

loop

response
the

slope

since

have asymptotic slope at higher frequencies the

gain

vanishes.

Then,
third

closed-loop

transient

response

at small

times

will

be

proportional

to

the

power

of time.
response

Example 4. The
T(s)

frequency 9000

for the

transfer

function

is plotted

with MATLAB

in

Fig.

3.5.

The output
can

time-response to

the

step
shown

input

same link is shown in Fig. 3.5(b). We and 3.4 on theseresponses.

At

trace

the correspondences
degenerates

in Figs.

for the 3.3

into

high

frequencies,

the transfer

function

into

9000/.S2, i.e.,

double

integrator.

The slope

of the

gain that

same,
octaves
octave

-40dB

per decade. (Note

example, on

becomes -12 dB/oct, response each decade contains logilO = 10 to

or, which

is the The

2.3octaves.

in Fig. 3.5 are, for has the same width

from

20, from

20

to 40,

from 30 to

60; each

We see some correlation

the logarithmic between the

the

frequency scale.)
slope of the is zero; when
-180\302\260.

gain
the

response:when the slope approaches-40 dB/dec,

is zero,
the

phase

slope

and the phase response of the gain response

phase

approaches

56

Chapter

3. Frequency

Response Methods

a-20

0.8 '-40

-60
10\302\260

\302\2730.6

10'
Frequency (rad/sec)

10*

1C

<0.4

\"\302\253*

-90

0.2

-180
10\"

10'
Frequency (rad/sec)

10\"

10'

0.05

0.1
\"Tims

0.15

0.2

(sees)

(a)
Fig.

(b)

3.5

(a) Frequency-domain and (b) time-domain for T(s) = 9000/[(s + 30)(s+ 300)]

responses

3.1.2

Filters

Since most
better

feedback control systems are of

from

understood

Low-passfilters
disturbances outside preserved, then:

the low-pass type, their responses can be their similarity to the responses of the standard low-pass filters. noise and are most often employed for attenuating high-frequency must be When the shape of the signals of the filter pass-band.

(a) the
signal,

filter

gain

must be

nearly

the

same

for all important frequency

be be

components of the
to linear, i.e., the same for all these
for sinusoidal the overshoot. At the input, come all

and

(b) the
slope

dependence of the
dependence,
of
different

filter
which

of this

phase shift on frequency must is the group time delay, must

close the

components.
The

curvature

the

phase response
and

causes
profound

different

delays effect

components of
some

frequencies

has a

on

are not in phase at various signal components which and overshoot. cause the in at the output nearly phase filters. the gain and phase responses of several low-pass Fig. 3.6(a) and (b) show curved (it is extensively The phase response of an ideal filter with 40 dB selectivity to be is the weight function of the Bode in Fig. 3.40 which follows the response integral,

moment,

studied

in

Section

3.9.6).

at the filter bends sharply The gain response of the Chebyshev (equiripple) curved. corner frequency, and its phase response is also significantly filter has maximum flat gain-frequency The Butterworth i.e., the first response, filter are equal to zero at zero of the nth-order n derivatives of the gain response the Chebyshev filter, and its phase The filter has a lesser selectivity than frequency.

responseislesscurved.
The

higher

the order

of a Chebyshev
the

or

a Butterworth

filter,

the

sharper

is the

gain

responses selectivity,and

phase

shift

response is morecurved.

Chapter

3. Frequency

Response Methods 40 dB
Butterworth
step I

57

frequency

Bessel

Butterworth

-20

Bessel Chebyshev
frequency

-40

(b)

Fig.

3.6

filter low-pass

Frequency responses of the (a) gain and and for a Chebyshev, a Butterworth, of
the

(b) phase
and

a Bessel

for the step 40 dB filters

The

curvature
the

phase

responses

manifests
Chebyshev

itself
the

in

overshoots

shown in Fig.
and

3.7. The higher

filter,

order

of a
the

Chebyshev or a Butterworth
the longer

the

Butterworth

higher is
time.

overshoot

is the

settling

Example Butterworth
1 rad/sec,

1. For filter with

the

3rd-order normalized and the

low-pass bandwidth

the overshoot is 8% 10~5 accuracy is 25 sec; for

the settling 8th-order

filter,

time to the

Fig. 3.7 Time step-responses

for

the

filters

overshoot is 16%and
The

the

settling

time is

60 sec.
is the

phase

shift

of the

approximately is the better

and

proportional time. The

Bessel filter (or Thompson, or linearphase filter) to frequency. The higher of a Bessel filter, the order
and

phase responselinearity,
filter

the

the

settling

transfer

function

smaller is

are

the

overshoot,

the rise

time,

B(s) =
bns\302\260

where

bk

= Bn

\302\246

\302\246k)\\/[2n-k(n-k)W.)].

Example

2. For

the

settling

error

of
the

10~5, the
3rd-order,

settling

time

for
the

normalized Besselfilter is 11.5 The overshoot of the 8th-order

\302\2611%random

sec, for
filter

8 sec,

and for

the first-order 4 sec. 8th-order,

Bessel

is 0.35%.

variations
increase
transfer

of the denominator
the settling
functions

coefficients of
to 5

the

8th-order

filter transfer Example

function

time

up

sec (i.e.,
fourth-orders

by

1 sec). Bessel

3. The

of the

second- to

filters

are

the following:

15
+

si+3s

s3

+6s2

+\\5s +

15

105 s4 +\\0s3+45s2 +1055 105

+

in Fig. 3.8. It is Bessel filters are shown The gain- and step-responses for the three to the highestof the three unmarked responses corresponds easy to recognize which order filter: the one with steepest slope of the gain high-frequency asymptote, the one
with

largest

negative

phase at
axis

higher

frequencies,

and the

one

with the

largest phase

time shift

small times. The

against
the

phase

responses

do not look linear

since

delay at is plotted

frequency

with the logarithmic

scale.

58

Chapter

3. Frequency

Response

Methods
1.2 1 0.8

10

10
1 ;requency (rad/sec

K
'\302\247.0.6

/
A

~\302\273

0.4

0.2
180

10'
Fig.

JJ
10\"

10

1 Time

2 (sees)

Frequency (rad/sec)

3.8

Frequency- and step-responses

of

Bessel

filters

of

second

to fourth

orders

3.2
The

Closed-loop transient response

Nyquist

-1 in the neighborhood of the critical diagram point = 1. From the isosceles At \\T\\ crossover triangle Fig. 3.9(a). frequency fb, picture,
\\F(fb)\\

is

shown

in

shown

in this

= 2sin indicates

[A80\302\260

arg T(fb))/2]

C.2)

(here, arg
than

the angle in degrees). Commonly, the angle 180\302\260-arg7*1$,)is less a result, \\F(fb)\\ < 1, i.e., the feedback becomes positive. When a = I77FI becomes 1 no IA/1 than has its greater system prefilter, closed-loop gain tracking in Fig. 3.9(b). 20 loglM has a hump as shown and the closed-loop gain response at/b,
60\302\260, and,

as

dB

degr
f,

5log. sc.

0 -5 ---60

-10'-15--

-120

-180

(a)

(b)
diagram,

Fig. 3.9 (a) Nyquist

The

(b) closed-loop

gain and phase

responses
and

maximum
this

of

IA/I

is commonly

at a frequency
-

somewhat smaller than/b,

the

value of

maximum = l/{2sin
[A80\302\260

maxlMI\302\273

\\M(fb)\\

arg D/2]}.
180\302\260, i.e.,

C.3)
when

The hump is approachesthe

large
point

when
-1.

arg T(fb) is close to

the Nyquist

diagram

Chapter
Example

3. Frequency ResponseMethods
angle

59

1.
infinitely.
and

When

the

of

approaches
\\M\\

-180\302\260, then

grows

then

\\M\\\302\2732,

to 0 and When the angle is -150\302\260, the hump is 6 dB high as

IFI decreases
overshoot

shown

3.9(b). The resulting about 50%as shown in Fig. 3.10.

in Fig.
In

is

5 Fig. 3.10

1O
to step
input

feedback

system

with a
path,

Closed-loop

prefilter

(or

transient

response

with

command feedforward path), the open-loop can be optimized there of each other (as was shown is no need independently to compromise the loop response in order to reduce the closed-loop overshoot. and the output to feedback system to be small, For the overshoot in a closed-loop settle with high accuracy in a rather short time, the closed-loop gain response (together must with the prefilter) must a Bessel filter response. The prefilter approximate from the summer the the of the to therefore hump closed-loop response output, equalize is given a broad notch. An example of such a prefilter in Section i.e., must incorporate

non-unity

feedback

or

with

a and closed-loop responses in Sections 2.1 and 2.2), arid

4.2.3.

If the
implemented

prefilter

(or the
This

feedback
will

path,

or

to be

exactlyoptimal,
output

it should

phase response linear. signal from reaching the

Homing prefilters.

prevent

the command feedforward link) cannot be at least in average make the closed-system of the most of the harmonical components
time.

systems The homing

response

do

not

in phase at any command have

summers

and, therefore,
be

do

not

have

must system open-loopresponse

made

such that the

closedmissile
by the

loop transient directionto

be as
homing

desired.
missile,

Example 2. For a
the

the
the

response

of

interest

is

that
target

of the
caused

disturbance

which is

changing

direction

to the

the disturbance is not measured or observedand only the target motion. Commonly, error is measured, the differencebetween direction and the direction the missile to the function from the disturbance to the missile transfer direction is target. The closed-loop 1/F. If the phase stability margin at/b is small, the frequency of-20 log IFI has response a large hump, the transient becomes too oscillatory, and there response of the output to avoid exists an effective maneuver for the target being hit. Typically, larg T(fb)\\ does

not exceed

135\302\260 in

such

systems.

3.3
The

Root locus
transfer is infinitely T(s)/F(s) of a closed-loopsystem big for the signal to the of the function. As as the is in the left long corresponding poles pole of s, this doesn't create a problem. when one of has a the However, poles

function

components
half-plane

positive real
transmission

part,

i.e.,

the

pole sp is

in

is infinitely

big for

the

of Laplace right half-plane which is signal growing in time.

the

variable s,
Then,

the

noise will be exponentially components of the random input magnified to grow exponentially. is considered Such a linear system system's output cannot perform as a control Verification of the system stability system.

some the causing unstable and is one of the

transfer

major tasks in
When
functions
the

control links

system design. in the loop are each inherently

stable,

i.e., all all poles

are in the left half-plane

of s, then,

certainly,

poles of their of the transfer

function

60

Chapter 3. Frequency ResponseMethods

the loop is the open-loop T(s) are in the left half-plane of j, and system is stable. When can appear in the right halfclosed, some of the poles of the transfer function T(s)/F(s) to trace what happens It is interesting plane of j, and in this case, the system is unstable. when the loop is \"gradually\" closed: instead of switching the loop open or closed, we a link with the coefficient k in the increase k place gain loop, and we will continuously the from 0 to 1. Correspondingly, the transfer of function will change poles continuously from the poles of the open-loop system to the poles of the closed-loop on the s-plane are called root loci. The root loci start at the system. Their trajectories of T. Invasion of a root into locus the of $ indicates that the system poles right half-plane

becomes unstable.
There

exist

rules

for drawing

the

root

loci

manually

and for

using

the

loci

feedback system design.The rules provide for simple low-order system but analysis method becomes cumbersomewhen to high-performance systems which applied high-order systems. The root locus will be further discussed in Section 8.2.

for the the

are

Example 1. T(s) be calculated the with

n =

= 10($

+ 2)/($3 + s2 + s). The MATLAB commands d = [1

open-loop

and closed-loop

poles can

roots(d)
ans roots{n

[0

10

20];

1 1

0];
k = [0.05 0.1 0.20.51]

%open-loop

poles

= 0 + d)
=

ans
The

-0.5000 \302\261 0.8660i %closed-loop poles

0.3275
Fig.
= \302\261 3.4608i in

-1.6551

root loci

3.11 [111

are plotted 0];

with:

n =
=

hold
k

rlocus(n,d>
on

[10 20]; d
[0.05

k=o.i
.2

rlocus(n, d,

0.1
k)

0.2 0.5

1]; 0.5 1]');

infinity,

k-1

1=0.1

hold off
As

titleCk

[0.05

0.1 0.2

k-0.1

k increases

and approaches
moves
The

the

pole

at

the

origin

to
loci

the
of

approaches -1.6551. complex poles end at

system
when

left the

and two
The -2

Fk=1

0.3275

\302\261j3.4608.

-1

is stable
the

with

the

coefficient

k up to the

0.1,

Real Axis

complex
\302\261jl.42.

poles
After

become
that,

purely

imaginary,

complex
the

Fig. 3.11

Root

loci

for

poles migrate
system

to the

right half-plane
=

of s and

becomes

unstable.

When a frequency,
From this

pole

of

T(s)/F(s)

function

at this

+1] crosses the can becomes which \302\260\302\260, frequency

T(s)/[T(s)

this frequency

becomes -1, i.e., 121 = 1 and arg T=\302\261nn, where n the a simple stability criterion follows: if an open-loop is stable, system here, = < 1 n at T w here is stable 171 at which \302\261n% if all arp closed-loop system frequencies criterion is convenient but it is not a is odd, i.e., in practice, when arg T=\302\261it, This and sufficient stability criterion based on the open-loop necessary one. A necessary will be derived in the next section. response frequency

a certain if at only happen TTQfa) is an odd integer.

./co-axis

at

Chapter
3.4
Stability

3. Frequency ResponseMethods

61

Nyquist
criteria

stability
allow
most

criterion
convenient
the

verification
whether

The or experiments.

passing

a judgment on

of system stability without pole position calculations them the is among Nyquist criterion. It allows is stable the plot of the opensystem by observing
which with

loop frequency response, measured or calculated. We will consider a single-loop feedback system invariable links whose transfer functions are rational
that

real

consists of linear timeWe assume coefficients.

the

the
not

system
have

does

is stable when poles in the right

the

the

loop

half-plane

Therefore,

closed-loop

transfer

is disconnected, i.e., of j. function T/F can only

the

transfer

function

T(s)

have

poles

in the rieht

half-plane ofs if The zeros of

F(s)
are
right

some the

of the function

F(s) zeros are in

right

half-plane

ofs.

\302\246*,)-

C.4)

$*,

Sj, jk,

closed-loop system instability. nor zeros a simple closed contour C\\ in the j-plane crossing neither Consider poles and one zero st as shown in Fig. 3.12(b). Therest of no of F(s) and encompassing poles While s makes a clockwiseround the zeros of F(s) are outside the contour. trip about the contour c\\, the vector s-Si shown in Fig. 3.12(b) completes a clockwise revolution. the contour the vectors s - Sj, s - s^,... related to zeros outside It is easy to notice that ct exercise no such revolutions.
half-plane condition

... Let us derive a of s. This is the

condition

for

one

or several

of the

zeros

to appear

in the

of the

s-plane
yco

s-plane

(b)

(a) rational function

(b)

Fig. 3.12 (a) Revolution F(s) caused by (b)

a closed

of a

the trip

of s about

Fig. 3.13
function

(a) Revolutions
F(s)

caused
a

contour

d on the s-plane
vector

moved about

rational by (b) s having closed contour c

of a

revolution

of its multipliers. Therefore, a F(s) is the sum of the phases about S[ changes the phase of F(s) by 2rc, i.e., it makes the revolution about the origin as shown in Fig. 3.12(a). vector F{s) complete a clockwise no poles and several c encompassing Consider next a contour zeros sit sit s^ as in Fig. 3.13(b). When $ makes a full of each multiplier shown trip about c, the argument of the kind s \342\200\224 2rc. the number clockwise revolutions of the Therefore, si changes by of about the within the contour locus the indicates numbers F(i(i>) c, as origin of zeros

The phase of the

of

a multiplier

showninFig.3.13(a).

To find

the

number

of zeros

of F(s) in

the

right

half-plane

of s, the

contour

c should

62
envelop
radius
poles shown

Chapter 3. Frequency
the
right shown

Response

Methods
of

half-plane. in

Such

a contour

can be made
of

arc as
of F in Fig.

= T+

1 are

Fig. 3.14(b). The contour the poles of T. The number

the

encompasses

the /'co-axis no poles

revolutions

of

since the the locus of F(j<a)

F(s)

and an of F

infinite-

is half-plane of j. For this particular diagram, the number conjugatezeros,jj and jj( in the right half-plane of j. Therefore, loop system is unstable.

3.14(a) about

origin

gives

the number

of zeros of
this

2, reflecting

in the right two complex

particular

closed-

Fig.

3.14

(a) Nyquist diagram

surrounding

for

Fand

(b) the
As

contour

the

right half-plane in physical

infinite-radius

of s systems
arc.
when

mentioned

before,

the return

ratio

disappears

Therefore, F(s)
in

becomes1 while

$ moves

along the

Thus,

s is big. the locus

Fig.

inside

F complex

the locus of F consists of two imageconjugate, F(s) = F(s). Therefore, to halves and relating respectively positive negative symmetrical frequencies. The part of the locus of F drawn for positive <\302\273 is shown by the thicker curve and is half the number of revolutions of the called the Nyquist makes diagram. The diagram

is the mapping of thejco-axis, and the right half-plane of $ maps into the 3.14(a) of the contour on the F-plane. is rational with real coefficients. Complex The function of s makes F(s) conjugation

whole locus
The

which

reflects

the existence

of zero s-t

in the

first quadrant
is stable
Nyquist with

of the
the

j-plane.

Nyquist
is stable

criterion
with the

open,
encircle

it

follows: If a linear loop closedif and only

system

feedback for F

loop
not

if the

diagram

does

the origin

of

the

F-plane.}

functions,

transfer the Nyquist criterion has been proven here for only rational valid as well for transcendental transfer functions since transcendental transfer can be closely approximated by rational functions. For instance, the functions transcendental with distributed parameters can be pure delay function in a medium transfer function a system with small-value by a rational many describing approximated criterion can be applied to all practical lumped elements. Therefore, the Nyquist or measured gain and phase systemsdescribed by calculated frequency responses.
Although
it

is

Chapter 3. Frequency ResponseMethods The Nyquist for T=F- 1

this

63

diagram

is commonly
in
in

drawn
T-plane

as
in

shown

Fig. 3.15
Fig.

(compare
The unstable

plot

with

the locus
this

3.14(a)).

critical
origin.

point

case

is -1, instead
Nyquist

of

the

Most

importantly,
whether

the
the

diagram

tells

us not
but

only

system is stable
the

or not,
by
the

stable

CO

also

how
the

to make
loop

system

stable

reshaping
compensator):

response

(by changing

by reducing

the loop

gain

over

Fig. 3.15
will

Nyquist

diagrams

specific
loop

phase 4. Chapter

frequency range, and/or reducing the lag at certain frequencies. Loop shaping
in

on T-plane
be

described
also

in detail

in

As mentioned

Chapter

1, Nyquist

diagrams can
(-1,0) in the
the

be plotted

on the

L-plane,
diagram diagram

where
on the

the

critical

points

are

\302\261 0 dB). \302\253360\302\260, A80\302\260

Notice
critical

that when
point

a Nyquist

T-plane encircles the critical on the L-plane typically passes counterclockwise direction.

point to

clockwise direction,the
A80\302\260, OdB)

the left

of

in the

3.5 Robustness and

Practical

stabilitymargins

are required to be not only stable but also robust, i.e., remaining the plant parameters, and consequently the return ratio, deviate from the nominal values. The stability margins guard the critical formed point. They are often means as shown in Fig. 3.16(a), by a segment on the T-plane, or, which the same, by the in If the for on the nominal rectangles L-plane Fig. 3.16(b). diagram plant Nyquist the system will remain stable for does not penetrate the boundary of the stability margin,
systems stable

when

a certain

range

of variations

of

the

plant

parameters. L-plane
\302\246

T-plane

gam

\\
i

\302\246

phase
\302\246-1800-

X,
y180\302\260

\302\246

18O>

\302\246

y18C

(a)

(b)
and

Fig. 3.16
The

Amplitude

phase

stability margins on
shown

(a) the T-and (b) L-planes

that

shape

variations

of stability in gain and in

margins
phase

in

Fig.

3.16 assumes

plant

parameter

are

not correlated.

This is

typical

for

many

practical

a rigid body plant. Variations in driving plants. Consider, for example,a force actuator the force and in the plant's mass change the plant gain but not the plant phase shift. On but not the other hand, variations of small flexibilities in the plant change the phase shift Another much the gain in the frequency region of the crossover. example is the volume without control depicted in Fig. 1.19, where the loop gain changes up to 10,000 times

64

Chapter

3. Frequency ResponseMethods
The

in the loop change suitable for practice.

any

phase shift.
lOdB,

disk

stability

margin, as

in

Fig.

3.20(c),

is less

and upper amplitude stability margins x, xx shown in and the values of the phase stability margin yl$0\302\260 are typically 30\302\260 to 45\302\260. values are also sufficient from some nonlinear to guard (These in the control loop, studied in Chapter phenomena 12.) As illustrated in Fig. 3.17, over the frequency range where the loop gain is within the interval is preserved and the system is phase[-jc,jci], the phase stability margin over the and where the the interval of T is within stabilized, frequency range angle the gain stability margin is preserved and the system is [-180\302\260(l +y), -180\302\260(l -y)], shows the Nyquist is both gain-Stabilized. Fig. 3.17(b) diagram of a system which and above/2, and either gain-stabilized phase- and gain-stabilized at frequencies below/,
of

The values

the lower
6 to

Fig. 3.16

are typically

or phase-stabilized

between these frequencies.

gain

stabilized

(a)

(b)
in

Fig. 3.17

Gain

and

phase

stabilizing
to a

(a)

the

T-plane and

(b) the L-plane

negative axis to the

Nyquist Stability
are Fig.

Such systems as /i and/2 in

the crosses stable system whose Nyquist diagram and -1. shown in are 3.17(a) 3.18(a). Fig. Examples point (not phase-stabilized) at some frequencies (such only gain-stabilized at which the loop gain is larger than 1. 3.18(a))
relates left

of the

T-plane

I
(a)

CO

(b)

Fig. 3.18
Practical

Nyquist

diagrams

for (a)

Nyquist-stable and (b) absolutely stable systems

links,

systems

all include

nonlinear

at least,
to

and are required to be globally stable, conditions. No limit cycle conditions,

will allowed.(Theseissues

i.e.,
i.e.,

remain

conditions
in

the saturation of the actuator, set of initial stable after any of periodic oscillation, are
Chapters

be

discussed

in more detail

9-11.)

Chapter
When

3. Frequency Response Methods

65

the only nonlinear in the loop is the actuator, link then, loosely speaking, its reduce the while the loop phase shift. This may equivalent loop gain retaining the equivalent Nyquist While causes to \"shrink.\" the of a shrinking, diagram diagram and signal level, Nyquist-stable system crossesthe point -1. At these specific frequency the equivalent return ratio -1 which is the condition of self-oscillation. becomes should be avoided in those feedback systems which Therefore, using Nyquist stability have no nonlinear links other than the actuator saturation. link and whose The absolute notion relates to systems with a saturation stability is like that in Fig. 3.18(b), i.e., not crossing the critical Nyquist point while diagram as shown the stability margins are typically chosen stability, shrinking. For the absolute in Fig. 3.19.
saturation

T-plane
\"

L-plane

' -180\302\260

y18O\302\260 y180\302\260

(b)

Fig.

3.19

Stability margins for a single-loop system on the T- and L-planes

will

with

saturation

Absolute

stability

be studied

in

Chapter

10 in criterion,

a more precisemanner.
the systems
system
the with

Example

1. According

to

the

Nyquist

the

Nyquist

diagrams

shown
-1.

in

feedbackis positive
at
the

Fig. (i.e.,

3.20(a)-(e) \\T + II <

are stable,

while

1) if and

only

if T

is on

unit

(f) is unstable. The radius disk centered

point

is Nyquist-stable.
of a
with

In Fig.

3.20(c), T is real
In
amplitude

and

less

than -1 at
return

two

frequencies,

other
than

words,
the

the

signal

at these

larger
this

feedback
H.

sort of T amplifiers

is
at

stable

The

signal applied to the loop was first found experimentally Bell Laboratories, and was later

This system is in and frequencies phase a That feedback input. system

/t and/2.
during

development

of
by

proven theoretically

Nyquist.

dynamic

is acceptable and even beneficial if special nonlinear Nyquist stability are introduced in the loop to exclude the possibility of self-oscillation. links is described in Chapters 10 and 11.) Designing such nonlinear One of the Nyquist criterion's is the simplicity of estimating the effects advantages of multiplicative of the loop gain variations coefficient. For example, it is seen from the in Fig. 3.20(a) that reducing the loop gain without the loop phase diagram changing will shift not make the system oscillate,that the gain by a factor of 2 will increasing cause and that increasing the loop phase delay by 60\302\260 at the frequency oscillation, where in = 1 (the crossover will also cause oscillation. frequency/b)

(Using

links

66

Chapter

3.

Frequency

Response

Methods

T-plane

T-plane

(a)

(b)

(c)

T-plane

T-plane

(e)
is positive at frequencies at Fig. 3.20 Nyquist diagrams: (a) feedback (c) disk stability Nyquist diagram is on the disk, (b) Bodestability margins, (d) robust system, (e) non-robust (f) unstable system system,
which

the

margin,

for Example 2. The linear scale is inconvenient for drawing Nyquist diagrams between practical systems, where the loop gain changes by several orders of magnitude the lowest frequency of interest and the crossover of feedback frequency. The inventor coordinate with gain in dB, and phase amplifiers H. Black employeda circular system these in degrees, as illustrated in Fig. 3.21. Another example of using coordinates is in A13.26. 13, Fig. given Appendix
90\302\260

Fig.

3.21

Nyquist diagram

with

logarithmic

magnitude

scale

Chapter 3. Frequency Response Methods

are diagrams of Fig.3.20

67

Example

3. The

L-plane
shown

diagrams

in Fig.

to the corresponding equivalent T-plane 3.22. The vertical axis corresponds to -180\302\260.

dB

dB

dB

degr

J)degr

>
( a)
A *-\342\200\224 (c

dB

dB

^
l_ X

ir

-r

degr
V

(d)

(e)
diagrams

Fig. 3.22

(b) Bodestability

Nyquist

on the
margins,

L-plane: (a) negative

(c) disk
system,
stability

and

margin,

positive (d) robust

feedback

areas,

system,
are defined
this concept

(e) non-robust

(f) unstable
literature,

system
stability

Example 4. In some of the contemporary if they need only apply at discrete points instead referred to as \"guard-point\" stability margins. The guard-point phase margin is the is zero, i.e., at/b. gain margin
The

margins
and

as
is

of a

solid
margin

boundary,

phase

at the

frequency where the

the

guard-point

gain

margin

is

the

gain

margin

at the frequency where

phase

margin

is zero.

This
even general.

when

is acceptable and convenient when the order of T(s) is low, and the order of T(s)is high but the response is smooth, but it does not suffice in Because of the inescapable trade-off between and the stability margins
interpretation if

available feedback,
performance

high-order

compensator
stability

is optimized for
margins

closed-loop
the
Nyquist

while

only

the guard-point

are

enforced,

- these end up looking like Figs. 3.20(e)and 3.22(e) loop responses much too This the critical sort of misuse of the guard-point point approach closely. that may be responsible for the stability margins misconception high-order lead to non-robust systems. compensators \"generally\"
diagram

might

with an unstable Nyquist criterion for a system plant The systems discussed until now were considered stable with the are unstable without the disconnected. However, some physical systems

3.6

feedback
feedback,

loop
i.e.,

like to know what will feedback T(s) has poles in the right half-plane of j. We would make such systems stable. the function F(s) = T(s)+ which have poles and zeros within consider Now, may a pole within the contour the contour causes the plot in (a) to in Fig. 3.14(b). Having

rotate

in

the

direction

opposite

to

the

revolution

produced

by a

zero

within

the

contour

68
(b).

Chapter 3. Frequency ResponseMethods

Consequently, the function

when s completes a trip about the contour, the number of revolutions locus equals the difference the numbers of zeros and poles of between The corresponding Nyquist the contour. encircles the critical point F(s) within diagram a number of times equal to the difference between the number of poles and the number of zeros in the first quadrant of the s-plane. The rule follows:
of

diagram
the

In order for the system must encircle the

the

to become
critical

stable of
the

when

the

feedback

point

the number
s-pUtne,

of

times

is applied, the Nyquist to the number equal

open-looppolesin
counterclockwise

quadrant direction.

first

and

these encirclements must

of be in

and relations between the loop, physical processes in the plant. This method variables is routinely of various applied to the analysis unstable plants: plants with wind thermal flutter, flutter, aerodynamic instability, gas two examples. turbulence, and the inverted pendulum. Consider the following Example
the

It is common to describethe where the links characterize

plant's

instability

as the result

of an internal

feedback

1.

In

the

internal

feedback

phase

at the

resonance frequency 0) = 2 of

in Fig. system diagrammed back path transmits the signal

the critical

3.23(a),
to the

the input

plant of

is unstable the

since
in

gain block
diagram

feedback

path. The
shown

Nyquist

for

the internal

loop enclosesthe

point

clockwise

as

in Fig.

3.23(b).

\\

0
degr

90 180/
-|

-270 -240-210 (e)

-180 -150

(c) Fig. 3.23

(d)
with

(a) Feedback system

internal
plant

an unstable

loop,

(c) Nyquist

diagram plant, (b) Nyquist diagram for Ti, not to scale, Nyquist

for the for Tz

(d) Nyquist
Because

diagram

for 7i

on the L-plane, (e) L-plane

the plant

diagram

of the
800(f

internal

feedback,

transfer

function

P(s) =

+0.2J

+ 4)

a pair possesses
by

the

negative

of complex conjugate poles with sign of the damping coefficient in

positive the

real

denominator

parts, as can polynomial.

be judged
With
the

Chapter

3. Frequency

Response Methods

69
transfer

compensator

transfer

function

cros-section A) is
800(j

shown in Fig.

3.23(a), the

main

loop

function at

+0.2J

+ 4)

(s + 40)(s
The

locus

counterclockwise

locus on
@ dB,
Another

the

encircles the critical point -1 in the Ti(j(a) shown in Fig. 3.23(c) that the closed-loop direction. This indicates system is stable. The shown in Fig. 3.23(d) correspondingly encirclesthe critical L-plane point
of the clockwise of

in 180\302\260)

direction.
stability

way

this system
function

analysis

is to

look at

the

cros-section

B),

where the
(s)

loop

transfer

is found

to be

_ . . \342\200\224\342\200\224 -0.1 j4 + 76s3 /_

s5 +
The

+ 960s2 + 1920s+3200 .iiii. .i.i.n. I,

42s4 + 84s3 + 160s2

Nyquist

diagram

for this
high-gain

cros-section is shown
amplifier

in Fig.

3.23(e). The

system is stable.
be

Example2. The
itself,
absence
shown but

shown

in Fig.
transfer

small

parasitic
standard is

of
in

the

feedback

path

shown

capacitance input-output feedback loop via R2. The in Fig. 3.24(b). The Nyquist
amplifier
the

3.24(a) would C causes self-oscillation

function

stable
in

by
the

for

the parasitic feedback

10

diagram
with

for the
the

parasitic loop is
when

path B = -R\\ B - 0.1 as indicated

Fig.

3.24(c). When the + R2) closed, /(l?i

in Fig.

is operated gain

conventional

amplifier

is much

smaller (say, only

3.24(b)), the parasitic feedbackloop gain is small, and the is of view on the problem stable. Another is, that the parasitic feedback point system = when transfer + is with the normal function s/[s l/(/?Q] negligible compared path Bw feedback path transfer function B, with which the amplifier is stable. Hence, the system can be analyzed without into account the parasitic feedback. taking
dB

/, log scale

dB

-20

B. par

(a)

(b) feedback

(c)

(b) Bode

Fig. 3.24 Systemwith parasitic diagrams for the feedback

feedback loop

via capacitor paths, and (c) Nyquist

O. (a) schematic
diagram

diagram,

for the

parasitic

3.7 Successiveloopclosure criterion stability

Example

1.

Consider
shown

the
in .

multiloop
Fig3A25Assume

system
the

~ ~'\\U

Linear

System

\342\200\236

system loops

stable

when

all

is are

\\J

\\J

\\J
of a

Fig. 3.25 Blockdiagram

multiloop system

70
disconnected,

Chapter
and

3. Frequency ResponseMethods
the

start closing
all

feedback

loops

successively

which

will

eventually

system with exemplified in Fig. 3.26.

lead

to the

the loops

closed. A series

of five

such

Nyquist

diagrams

is

A)

B)
diagrams

C)
for the
the

D)

E)
analysis

Fig.3.26 Nyquist
It is
the

successive loop closurestability

seen

in

Fig.

3.26 that
the

after
system

second

loop

is closed,

first loop is closed, the system remains stable; after becomes unstable and the system transfer function

possesses one
system

pole in

the

first

quadrant
the

of

the

s-plane;

after

the third
of s;

loop is closed,the
in

remains

unstable

since

Nyquist zeros since the

the numbers of polesand stable closed, the system becomes

between

diagram in the right the diagram

encircle

indicates
half-plane

no change
critical the

the
fourth

difference
loop

after the

is

counterclockwise direction; and

system
not

encircles the remains stable after

the critical

point once in the fifth loop is closed

sincethe
criterion
When

fifth

Nyquist

diagram does
the

point.
the

By generalizing
a linear

procedure

given in the

formulated Example 1, Bode

Nyquist

for multiloop
if and only of the point

systems as follows:
certain

system is stable with

if

loops

disconnected,
in

it is

stable with
counterclockwise

these

loops
drawn

closed
for

the

total

numbers of
to each

clockwiseand
a series

encirclements

(-1.0) are equal

other

of Nyquist diagrams

each

successively

loop and obtained by beginning in any order leading to the system

in

with all normal

loops open and

at

closingthe

hops

configuration.
the

The order
designer.

which

the

loops are

closed can be chosen

in

convenience

of

the

Example
three loops

2. The

system diagrammed
is viewed

Fig. 3.27
the

contains
analysis.
following:

two

local

loops

and a

common loop. The

drawing the

system

as a

three-loop system
stability

in Fig.

and

Nyquist diagrams is required for making the Nyquist diagrams

common

3.27(a). The order

first,

In this

case, of closing
the

can

be the

drawing

Nyquist diagram for the common loop and drawing diagram for the remaining since it is three diagrams critical point.

the local loops open), second, closing the first local loop diagram, and the Nyquist third, drawing local loop. Thus, we would have to draw and to analyze all not than any of the three diagrams evident avoids encircling the

loop

(with

(b) Fig. 3.27

Stability

analysis

with (a) three

and (b)

two

cross-sections

of the

feedback loops

Chapter3. Frequency
It is
often in

Response

Methods

71

that the local loops are inherently stable because the however, is small. When this is the it is with these loops worth case, phase lag loops starting and the related diagrams sinceit is already known that the diagrams will not not drawing the critical point. It remains, enclose therefore, only to draw the diagram for the common
evident, the

loop, with
paths

the

local

Alternatively,

the

loops closed. can be analyzed system

using

two eliminate

cross

sections
when

in the

forward and

as shown

Fig. 3.27(b).
by

These crosssections
only

all feedback
Further,

loops,
A) not

the

analysis

can be

performed using
itself,

two Nyquist
by
known

diagrams.
closing
that

the first

local

loop is stable

the related Nyquist drawing the critical point. Then, section A)

verifying

it is convenient to start since it is diagram

only

the cross
the diagram cross section

section
should
B),
with

without encircle the

the

closed, needsto be Nevertheless, the simplest

global

Nyquist diagram drawn and analyzed.

for

the

cross

stability.
the

such

that

it reflects
[9].

with of the convenience approach might be inconsistent For this purpose, the order of closing the loops can be chosen in which the loops desaturate the signal level gradually order when

decreases

3.8 the

Nyquist origin
diagrams

diagrams
a

for the loop transfer functions with

Force

poles

at

Fig. 3.28
body
plant

VM Vs Vs Depending on the a rate employed- an accelerometer, 3.28 Mechanical \342\200\224 Fig. rigid body plant sensor the sensor, or a position plant transfer function is correspondinglya constant 1/M, a single integrator l/(Ms), or a double l/(MsJ. integrator The frequency responses for these plant are shown in Fig. 3.29(a). The functions for the single and double integrators is infinite at zero frequency. The poles(the gain
driven

by

rigid a force actuator. of the sensor type

mechanical

singularities)

for the

single- and double-integrator

plants

are

at the

origin of

the

j-plane

as shown

in Fig.

3.29(b).

dB
\\V(Ms?)
VM \\ \\

s-plane

0
\302\246\\

CO,

log. sc.

o,
i

\342\200\242\\ i

\\

(a)
Fig.

(b)

3.29
and

(a) Bode
a double

integrator and (b) the

diagrams for

the

plant

as a constant,

relatedcontour

a singleintegrator,
on

the

s-plane

72
The

Chapter 3. Frequency

Response

Methods

of the contour encompassing the Nyquist diagram is the mapping right of The should chosen such that the function on the contour j. contour be does half-plane not turn into the if transfer on the function Therefore, T(s) possesses infinity. poles the should the when n are at the contour avoid j'co-axis, origin, poles. Particularly, poles i.e.,

sa(.s-spl)(s-spl)(s-sp3)
the this

...
infinitesimal-radius
171

origin arc,
the

can in the
phase
the

be avoided close vicinity

as an

by

an of

the pole,

is infinitely

nir as

of $ changes
T-pane

maps onto
the Nyquist

by ji along the nn arc of infinite

On in Fig. 3.29(b). and its phase changes by large, arc. Therefore, the small arc in the s-plane of Half of this arc becomesa part radius.
arc as
shown

diagram.
diagram plant,

The
double-integrator

Nyquist

a single-integrator plant for a loop transfer function i.e.,

for
in Fig.

is

shown

with

the

arc is

twice longer as shown

in Fig. 3.30(a). For a double pole at the origin,

3.30(b).

T-plane

T-plane

(a)

(b)
Nyquist in

Fig. 3.30
(a)

a single

integrator

for a diagram the loop and

often

stable feedback system with in the loop (b) a doubleintegrator

as servomechanisms of Type 0 (or number of poles of T(s) at the is of Type 1, and the diagram shown
is the

The feedback control

servo
origin.

loops are

classified

type),

Type

1, and Type

2. This number
in Fig.

The Nyquist

in Fig.
(b).

3.29(b) is of

The

frequencies
The

reduction.
considering

diagrams of Type0 are shown in Fig. 3.18(a) and and the related loop frequency responseat lower of the Nyquist diagram shape and the steady-state error define the steady-state response to commands
Type

diagram shown

3.30(a)

2. Nyquist

properties
the

of
feedback

these

system

angle 0.
keep the

Two

differentiators angular ratio

calculatethe
return

velocity unchanged.

can be understood three types of servomechanisms by variable is the shown in Fig. 3.31. The plant output are added after the for the sake of analysis, to plant is added Q. and the acceleration a. A double integrator to

Chapter
error

3. Frequency Response Methods A(s)

73

(a)

P{s)

A- 1/S2 fi

(b)

for constant

accelerartion time

Fig. 3.31

(a) Feedback system

error

block

diagram

and (b)

the

profiles

of the

command
let us
to
the

Assuming the consider the problem

do this,
time-functions
and

is small, of keeping

i.e., the return signal constant one of the

to be
constant

variables:

nearly equals the 9, or Q,

the

command,

or a. In order
angular

specific commands
are

need \302\253i(t)

applied to

input.

In Fig.

shown
static

for, respectively,
commands.
error

angle,

constant

3.31(b), velocity,

constant

acceleration
the

To reduce
the

of the

controlled variable, the

to
the

gain

coefficient

at s

\342\200\224> OYfrom

the error

controlled

dc gain coefficient (i.e., variable must be large.

The Type
summer output
error

0 system to the

of the angle coefficients from the error small. If in the commanded

will

has finite loop gain at zero frequency, and the dc gain from the plant output (from error to 8) is finite. Therefore, the steady-state 8 is small but finite. On the other hand, the forward path gain to the

velocity and to the

velocity

acceleration

at $

-\302\273 0

are infinitely
output

the \302\253i(t),

or the

acceleration is constant, the

not track
The the error

the

command.
infinite

Type 1 system has an

loop but

from

also infinite, acceleration a is zero. Therefore,

to 9 is
it is

at zero frequency, The gain gain coefficient the gain to velocity Q. is finite, and the gain to
constant
velocity

when

angle error
finite;

and

and

when

zero; when constant constant acceleration

the effects

angle 0 is commanded, the error is commanded, the velocity

the

is the

error is
is not

is commanded,
the

acceleration

error

corrected at all.
Next,

consider

of disturbances entering
in

feedback

points:

disturbance

as

in shown is commonly caused by misalignment of mechanical parts; disturbance in velocity, by an extra velocity component of moving of the plant or by drift in time of the values of some of the plant's and parameters; parts the disturbance in acceleration, forces, etc. by disturbance torque due to wind, magnetic

in position, disturbance Fig. 3.32. Disturbance in position

velocity,

and

system at different in acceleration disturbance

Fig. 3.32
In a
infinitely

Disturbances in
the feedback

angle,
disturbance

velocity,

and acceleration
at the

in

a feedback

system

Type 1 system, a
since

entering but

is

infinite,

this disturbance

point of velocity is causes a finite change

reduced
in the

74
angle since the gain the constant Thus,

Chapter 3. Frequency

Response

Methods

coefficient at dc from the angle to the velocity is infinitely small. error in position (i.e., an velocity disturbance causesa \"hang-up\" error that does not decay in time). To eliminate this error, a Type 2 system be should The Type 2 servomechanism is also referred to as a \"zero-velocity error\" employed. In this system, the steady-state in position and in velocity errors are zero, and system.

error in acceleration. steady-state ratio has a triple at zero frequency. These systems pole have larger loop gain and better accuracy at low frequencies, but the low-frequency and the system is not 270\302\260 stable. For phase lag in such systems approaches absolutely such a system to remain after the actuator becomes overloaded, stable the compensator
there the return

is finite reduction in In some systems,the

must

be made

nonlinear,

as will

be discussed

in

Chapters

9-13.

3.9

Bode
Minimum

integrals
phase

3.9.1

functions

Synthesis

criterion is not quite the straightforward. example, shape Nyquist diagram, one to reduce the gain at some frequencies and did so, he might find decided out that this gain change affectedthe phase shift at other frequencies, and the system is still unstable, with a quite different of the Nyquist diagram. although shape The Nyquist criterion uses three variables: frequency, loop gain, shift. and phase H. W. Bode showed that These variables are interdependent. in most practical cases two of them (the frequency and the suffices for feedback system using only gain) design.This greatly simplifies the search for the optimal design solution. A logarithmic transfer function can be presented in the form feedback

(design) of
For

a stable

system

using the

Nyquist

if,

to correct

the

of

where A(s) is

the

even ja>,

part then

of the

function the

and real
shift.

B(s) is part

the odd part

function,

of the i.e.,

function.
the

When

s is replaced by

A becomes i.e., the

of the

gain, and
way.

becomesthe
The

imaginary

part,

real

and imaginary parts

constant

phase of 8(/0))are
to

related,

although
affecting

not in a
the

unique

It is

always possible to add a

the

gain without
affecting will

phase,

and to

add

extra phase lag (but not phase lead!) without called nonminimal phase (n.p.) lag,
Section

be

gain. This extra phase lag, in more detail in considered

the

without such phase lag arecalled minimum (m.p.). phase have no later in this chapter that m.p. transfer functions It will be demonstrated zeros in the right half-plane of s, so that m.p. transfer functions of stable systems have transfer of s. Therefore, m.p. logarithmic zeros nor poles in the right neither half-plane in the right half-plane of j. of stable systems are analytical function the available As will be shown further, the delay in the feedback loop limits phase of the feedback loop links for the transfer functions feedback. Therefore, it is desirable in compensators and, if to be m.p. Designers of control loops use m.p. functions with functions. The phase-gain m.p. transfer possible, employ actuators and plants are interest in m.p. functions for feedback of special relations system designers.
3.12.

Functions

Example 1. A
Therefore,

of s. Therefore,

is stable in the two-pole passive and admittance have no its impedance are m.p. these functions

conditions

zeros or

poles

of being open or shorted. in the right half-plane

Chapter 3. Frequency
a ladder Example 2. Fig. 3.33shows electrical network. The output-toratios of the network can be input as voltage- and current-transfer expressed the transimpedance functions, (ratio of the to output voltage input current) and the transadmittance of the output (ratio

Response

Methods

75

passive

r
(r\\}\\

\302\273-<IZhrCI3jCII>HZZH\342\200\224\302\253

A
\342\200\236 I

A
T

ll
T

fl

Fig

3.33

Ladder

network

current

input voltage). All of them are minimum phase functions. that a signal applied to the input of a ladder network arrives at the the unless at of the is or of leastone series branches one branches output open, parallel is shorted. Therefore, ratio zeros are produced by poles of the the output-to-input the the of the of series and zeros of impedances two-poles impedances by shunting twothe right-half When are their are not in the and zeros poles. two-poles poles passive, transfer function does not have zeros in the right half-plane of plane of s, so the network s. Bode named such functions, also have no zeros on thejco-axis, which minimum-phase
to the
It

is evident

minimum (meaning function is the minimum-phase

functions frequency

phase lag). He proved smallest among the transfer

uniquely

that

the

functions

phase delay of the with the same gain

gain

response

and is

thus

defined

by the

transfer

function

frequency

response.

3.9.2 Integral of
Consider
half-plane

feedback

the function of s and is

8(j)
limited

which

has

no singularities

at high

frequencies

on the border and inside the and therefore can be approximated

right

for

large

s by the

series

s
By
A4.1),
integrating

s2
about

J3

9(j)

a contour

enclosing

the

right

half-plane

of j

(see

Appendix

Bode
\302\260r

proved

that
R

|(A-i4\302\273)dto

--J-.
return ratio

C.6)
T(s) of a
and
system

Now,

assume

that

that

is open-loop

stable
large,

turns

into

a/sa for

large s, where a

isa coefficient,
a\\
_o_

let 9

= lnF.

Then,when

s is

In

the most

common case
the

of

? 2,

by comparing

this

expression

with

C.6) we

see that

fii = 0,

and

integral

of feedback

is zero:

= O
jln\\F\\dea \342\200\224oo

C.7)

When Hence,

the

as illustrated

feedback is negative, LFI> in Fig. 3.34, the feedback

1 and

therefore In 1/1 > 0, and vice versa. over the frequency region where integral

76
the

Chapter

3.

Frequency
the

Response
negative

Methods integral over

frequency the

feedback

is negative
the

is equal to
negative

of the

positive

feedback. The
area

must be
Fig.

larger the
positive
near

feedback
Typically,

and its
as

range,

range of the larger

of

feedback.
crossover

illustrated

feedbackconcentrates
1.7 looks much

in Fig.
a logarithmic

the

smaller becausethis

frequency fb. The positive

picture

feedbackarea

1.7, positive
in

was drawn

with

frequency

scale.

dBl

areaof
negative
,

area

of

positive
feedback

feedback

frequency,

linear

scale

Fig. 3.34
Therefore,

Negative and positive feedback reduces

region
the

areas

if negative

feedback

regions,

there

must exist

frequency

increased. In practice,

the

feedback becomespositive already reduced by the plant,

Corollary bandwidth

in certain frequency feedback where these effectsare feedback decreases the output error since the mean-square the error are at higher frequencies where only components which is typically a kind of low-pass filter.
effect

of disturbances

of positive

1. needs

If the area of negative to be maximized, the area

feedback

over

the

functional
must

frequency

of positive

feedback

be

maximized

as

well. The value of the positive feedback depends on the distance from the Nyquist diagram to the critical point. Therefore, this distance should be kept minimal over the bandwidth of the stability the Nyquist diagram should follow words, positive feedback, or, in other as possible, and the chosen stability margins should not be margins' boundary as closely
excessive.

Corollary
crossover importance

2. Since the

the frequency, for achieving

is concentrated within a few octaves near the feedback positive in the crossover area is of extreme accuracy of loop shaping maximum negative feedback over the functional frequency

bandwidth.

3.9.3
Next,

Integral of resistance
let

B(j(d)

2Xj(?>)

R(jai)

+ jXQco)

stand

for

the

impedance

of

the

parallel

connection

in Fig. 3.35, capacitance C and a two-pole with impedance Z', as shown at all and to be limited where Z' is assumednot to reduce to zero at infinite frequency Z== this formula with at C.5) l/(/o)C). Comparing frequencies. Then, higher frequencies called the resistance and from C.6) follows an equation integral: gives 5] = 1/C,

of a

C.8)
'\"\"\302\246Zc

Z=R+jX

Fig. 3.35

Z shunted Two-pole

by capacitance

Chapter 3. Frequency ResponseMethods

It

77

is seen that the area under the frequency of the resistance R is response of R in determined by the parallel capacitanceC. The frequency responses and Z' but the of with different relate to the (c) 3.36(d) 3.36(a), (b), two-poles Fig. Fig. the curves is the same. It is also seenthat the maximum value of same C. The area under if R equals zero outside the R can be achieved the desired over frequency band
exclusively
operational

band,

which

can be

achievedby

using

as 2T a filter

loaded at a matched

resistor.

(a)

(b)

(c)
of reactive
band-pass of the

made Fig.3.36 Two-poles (b) resonance, (c)Chebyshev

two-ports toaded at filter, and (d) their

real part

resistors:(a)low-pass,
resistive

components

The similarly

derived integral

of the

admittance

Y,

C.9)

Y' of the remaining is valid for the dual circuit shown in Fig. 3.37, where the admittance infinite not of not to 0 at does contain a series the circuit does turn i.e., part frequency, and inductance. The relations C.8) and C.9) are widely applied in radio frequency of the available bandwidth-performance microwave engineering for the evaluation where the stray reactive element, C or L, becomes critical (in product in systems in and circuits of wide-band the particular, output high-frequency amplifiers, or in input of such amplifiers). the parallel or series feedback paths

Fig. 3.37
The resistance

Stray

inductance

limiting

the real
estimating

part

of admittance

integral

is

also

useful

for

the

available
Important

performance
classes

of
of

control and active damping of mechanical flexible structures. flexible plants include active suspension micromachined systems, and lightweight relatively actively controlled and damped large,
gravity

mechanical
structures

systems, in zero

environment.

In mechanical
sometimes

the damper

where flexible structures can be connected only

some
to the

flexible
this

modes need to
diagrammed

be damped,
limits
in

port where
case,

a massor a spring
Fig.

the bandwidth

of a disturbance isolation system. In

a specified mechanical

3.38,

to achieve
electrically

maximum performanceover
and

connected

to

the

bandwidth, Z' can be implemented structure via an electromechanical

transducer.

78

Chapter

3.

Frequency

Response

Methods

Spring

Electro\302\246

wv-

Electromechanical

transducer

z
Fig.

3.38

by connecting

Active damping of a mechanical structural an active damperwith impedance

part

mode

Z'

3.9.4
The

Integral of the
relation

imaginary

known as the

phase

integral

is

2*\"

C.10)
shift
infinite

whereB is the
respectively words, the
is derived
integral

phase

of an

m.p.

function,

zero and
in Appendix
can

frequency,

u = In
frequency

is taken

along the

the values of the gain at AM are and can In other be arbitrary. 0)c (o)/o)c), axis with logarithmic scale (the equation
Ao and

4).
be conveniently
and

The integral
therefore having

frequency responses
the

A\"

A'joining

same

value of AM.

between the two gainapplied to the difference at higher frequencies as shown in Fig. 3.39, and this difference is By C.10),

AA0=(A0\"-A0') = -In

\\(B\"-B')du.

dB

C.10),
units

the phase,
are

the

gain,

and
natural

the

4,\"

A\"

frequency
logarithm. degrees,

related

to
the

the

a:
cq log,

When dB,

the units

are converted to
low-frequency

sc.

and decades,

gain

difference
AA0,

is
= 0.56a

dB

where

having Fig. 3.39 Two gain responses is the difference in the phase a common high-frequency asymptote in the areas under integrals, i.e. the difference use of this formula will be illustrated in Section 5.5.) the phase (The responses. in the loop gain in the band of operation is accompanied It follows that an increase the frequency response of the loop phase lag. Hence, an increase of the area under by the feedback, the larger must be the area of the phase lag. In particular, the the larger because of their larger loop phase is larger in Nyquist-stable available feedback systems

(dec x degr)

C.11)

lag.

3.9.5 Gain integral over

Still another
7 important

finite

bandwidth is B

relation 7

JI

(A-

arcsinw A\302\253,)d

@=0

JJm2 _i

d@.

...

C.12)

Chapter

3. Frequency

Response Methods

79

With

application

to feedback
be

@^1 needs to
functional

preserved,

systems, C.12) means that if the phase lag at frequencies then the loop gain response can be reshaped in the

band

&<1

as long

as

the

area

of the

gain plotted
Chapter

against arcsina is

not

changed.

Applications

of

this

rule

will be

studied

in

4.

3.9.6

Phase-gain
the

relation
the

Given

gain

frequency

possible to find formula (see Appendix

i

response A(o)) of a phase shift B at a specified 4 for the proof):

minimum

phase

transfer
using

function,
famous

it is Bode

frequency

0)c

the

dA , , \\u\\ . \342\200\224 = \342\200\224 In coth\342\200\224du l it du 2

1 f

C.13)
units of the

where u
and

= In

(cn/o)c). This formula

the

uses natural
to

logarithm

for the

angle, attenuation,

frequency.

As seen,
frequency

phase

shift
a

with

logarithmic

is proportional scale.
single

the

slope

gain response versus the

1/j,
the

For example, for -6dB/oct and the phase

and
the

integrator
-90\302\260. For

with

transfer
having

function

the

slope

is

shift is
is

a double

integrator,
constant

slope

is -12dB/oct

phase
shift,

shift with

is

-180\302\260. For

the gain

response
the

slope
the

phase of the

proportionally,

-150\302\260. The

convenience
reason

gain

this Bode formula

is

scale became calledBode diagrams. to Since is taken from -\302\253> the integral in C.13) from 0 to \302\260\302\260, the phase shift at any specified frequencies response slope at all frequencies. The extent of this dependence is determined by in Fig. 3.40 with the script charted
logarithmic

of relating why the gain

<\302\273

phase

the -lOdB/oct, to the slope

drawn

responses

with

frequency

along

the

K-axis, i.e. depends function

over
the

the

frequency
the

on

gain

weight

In coth

Im/21,

u = linspace(-3,3,200)

b = log(coth(abs(u/2)))

plot(u,b,'w');

' I

3 2 1

grid

\\

/
-2
3.40

V
Fig.

()

J
In

Weight function

cothlu/2l

Due
neighborhood

to the

selectiveness of the
of

weight
Oft,

function, which

the neighborhood
shift

ofu = 0. i.e.the
calculated). do.

the frequency

(at

the phase
the

is

being

contributes much more to ft. than the remote parts of diagram of m.p. systems, and is equivalent to the stability The Bode phase-gain relationship result rule that the to the causality i.e. the (output) never precedes the principle, be The can cause proved with countour integration (see Appendix 3). (input) integral the Hilbert transform. or with (see Appendix 4) are to the transfer that this and other Bode integrals It is important applicable
Bode

80

Chapter
of physical
integral

3. Frequency

Response Methods
rational. from

functions

systems
allows

The Bode
phase,
the

which are not necessarily one to exclude the phase

and frequency - employed in the Nyquist stability two the and the frequency, variables, remaining gain Bode diagram, contains also the information the about

variables - gain, criterion. The relation between

the three

system design can be basedon only diagram methods are widely applied

expressed in phase shift.

is very are

the

form

of the
the

Therefore,

the gain responses which to practical links which

calculated

convenient. Bode m.p. or whose n.p.

componentsare
separately. Bode formula:
in (a), in (b),

small

or can

be

additionally

and,

therefore,
the

accounted for
structure

The sequence of
the Bode the slope
the

frequency

responses

in Fig.

3.41

illustrates

of the

diagram is shown; of the Bodediagram

function response

is plotted;

(c) shows

weight slope

(d) showsthe
The
illustrating

at coc; multiplied by the

centered

weight

function.

area under
the be

structure

calculationwill

response (d) gives the phase shift at coc.Notice that Fig. 3.41 is only of the phase-gain relation. A practical method for the phase
in the
next

described

section.

(a)

cq log.sc.
|Og.

sc.

(b)

weight

(c)
cq log.

sc.

eg log, sc.
(d)

area =
shift

Fig.3.41

Phase

calculation
slope, of
at

(b) Bode diagram

(d) product
Example

at frequency (Oc,: (a) Bode diagram, (c) weight function centered at coc, the slope and the weight
frequency
the

1. Calculate

the phase
is

coc < 1 corner

which relates to eo= 1,

then

the

following decreasing

low-pass response: with unit slope, dAldu

the

gain

OdB

up to

frequency

= -1.

Chapter
From

3. Frequency ResponseMethods

81

C.13),
\\

the phase is If,

'\302\253' , lncoth\342\200\224du

r*/

B((oc)

\342\200\224

n-l*

2 limit corresponds to the corner eo= 1, which frequency from zero to -1, i.e. u = ln(l/coc). Since changes slope
is

where

the

lower

integration

the frequency

where the
,

gain

ImI lncoth\342\200\224 =

,.

ln

l+co,./co

2
and

1-CO../CO c'
= 0)

du

<21n((fl/(Oc)

ld(a, we

can rewrite
dta
@

the

expression

for B((oc) as

!
-IJ
l In

/O) (\302\273\342\200\236

1-0)^/0) c

At

small

0)c, the

logarithm

equals

\\2xojw\\. Then

\342\200\236/ \\

dw

and

finally,

C.14)
fl(a>c)\302\273-|a>c.

The phase

shift

is negative

and proportional to
gain

the

frequency.
filter

Corollary.

Since the
manner,

response

of any

low-pass
filter

piece-linear
functions, the frequency.

the

phase
the

of a

low-pass

at

low

can be approximated in a is a sum of frequencies to

each proportional to

frequency,

so that

this sum as well is proportional

3.10
Accurate

Phase

calculations

of the phase lag from the gain is rarely needed in response and of the integral for calculation computer programs developed engineering practice, are the used rather calculation of is However, C.13) infrequently. approximate phase the the often of and for small required during conceptual stage design, quite version readjustments of the loop frequency responses. For these purposes,a modified is of a graphical procedure suggested Bode described below. by are plotted for the gain ray that originates at fc In Fig. 3.42, the phase responses with the slope of -6n dB/oct (dashedline), and for the segments (ramps) of the gain w octaves centered at /\342\200\236, i.e. at u = 1. with the slope of -6n dB/octover response should In general,if the segment's slope is a dB/oct,then the left scale of the phase be multiplied by a/6, or the right scale multiplied by a/10. Bode diagrams can be approximated piece-linearly by segments and rays, and the to these can be added up. Bode proved that even a crude phase responses related For the a fairly accurate phase frequency response. approximation of A renders need not be large. of segments responses typical for automatic control, the number
calculation

82

Chapter

3.

Frequency

Response

Methods

gain, dB

ramt

w, oct

(a)

m
CO

a.

.5

1 (b)

10

f/K

(a) Ramp gain Fig. 3.42 and the gain ray starting for different
w,

response

with constant phase

at

fc;

(b)

responses

slope over w octaves corresponding to this

centered
gain

at

fc,

and

(dashed

line) phase

to response corresponding

response, 6 dB/oct ray

nonzero is approximated by two segments with Example 1. The gain response a ray to these and with zero is related segments), slope (no phase slope, three segments as the sum of the then obtained in Fig. 3.43. The phase response is as illustrated or a ray of the gain each related to a single segment responses, elementary phase of the three sum The total is the phase responses. response. phase response frequency

Example2. A
attempt
Bode

loop
the

response
feedback

crosses
at lower

the OdB line frequencies,

octave

at it

the is

frequency contemplated

to increase
diagram
change
chart

800 Hz. In to make

an
the

steeper

by 6 dB/oct
on the
in

over an

centered

effect of this
the

help

of the
will

Fig.

2 octaves from
margin Piece-linear

the

center,
by

guard-point phase margin? 3.42. From the curve That the phase is 13\302\260.

will be the at 200 Hz. What can be calculated with of marked at the distance \021,\" is, the guard-point phase stability The

effect

be reduced

13\302\260.

approximation
a physically

procedures of finding

of A((o) is particularly realizable response for

useful

for

trial-and-error
a certain

6(/co)

that

maximizes

as weighted with a set of heterogeneousconstraints norm while (such complying under the limitation over a given frequency maximization of the real component range the for the frequency of in the form of a prescribed boundary function). hodograph

Chapter
dB

3. Frequency

Response Methods

83

degr

70

60 50 40

30

20

10

0
.25

0.5/1

2
f,

4 sc.

8X

16
\342\200\224-

-10

\302\246

segment -12dB/oct

'

log.
segment

-10dB/oct

ray

-18dB/oct

Fig.
Starting

3.43

Phase

calculation

for

piece-linear

approximation

of a

Bode diagram

the related for A, say, A', we could calculate with some initial response the B' a realizable and Next, changing Q'=A'+jB'. gain get physically response etc. As w e find related a rule, as seems would the reasonable, phase response, response of the graphical is sufficient. the process converges rapidly, and the accuracy procedure 5dB/cm and are: lOdB/cm and loct/cm for scales sketches; (The appropriate 0.5 oct/cm for more accurate calculations.)

Example3. A
responses.
(s2 + (aos
A

piece-linear

gain

response
the

ray

starting
here

at co0 with
n is 14

slope
an

can be viewed as a sum of several ray -12ndB/oct can be approximated by

integer.

@o2)\"n; in

described
m.p.

Appendix

not necessarily is based on this

Nyquist
corner

MATLAB

function

approximation.

It calculates

BONYQAS and plots the

response

phase

specified

response and by the vector

and

the

diagram
frequencies,

related
the

to a

of

piece-lineargain
of
the

vector

gains

at

these

frequencies,

the

low-frequency

and high-frequency asymptotic

diagram

slopes.

3.11 From the

From

Nyquist

to the

Bode diagram

and a Nyquist diagram can be the i.e. the shape of the Nyquist function B(A), plotted. The inverse problem is, given no analytical solution the Bode to find for an diagram. Although m.p. function, diagram a with the solution can be found exists to this problem, numerically computer by a high-order rational function. Alternatively, the Nyquist diagram with approximating with an iterative for practice can be found rather the easily important responses method of from the Bode A(co). B((a) finding procedure utilizing a known

Bode diagram,

phase can be calculated

84
The iterative

Chapter 3. Frequency

Response

Methods

diagram
(c)

plotting
some

converges
with

procedure
included

etc., and for rapidly smooth-shaped Nyquist diagrams. diagrams for many sharp angles (which are optimal systems), the convergence of this is slow. The convergence is improved when a sharp corner response is in the set of elementary functions. For this purpose we can use the function
first-guess 1

process consistsof the following and (b) composed of segments rays, the Nyquist diagram, (d) correcting the

steps: (a) calculating

plotting

a first-guess

Bode
lag,

the related

phase

Bode diagram, for Nyquist However,

C.15)

which is plotted

in

Fig.

3.44(b).

This response
the

is low-pass.It
band co <

has the

the peculiar phase

property
7t/2

of having
0) >

the

gain

of OdB

over
the

frequency

1,

and

lag of

for

1. The frequency

locusof

ratio

in C.15) dB

is plotted in

Fig.

3.44(a).

degr phase
90\302\260

lag sc.

S 1 f, log. \342\200\224\342\200\224\342\200\224\\aain

(a)

(b)
of the

Fig. 3.44 (a)Locus

(b) frequency

ratio
gain

in

C.15)

responses for the

and

phase

and of C.15)

in Fig. 3.45(a) can be calculatedby substituting/in The high-pass responseshown in can be obtained C.15) by -iff; Fig. 3.45(b) band-pass response shown substituting/in

by

C.15)

by

(/- 1//)
f,

[2].
dB

dB

log.

sc.

f,

log.

sc.

(a)

(b)
high-pass
9 by
the

Fig. 3.45

Bodediagrams
of the
the

for

and band-pass n, i.e.

function's
raising

transforms

of function

C.15)

Multiplication
logarithm

function

the

expression

under the sign

not

of

to

power

n, preserves
n

m.p.

property

(although

the

p.r.

property).

of

-150\302\260,

shown

in

The asymptotic phase lag is coefficient power and (b). Fig. 3.46(a)
the

will

be then

-nn/2.

= 5/3,

and the asymptotic

For example,for the phase lag slope is -lOdB/octas

Chapter3. Frequency

Response

Methods

85

phase

lag

(a)

Fig. 3.46

(a)

Nyquist

diagram

and
C.15)

of function
Combining

(b) frequency responses for raised to the power 5/3

gain

and

phase

these

frequency

responses

with

piece-linear

responses, one
of the
(not be

can four

the sum compose diagrams sharp angles. For example, Nyquist a constant and constant A) B) C) D) responses: low-pass, high-pass, slope in the picture) producesthe response shown in Fig. 3.47. This response can

with

shown

part

of

the Nyquist

diagram for a
by

Nyquist-stable

system.

This
that

the

rest

of the

diagram

the

same

procedure

as

used

as a part can be connectedto in Fig. 3.47 to \"glue\"

used

together

the low-pass
dB

and high-pass responses.

L-plane

log. sc.

-180\302\260

(a) Fig. 3.47

(b)

(a) Example
responses

of a

and

gain response composed (b) the response on the

of severalelementary
L-plane

3.12

Non-minimum

phase
the

lag
the

formula. Noticethat

Non-minimum phase lag is

Bode
zeros

link's

formula

lag in excess of was derived for functions

zeros

that

given

with

by a finite with

the Bode number of distributed

transfer

poles and
might

expect have

(i.e. rational functions), without the non-minimum phase lag

in the
and

right half-plane of s. So,we

in

to appear (a)
(b)

systems

parameters
functions

described by transcendental
zeros in the
with right

functions

in systems

whose
by

half-plane.

In the
the

systems
propagation

distributed

parameters,

signal

over the

media. This lag

the n.p. lag is is often called

caused

the

time

x of
and

transport

lag

is

proportional

to the

frequency:

The transport
speed

when the feedback lag is substantial loop is physically long and/or the the signal propagation in the media is low as might in thermal, happen pneumatic, or acoustical systems.The transport lag of electrical signals in feedback the feedback bandwidth reaches hundreds can be significant when of MHz. amplifiers
of

86
The zeros
function

Chapter 3. Frequency ResponseMethods

effect

of m.p.
0

images

of

of the right-sided zeros js is exemplified in Fig. 3.48. In (a), poles and function 0m are shown. In (b), poles and zeros are shown of an n.p. which has some zeros in the right half plane of s, these zeros being mirror = some of the zeros of 0m. Notice that I0m(/O))l of I8(/co)I since the magnitude

each

multiplier

(/'oo

- s{)is preserved.
s-plane

s-plane

s-plane

(a)
and Fig.3.48 Poles

(b)
zeros

(c)
of (b) n.p.f.

of (a)

m.p.f.

Qm,

6, and of
its

(c) the all

pass

G/em

The ratio

8n

= 0/8m

is called

pure n.p.

lag because

phase

the phase frequencies, the function

represents

of the phase lag of 0m. Since I0ni = 1 at all called all pass. As shown in Fig. 3.48(c), zeros s-, Qn(s) is also of 0n are in the right half-plane and they are the mirror images of the poles which are in the left half-plane of s. Sincethe zeros are either real or come in complex conjugate be as can 0n expressed pairs,

lag of

in excess

In

particular, Bni =

each

real zero

s^

= a-,

contributes

n.p.

shift

2 arctan(co/0i).
Bni <

C.16)
0.8 rad,

For co< 0.4Oi,i.e.for

Bni

a 2@/CTi

.
functions

A sum of linear

is less than
function

0.8

rad,

is a linear function. Therefore, its frequency dependence can be

generally,
approximated

if the
by

n.p. lag Ba
the

linear

C.17)

where/cissomefrequency.
3.13
The

Ladder
ladder

networks
diagrammed

and parallel
in Fig.

connections of m.p.links
parallel

network

3.49 consistsof

and series

two-poles.

Chapter 3. Frequency

Response

Methods

87

rvm.

i.
V

V,

C4 C5

(a)
Fig.

(b)

3.49
function

Electrical ladder
for translational in Fig.

network:

(a)

general,

(b) example
in

The
network

transfer system

mechanical

depicted

motion propagation 3.50 is equivalent to that

the

^-direction

via the

of

the

electrical

ladder

shown

in

Fig. 3.49(b),

if we

use
detail

the

force-to-current,

velocity-to-voltage

electromechanical

analogy (described in

in Section

7.1.1).

Fig. 3.50
zeros

Mechanical

ladder

network

in Section 3.9.1, transfer In ladder networks, as previously mentioned function in the series branches or from can only result either from infinite zero impedances the branch in the branches. as as are Hence, long impedances shunting impedances and the transfer real and do not have function cannot zeros, positive right-sided poles possess zeros in the right half-plane. Therefore, the transfer function of a passive ladder
network

is always

m.p.
transfer

A general network parallel connection) of

function

can be

presented as a

sum

(resulting

from

of a general
output

severalm.p.transfer
function

functions.
only

network

transfer

can

result

the right-sided Therefore, from mutual cancellation

can

zeros of the

signals

half-plane.
of

or severalparallel In other words, an n.p. transfer

of two networks.

paths,

which

function

is feasible even for s in the right result from parallel connection

several

ladder

can become n.p. when the signal transfer function Similarly, a mechanicalsystem or along the same path but from the input to the output along different paths, propagates when the incident signal excites in different motion modes, as, for example, node. add up in the motion of the target translational and torsional modes which to have a of method for control therefore of interest It is simple system designers each of them becomes of a connection several when m.p., n.p. detecting parallel paths,
transfer

of two links, Wx and W2. The composite link's Fig 3.51 shows parallel connection the function function is W\\ + W2. If both W, and W-, are stable and m.p., then not encompass the does W, + Wj is m.p. if and only if the Nyquist diagram for W,IWi

point-1,

88

Chapter

3.

Frequency

Response

Methods

(a)
Fig.

(b)

3.51

(a) Parallel

connection of two
sum Wi +

links,

(b) closed-loop

system
Here,
+ W2 has
Wx

The proof is the following: The zeros nor poles in the right handed zeros if A + W-JWi) has no The latter expression is the transfer
neither

W2= Wi(l + W2/W1). half-plane of s. Therefore,W\\ such zeros, i.e. if 1/A + W^W{)
function

possesses

of

the

system (b),

which

has no rightno such poles. can be stability

verified
When

with

be assigned to the path with to roll off at higher for this criterion will be exemplified in Sections 5.9 and 6.3. frequencies. Applications The minimum more than two parallel paths can be phase property of a system including verified with the analog of the Bode-Nyquist for successive loop closure. criterion
index 1 should
ratio

the Nyquist the Nyquist

higher

diagram for W-rfWi. criterion is used, the

in

larger

gain at

frequencies

order

for the

\\W-JW\\\\

3.14 Problems
Many

problems
Appendix

on Laplace
2.

transform and frequency responses

can be found

at the

end of
1

Derive formula
What

C.1).
bandwidth
1 nsec

2 3 4

(b) 0.5 sec

Calculate from

frequency

(c) 2 msec (d)

is required (e) 2.72

for

the

rise-time

to be

less

than

(a)

5 sec

psec?
with

the those

for the rise-time shown in Fig. 3.8.

input

system

the

highest-order

frequency

response

The

plant

(b) velocity dB/dec?

is a rigid body, the What (c) position.

is a force, the output signal is the slope of the plant gain

is an

response,

(a) acceleration in dB/oct and

5 6

The

plant

is a

capacitor, the
is the

input

signal
plant

is a
gain

(b) charge. What

Plot

slope of the

response,

is a (a) voltage current, the output in dB/oct and dB/dec?

with

MATLAB 3.1.2,

the

Section

with

Bessel filter responses linear and logarithmic

using
frequency

transfer
scales

functions given in MATLAB (use

commands linspace,
7

logspace, plot).
print

Using
3rd-order

some

filter design software,

filter.

the

plots

for

the gain and

phase of a
45\302\260; (d) 55\302\260.

Butterworth

8 The
What

phase
is the

stability

hump

in

in a homing margin dB on the closed-loop

(c) (b) 35\302\260; system is (a) 25\302\260; response (calculateor use

the

Nichols

plot)?

9 Use the

relationship

shown

in Fig.

3.8 to explain

why

the

Bessel

filter

has

nearly

no

Chapter 3. Frequency ResponseMethods

overshoot.

89

10 Why are

Nyquist-stable

systems

stable?

exceeds 1, the phase is 0, hence, the increased amplitude. It is counter-intuitive

but

(The gain about

return

the

loop

in such
in

systems
and

signal

comes
that

back
such

phase

with

to suggest

a system

is stable

it is!) Criterion on

11

Prove the Nyquist of a polynomial

definitely

using the notion of its coefficients. Hint: Modify

continuous

dependence

the

system

under

stable,
their

and
true

they reach

values,

and continuously further change the coefficients gradually while observing the topology of the locus of F(s). area

of the roots analysis to be

until

12

If

the

/co-axis

mapped?What

maps onto the locus of F(ja), onto what is the mapping of the zeros of F{sO
is stable Is the

is the right

half-plane of s

13

The

system
critical

the

point.

open-loop. The Nyquist diagram closed-loop system stable? How

function

makes
many

poles

2 revolutions about in the right half-

plane

does the

closed-loop transfer
diagram

have? system
in The
in

14

Plot the Bode

unstable

plant

shown

feedback path of the SPICE program analyzes the

** unst_pl.cir
* *

the L-plane Nyquist diagram for the Fig. 3.23. Change the value of damping unstable plant, and check the system stability.
and

in

the

with an local

equivalent

electrical

schematic

diagram

Fig.

following 3.52.

for feedback
inverting, s=20

compensator, crossover 1

zero

loop with unstable plant

s=10,

pole
node

s=40,
A)

GC 2 0
RC1

1 0 1
0

1MEG

RC2 2 0 1
LC * EP

; for

SPICE, to

make

non-floating

RC3 2 3 0.33333
3

0.033333
loop, 2
0

plant 5 0

non

; Z2=(s+10)/(s+4) closed inverting,

GPl 4
RP 4 0
LP * GP2

4 10 5 0 1

loop 0. Is/(sA2+0.2s+4)

CP1 4 0 10
4

0.5

0.025
integrators, 0

plant 6 0 7

; Z5=0.Is/(sA2+0.05s+4) D) to F) to ; for
SPICE

GP3 RP2 RP3 RP4

CP3

0 0 6 1

5 80

G)

5 6

0
0

1MEG

1MEG

; for

1MEG

CP2 6
7
loop
7

; for

SPICE

SPICE

0 1

*
RL

closing
1MEG

resistor ; to close

*
VIN RIN

; after

the loop, place semicolon

to

reduce

RL

8 8

0 AC

11

.AC DEC 100

.PROBE .END

0.1 20
;

(if

using

PSPICE)

90

Chapter

3. Frequency

Response Methods

Fig. 3.52
of the

SPICE

model
with

system

an

(de-floating unstable

1 MEG resistors not shown) plant shown in Fig. 3.23

When
scales,

with convenient responses using the PROBE postprocessorto plot open-loop and o.2*vpG). To plot the Nyquist diagram, make the xplot vdbG) axis scale linear, the x-variable being vp G), and the range -50, 400; plot vdb G). To plot the plant loop Bode diagram, plot vdbD)-vdbE)+20. use Alternatively, or some other analysis program. MATLAB, SIMULINK,

15

In

the

to 5.

Is the

plant

of the
system

system
stable?

shown

in Fig.

3.23, change the

gain

block

gain

coefficient

16 Depending
Fig.

3.53(a)

on the angle of can be statically

attack

of

unstable.

the The

horizontal stabilizer, the airplane in block diagram for the pitch autopilot

feedback loop is shown of in Fig. 3.53(b). Here, x is the torque and J is the moment inertia about the center of gravity J = 2000, the plant CG. Consider aerodynamics surface transfer function -1000s + 2000, the control gain coefficient of 1000, and or the compensatortransfer C = 400(s + 5)/(s + 20).UseSPICE, function MATLAB, SIMULINK. Is this airplane stable with the autopilot?

Fig. 17

3.53
function

System
C.15)

with

aerodynamic

instability

in the

plant

Show
Which plant,

that the
of the and

is p.r.

18

following functions

can be useda s a model

diagram

of a

passive

physical

(a) 7= 250(s+

for plotting
5)/[(s

+ 5)(s

(b) T

= 250(s

+ 5)/[(s +

+ 5)(s + 5)]; 5)(s + 5)];

Nyquist

for stability

analysis?

Chapter
+ (c) T= 250(s + (d) T = 250(s

3. Frequency

Response Methods

91

5)(s 5)(s

+ 50)(s + 50)/(s + 500); + 5)(s + 50)(s + 500).

19 20
21
22

In

literature,

you
Does

can

negative.\"

this statement

often read the sentence: need qualification?

\"The

feedback

in this

Of what

should you

be aware?
(a)

system is

What

%M*2*B27
are

is the

slope of the

Bode diagram

and

the phase

shift of the

function:

06;

What

the

5)(s + 5)(s+

50)]?

guard-point gain and phase stability Is the feedback negative at the

crossoverfrequency?

margins

if T

= 6200(s +

2.5)/((s +

(c)- 8dB/oct;

If the

slope

of a
(d)

Bode diagram
-30
all

at all frequencies dB/dec, what is the phase

is (a) -9dB/oct;
shift?

(b)-40dB/dec;
what

23

If the phase shift at the gain response?

The

frequencies

is (a)

90\302\260 (b)-40\302\260

(c)-150\302\260

(d)-210\302\260,

is

24

gain

response
wide wide wide wide

can be
the

approximated by
slope

a segment

(a) 3

octaves wide with

with the with the

-10 dB/oct;

(b) 1.5 oct

(c) 2 oct (d) 3 oct

(e) 1 oct
What

is

the

segment (use the 25

Draw

slope -6 dB/oct; slope -12 dB/oct; with the slope -20 dB/dec; with the slope 5 dB/oct. phase shift at the frequencies at the
plot

ends

and

the

center

of the

in Fig.

3.42)?

(b)

a Nyquist diagram with triple integration

for a
in

looptransfer
loop.

function

(a) having

a pole at the yeo-axis;

the

26

Using the Bode phase-gainrelation, explain than other filters. better phase linearity
Find

why the

Bessel-type
for the

gain

response

has

27

the

expression

for n.p.

zeros
(f)

(-1,

(a) C, -5, 0.1); (b) (-1,-3, -10);(c) A0, -4, 10); (g) A0, - 5, -3);(h) F \302\261J1.2). a Nyquist

lag at

lower

frequencies

transfer
\302\261 J12);

function

having

5, -3);

(d) E

(e) D,

-15, 0.1);

28

Sketch
Fig.

diagram

on the L-plane

related

to

the

Bode

diagram

in

3.18(a).

29

for of certain Bode diagrams approximations piece-linear responses A), B), C), D) in Fig. 3.54. For convenience, copy the pages with Figs. 3.42 and 3.54 using the same magnification (either 1:1 or 1:1.5). To the plots from one sheet of paper to another, superimpose the two sheets copy or make and use a transparent on a light table paper (or against a window glass), For w = 1.5, or 2.4, interpolate. copy of the page with the problem.

Plot phase
by

responses

shown

the

92

Chapter

3. Frequency

Response Methods

ray-18dB/oct\\

Fig. 3.54 30
Fig.

Piece-linear

Bode

diagrams
responses

for phase of the

the

calculation exercises thruster

attitude

3.55

shows
phase

x- and z-axes of

the loop
shift.

Calculatethe

a spacecraft. Approximate

gain

control

about

the

responses

by segments

and rays.

dB

40

\\\\

30

20

10
,025

\\\\
f,

log.

sc.

:05

0.1

0.2 \\

-10 -20 Fig.3.55

Bode

,^8

1,6

diagrams

for attitude

control loops of

a spacecraft

31

+ W2 m.p. if: + 200Hs + 500)]? + 5)/[(s M4 = (s,+ Wi =1000/[s\\s+10)], = 10000/[^(s + 400)(s+ + + + =, W-, Wz 10)/[(s A)(s 20)], (s (b) and W and Wz are m.p.? I Wi\\ < I W2\\ at all frequencies,
W^

Is

(a)

2)(s

1000)]?
Bessel
filter.

(c)
32
In

a homing

Find

the

system the closed-loop response is that and plot the open-loop loop transfer function

of the

4th-order

Bode diagram.

Answers

to selected

problems
the highest order is approximately
filter

3 The cut-off period for

for frequency this frequency

3 sec,

is approximately and a third

2 rad/sec, and the

of it

is the rise

time

Chapter

3. Frequency
transient

Response Methods
response

93
we see
C.1)
that

= 1 sec. From
time (from

Fig.

3.3

where the
the

0.1 to 0.9 of
of the
response

output)

is about 1 sec,

i.e. formula

is plotted,

the

rise

gives

result.

a good

9 Since the
and

slope

Bessel
also

filter

does not
transient

of the

reach large values

gain before

response the gain

increases

which guarantees

the absence of an

overshoot.

increases gradually is already very small, gradually and does not reach

with

frequency

the curvature large

values,

11 Start
Start

with

a simple
function

transfer
diagram.

of

7 to

the coefficients while in the resulting observing changes Nyquist of the characteristic polynomial into the right half-plane migrates of s, it must cross the /co-axis. At the crossing frequency the closed-loop gain must become infinite and F, therefore, must 0. If this never i.e. the become happens, locus of F during the modifications never crosses the origin, i.e. the locus of T never crossesthe point -1, then the system must be stable.
changing
If

system with 71s) = 0.1 that is definitely polynomials of high order but with

stable.
infinitesimal

Augment
coefficients.

the

a root

24 (a)

The phase shift

filter

is 110\302\260 at the

center of the

segment,

63\302\260 at

its ends.

26 Bessel
response

gain
by shown

response
a in Fig.

can
piece-linear

be

phase

approximated
as

3.56 (not to

scale).
phase
by

It

is

seen
rather

that
close

the
to

because
the

response is

phase
linear

f,

log.

sc.

of the contribution to the lag at lower frequencies made gain response slope at lower
For

\\

frequencies.
filters

higher

selectivity

Fig. 3.56

Bessel filter

gain

response

(Butterworth,

Cauer), the gain response slope at lower frequencies is negligible, but the passband ends, and within the passband,
at

Chebyshev,

and phase slope

response

becomes very steep right after the correspondingly, the phase lag is smaller

lower

frequencies
frequencies

higher

thus explanation

and higher at making the is that to

phase response curved.

Another

50

make the phase lag proportional to the phase lag increase frequency, over an octave should double such

increase over
Therefore,
increase
response
in

the
roughly

preceding
speaking,

octave.
the

\342\200\242s % S

-50
10' Frequency
10

the

slope

of

the

should

double

each
gl

gain

10 (rad/sec)

octave. 27

(a)

Bn

= 2[arctanA0oo)

+ arctan(w/3)] + 105s).
in Fig.

-\342\200\224'\342\200\224

^.
as

32 105/(s4 + 10s3 + 45/ The response is plotted

3.57.

-:
10\"

10\"

101

Frequency
Fig.

(rad/sec)

3.57

Bode diagram

Chapter
I

SHAPING
The

THE LOOP FREQUENCY

of optimal

RESPONSE
independent

problem The

can be
shaping

solvedsequentially

frequencyand higher).
The

first part is feedback bandwidth the feedback loop response at second

loop shaping encompasses two (thus making the design structural):

maximization higher of

fairly

parts

that

which

frequencies

is solved by appropriately (in the region of crossover

the

part is of

distribution

the

available

feedback over

functional

feedback

band.

The feedback bandwidth is limited at the system by the sensor noise effect output, at the the sensor noise effect actuator structural input, plant tolerances (including and nonminimum phase lag (analog and digital) in the feedback loop. The modes), of the loop gain at higher frequencies, subject to all these optimal shape response a Bode step. limitations except the first, includes The Bode step is presented in detail as a loop shaping tool for maximizing the and the feedback bandwidth. The problem of optimal described loop shaping is further formulas are presented for calculation of the maximum available feedback over the
specified

bandwidth. generalized by application of a Bode integral for solving over the functional bandwidth (i.e.,, the loop shaping problem). It is shown that the feedback is larger and
is

The above solution the loop gain reshaping

then

to

response

the
the

second

part

of

disturbance rejection improved in Nyquist-stable systems. with flexible modes, for collocated and nonLoop shaping is described for plants collocated control, and for the loops where the plant The effect of is unstable. resonance modecoupling on the loop shaping in MIMO is considered. systems It is described how to shape the responses of parallel feedback channels to avoid nonminimum the channels. phase lag while providing good frequency selectionbetween control course, Sections 4.2.5 When the book is used for an introductory and 4.5 can be omitted.

4.3.3,4.3.6,4.3.7,4.4,
4.1
Webster's

4.2.7,

Optimality
Collegiate

of the compensator design

Dictionary
views

defines

the word

\"optimal\"

as

\"most

desirable,\"

and

practical engineering
In

optimality

as a

provision for best customersatisfaction.

means some systems, the controller performance combination of accuracy, of and disturbance action, speed repeatability, reliability, are commonly clear and/or rejection. The trade-offs betweenthese requirements quite can be resolved with Bode integrals, The feedback controller design is incomplete without estimation of the theoretically best availableperformance.
application
The second kind of the design trade-off is that of the controller versus performance and are many times less expensivethan complexity. As a rule, compensators prefilters the plants. to make it is worthwhile Hence, in order to improve system performance, them very close to optimal, even at the price of making them complex. The order of the to be reasonably close to the optimal is, typically, 8 to 15. compensator in the the compensator order from 4 to 12 and including Example 1. Increasing links will only add 20 to 30 lines of code to the compensator several nonlinear controller software, or several extra resistors, capacitors and operational amplifiers, if

to practical control

94

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop

Response
the system's

95 performance.
with

the

compensator

is analog
the

and

may

substantially

For example, if

improve

settling

time of

short repetition cycle of operation can be reduced by 20% while the same retaining the time be reduced the and number 5%, accuracy, resulting per operation might by, say, of pieces of the equipment at the factory can be correspondingly reduced by 5%, with additional on maintenance. a can be Or, savings fighter's maneuverability noticeably improved. Or, the yield of a chemical process can be raised by 2% - etc. This is why the should be designed to provide closeto optimum and not compensators performance, the know doesn't in only performance specified by a customer representativewho advance what kind of performance might be available.
Even

some expensivemanufacturing

machinery

when
the

to improve
operational

the accuracy of the system with a simple controller suffices,it still pays since with larger margins in accuracy, the system will remain when some of the system to the that without the parameters degrade point
controller,

better controller, the system fails. Linear compensators are fully defined by their frequency responses. Therefore,the is the problem of optimal loop response of linear design optimal problem compensator of optimal feedback loop shaping should be able to provide the shaping. The theory and answersto the questions: (a) what performance is feasible, (b) what loop response

achievesthis
model.

performance

limit.

Commonly,
plant

control systems Still, the design must

physical in

are
result

initially

designed

as linear
when

in a

sound

solution

with some the idealized

models

idealized
plant is

replaced by the
the
uncertainty junctions

plant

and actuator

models. Physicalsystem
behavior
nonlinearities.

the

system

at

higher

frequencies,

parameters, the asymptotic the sensor noise,and the

\"When

reflect of the transfer

must

Example

2. In the
to

paper
the

is a

linear control

system optimal?\"
many feedback

(see

[128]

in
so

the

bibliography

Ref.

[9]) which was

following

considered
difference
optimality

by

a cornerstone system

of

the

called

modern
only

control,
absolute condition

definition

and
paper.

if the

Meeting

this

value of the return assures dynamic

this

is given: \"a is at
which
that

is optimal if

least one at all frequencies\".

is rigorously

defined

in

the

The problem
and

with

systems. In physicalsystems
an
integrator,

according
\"at

difference

cannot be

least

be applied to physical the loop gain drops faster at higher than that of frequencies to Bode integral the absolute value of the return C.7), one at all frequencies.\"
theory

is, however,

it cannot

law design that deserves to be called optimal must provide to the system about the achievable control system engineers to the system and the related possibility of relieving certain requirements performance some initially chosen and hardware, which components may permit replacing That the must and ones. is, requirements cheaper optimality subsystems by simpler relate to the entire engineering system and not only to the controller in the narrow sense.

The process of
information

control

timely

Example
control
controller

3. In Chapter1, we
proving

analyzed

some
the

design

of
and

antenna

elevation

angle nonlinear

without

that

this design is

best

possible.

(It is not.
high-order

The real-life

is

the Reasonable questions for the customer to ask are: - Is this design compensators.) best? If not, by how much can it be improved? even ask: - and, at what we should not cost? - since, as we already Normally, is small compared with the cost of the antenna the cost of the compensator mentioned,

multiloop,

and

includes signal feedforward

96

Chapter
better

4. Shaping the

Loop Response

dish (although
system cost).

or additional

sensors, bearings, and

include
should

servomotorscan
the plant be rolled

add

to the

Also, the
instability.

loop

responses
loop

Given the modes, the

The

gain

in this example do not at higher frequency

the

structural modes. off fast to avoid

control

system

engineer
optimal

asked
for

control

designer

to find the

response

which is

shape of the

loop

performance without
40

completing

to estimate specific task, and the lengthy compensator design. Can this

some

the
be

available
done?

4. A flexible mode of a structure be anywhere between 30 and Example may vibration noise is accentuated and the By this resonance, the environmental of the device under control The feedback system thereforemust decreases. be accuracy able to reject the noise over the entire bandwidth 30 to 40 Hz. How to implement the maximum feedback over this frequency and what is the value of this feedback? range, Can it be quickly calculated without designing the controller?
Hz.

4.2 Feedback maximization

4.2.1
We
further

Structural

design

already
discuss

mentioned
them
system

the

advantages

of

structural

feedbackcontrol

in Section 7.2.1). is shown in Fig.

Hardware

The structural
4.1.

design
design

in

Section

2.9

flowchart

(and for the

will

basic

Performance

specifications

Plant

uncertainty,
Disturbance

sensor noise,n. p. lag

sampling

structural resonances,
frequency

B
rejection

and

Input-output

sensitivity responses

response

Preliminary A1

design

Loop

shaping

at higher frequencies f
Conceptual

A2

Shaping

the

loop over the

functional

bandwidth

design

B1 Prefilter

design

(or feedforward,

or feedbackpath)

iterations
Hardware
w\342\200\224T System

choice

engineering

J4-

Nonlinear

compensator

design

and system simulations

Fig. 4.1

Feedback systemdesignflowchart

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop Response

97
gain, and
by

The

performance A

specifications comprise the disturbance rejection and the

the desired responsesof

sensitivity,

i.e.,,

the loop

B
shaping.
Al

the nominal
preliminary

command-to-output design

transfer

function.

The

addresses
into

This can be subdivided

achieving
frequencies,
distributing

specification
by

first,

loop

response
at

maximum feedback bandwidth

and
of the

appropriate
functional

loop shaping
frequency

higher

A2

achieved

feedback over the

extent

range so

as

to exceedthe
Since the
makes
first

worst-case

subproblem

specifications. is to a large
They

sense

to solve them sequentially.

functions.

At

expressed

by rational
by

can

from the second one, it the responses need not be be expressed by rational or transcendental
independent this

stage,

functions,
After by

plots,

or by

tables.
is modified

the

adding

loop is shaped, the command-to-output response an appropriate prefilter or command feedforward to

meet specifications

(if required)
B.

only the steps Al design of complexengineering systems, and A2 (and sometimes Bl) need to be performed to provide the system engineers with the accurate data on the available control The system engineersevaluate performance. During

the conceptual

different
preliminary

versions
design

of
the

the

hardware/software

configurations

iteratively,

using
of

the
the

results

on the

stages Al, A2, B in

After the

available control performance. Inclusion

the

only

iteration

loop makes

loop

fast.

decide which hardware configuration is the best, system engineersfinally the compensator and prefilter are designed. The compensator is found by response the from the Then subtracting plant response loop response. the compensator C and prefilter responses are approximated rational by m.p. functions and implemented as algorithms or as analog circuits, and D the compensator with nonlinear elements and is augmented the is system

simulated.

4.2.2 Bode step of the plant parameters increases and the gain drops at In electrical this due to circuits, higher frequencies. stray capacitances and happens in thermal systems, due to thermal resistances and thermal capacitances, inductances, and in mechanical the same happens due to the plant flexibility. Because of this systems, and because of the sensor noise which will be studied in Sections 4.3.2 and 4.3.3, the
In

physical

plants,

the uncertainty

loop loop

gain gain

must sharply decrease at higher Bode diagram can be sufficiently

frequencies. well
of

For

the purpose

of analysis, the

line

with a constant

physical

feedback

asymptotic systems with

and

slope
n>2.

at these frequencies by a approximated -6n dB/oct. The slope is rather in steep

In other

words,

\\T(i(O)\\

decreases

at

higher

of feedback C.7) is therefore zero. The crossover between the region studied in this section is the region of transition functional frequency band and the higher-frequency band where the feedback becomes As stated was in corollaries in Section 3.9.2, shaping the Bode diagram in negligible. the crossover in achieving a maximum region (step Al from Section4.2.1)is critical area of positive feedback near the crossover and, therefore, achieving a maximum area of negative feedback in the functional feedback band. If a system contains no other Physical systems include actuators with saturation. frequencies at
the integral

least as of2,

98

Chapter4. Shaping
is required
the

the

Loop

Response

nonlinear links, absolute stability as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). From

Bode

feedback, the phase lag must

should follow the
thin boundary

be

and the stability must be margin boundary of phase it follows that to maximize the the maximum allowable, i.e.,, the Nyquist diagram
integral

curve

as closely

as possible. Sucha diagram

with

is shown

line.

The

gain monotonically
the

decreases
asymptote
Nyquist
is

increasing

frequency

by the and eventually

degenerates into
It will

high-frequency

with the

associated phaseshift-n90\302\260.

be shown

below that

this

shown and/c.

in Fig.

4.1(b). The loop gain

loop phase lag smallerthan-jedB.

The

The related
system

diagram corresponds to the Bode diagram is piece-linear with corner response frequencies/d less than A \342\200\224>>I80\302\260 until the loop gain becomes

is phase-stabilized the not less than with margin ylSO\" up to the the where to of the Because Bode -x. frequency /d loop gain drops phase-gain relation, the of the Bode diagram at these frequencies is approximately -12A - y) dB/oct. slope The high-frequency known. It is defined by: asymptotic loop responseis considered 6n (a) the asymptotic dB/oct, slope in Fig. 4.2(b), and (b) the point on this asymptote with coordinates (fc ,-x) as shown (c) the nonminimum Bn(fc). phase lag at this frequency

/.-plane

dB

degr

Joop

gain

.-12A
yi80\302\260

-y)dB/oct
loop

phase

lag

-180\"

A -yI80<>
f,

log. sc.

-x

'
Bode step

functional frequency range

ft

high-frequency

with slope-6n dB/oct

asymptote

Fig.

4.2

response

Bode step: (a) absolutestability on the L-plane, (b) piece-linear gain boundary the Nyquist diagram shown in with related phase lag response that produce (a) which approximates the boundary transition

The

between
must

asymptotic maximize
at higher

slope
the

be

as

the slope -12A -y) short as possible to

functional

dB/oct

and

the
loop

high-frequency
selectivity,
the

increase the

to
gain

loop

gain

in the

frequency is

range

while reducing

loop at

area would be too large due to the Without the step, the phase lag in the crossover the reduces and the non-minimum phase lag. The step steep high-frequency asymptote - but also reduces the (i.e.,, given loop selectivity phase lag at the crossover frequency the lensth the feedback bandwidth). the high-frequency reduces Therefore, asymptote, of the step must not be excessive. 1 radian which is true to be less than The nonminimum phase lag BD(fc) is assumed the nonminimum in well-designed C.17), phase systems. With the linear approximation
lag at

frequencies. The transition level of-jedB as shown in Fig. 4.2(b).

provided

by the

Bode step

made

the

gain

frequencies lower than/c

is

Chapter

4. Shaping the

Loop Response

99

The with

phase

lag related

to

the

asymptotic

slope

ray which

starts

at/c

can be

expressed

C.14)

as, approximately,

2
*

/
/c

\342\200\224n\342\200\224.

Consider
this

next

the

\"discarded\" frequency

dashed-line of the

ray which is
step

the

extension

of the

main

slope line beyondthe

ray

beginning of the

/d. The phase lag

related to

is expressed

with C.14)

as, approximately,

To

make

the loop

phase lag at frequencies/</d

of the

equal

phase
the

contribution

asymptotic

slope

and

the

to A nonminimum

yI80\302\260,

the

sum
should

of the
equal

phase lag

phase

contribution

of

the

\"discarded\"

dashed-line

ray.

This consideration

is

as expressed

-n-f
From

+ |fln(/c)|X,
equation,

2.2A-y)-f-

.
is

this

the Bode
\\Bn(fc)\\

step frequency ratio

\302\273+?

D.1)

/d

2A-y)
phase

For the typical

stability

margin of

30\302\260, i.e.,

y =

1/6,

c).

D.2)
specified

Example 1. When
crossover frequency fb
Further,
The
when

the = 6.4

stability
the

margins are
is -lOdB/oct

30\302\260 and

lOdB,
30 fc\302\273

kHz, then

slope

n =

3 and

BJfc) = 0.5rad,

and/d = 2/b

= 12.8

and the kHz.

kHz.

then

from

D.2) fjfa

= 2.3 so that

step response closely follows the stability Nyquist diagram for the Bode in this is transfer In practice, response approximated by a rational boundary Fig. 4.2(a). the corners the rounded. and of become function, diagram Examples of loop Nyquist be in and in Chapter w ith Bode will Sections 5.11, 5.6, 5.7, 13, steps given responses

and in Appendix requirement

the

13.
a
the

The loop responsewith

is maximizing

Bode
disturbance

step

should be
rejection,

employed when

the

dominant

functional range. This case is frequency reduction requirements and certain implementation be differently in the crossover area. shaped the Bode diagram must be made shallow over some range in the In case, any crossover region to ensure the desired phase frequency stability margin. There are to the right of /a by the Bode several for where to do this: step, to the left of the options the sensor noise is critical, and over a where crossover frequency as in systems

i.e.,, maximizing the feedback in not ubiquitous. common but Noise issues may require Bode diagrams to

100
frequency

Chapter 4. Shaping the

range

LoopResponse

PID controller
step typically

nearly
which

will

provide 4
transient

The output step

and 30\302\260 to the

situated about the crossover as in the so-called symmetrically be discussed in Chapter 6. Loop responses without any Bode to 20 dBlessfeedback in the functional frequency range. to a step-disturbance in a homing system with a Bode response
stability margin has substantial the loop gain response in the this has
overshoot.

40\302\260 phase

If this

overshoot

exceeds

specifications, However,

made shallower.
rejection.

will reduce an explicit

the

available

of fb should be neighborhood feedback and the disturbance

a

For a
equivalents

system

which

command

input,

prefilter
without

or one
reducing

of

its

can

be introduced

to ensure

available

feedback.
having

good step-responses
response
of a
with

the

4.2.3 Example of a system

In
this

a loop
implementation

a Bode

step
with

section

an example

of

the

considered. This response has systems.

loop response
for

a Bode

been

used

as a

prototype

several

practical

step is control

Example 1. The
1 \\Q-s

plant

s2 IQ+ s

is a double
order to

integrator a 4th-order

next chapter). The loop transfer

1

an n.p. lag. The compw.isator (the compensator polynomials

with
function

function

C(s)
are

is a ratio
described

of a 3rdin the

designmethods

10-,s_

s2 10+s

j+10

d(s)

is plottedin Fig. 4.3 n = convUll

with

7.7 conv([l logspace(-l,1,200);

55 110 36], [-1 10]); 34 97 83 0 0], [1 10])

bode(n,d,w)

so.

40
30

20
-50

\\

10
10\"

\\

10'

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

0
1

-10
-180
N \\
-360

-20
10

-30
-40

/
-150 -100

10

\302\246 Frequency

10
(rad/sec)

\302\246350-300-250-200

Fig.

4.3

Open-loop frequency response

Fig. 4.4

L-plane Nyquist

diagram

Chapter
The

4. Shaping the
= 1 rad/sec.

Loop Response
Nyquist

101
diagram

crossover
with

frequency

C0b

The L-plane

is plotted

in

Fig. 4.4

[mag,

phase]

= bode(n,d,w)
at lower This

plot(phase,20*loglO(mag),'w',
The

-180,0,'wo');

grid

approaches -12 dB/octand the loop response provides larger feedback at lower phase in the than the margin boundary in response Fig. 4.2(b) following stability frequencies To ensure and the at these but violates stability margin frequencies. stability Fig. 4.2(a) saturate the to and disturbances transient commands (which good responses large Such compensation is described in the loop compensation must be nonlinear. actuator), at length in Chapters 10,11, and 13. the end of this example and explained M = n/g where g = n + d is plotted in Fig. 4.5 The closed-loop transfer function
of the loop slope shift approaches
gain

frequencies

-180\302\260.

with

n =
w

g = n +
=

conv([0
d;
w)

1],n);

logspace(-l,l,200);

bode

(n, g,

zeros are added to n to make (The MATLAB can calculateg.)

20

the

dimensions

of vectors

and

equal

so that

1.6 A
\"X,

\342\200\242i CD -20

\\

1.2 1

\\

-40
10\021 10\"

<D

n no 10'

Frequency

(rad/sec)

|0.6 <

0.4
,-180

\\

02
0

-360
\302\2460.?

10

10 Frequency (rad/sec)

10

5 Tims

10 (sees)

15

Fig.

4.5

Closed-loop
be expected,

frequency response

Fig. 4.6

Closed-loop step-response
shown

As

should

in Fig.

4.6 has a

large,55%

the closed-loop step-response (n, g) and plotted by step The overshoot can be reducedby introduction overshoot.
response

of

a prefilter

R(s).
of the

The command-to-output
the responseof
a notch
a linear

system

with

the This

phase

filter. (Bessel, or Gaussian)

should be close to prefilter can be achieved by using

prefilter

R(s) = -

102

Chapter
notch the

4. Shaping the
the

Loop Response

The In

is tuned

to 0.9c0bwith
= 1. a>b

gain

at this frequency equal to

= -6 dB. 20 log(1/2)
4.7 with
w)

case

considered,

The prefilter
=

response is plotted in
bodefnr,
is plotted
g);
in

Fig.

nr=
and

[1 1

0.81]; dr
response
w)

[12
the
=

0.81];
prefilter

dr,
Fig.

the closed-loop

with

4.8 with

nc =
The

conv{nr, n); gc
gc,
response
the

convfdr,

bode(nc,
phase

in Fig.
transient

4.8 has a lesser curvature

response.

therefore

expect

a better
4.8;

Indeed,

than that in Fig. 4.5. We might the overshoot is only 7% on the

step-response for and shown in Fig.

same.

closed-loop

system

the rise

time

and

with the prefilter plotted by step(ncgc) time remain approximately the settling

the

n
s
00
\302\246i-5

s
\\

03
\"D \342\200\224\"-\342\200\224~.

a \"
10\302\260 10\"

-10 10-

-50
10 Frequency
10\"

10'

Frequency

(racfsec) o

(rad/sec)

20

-180

\\
\\

-360
-20

10'

10\"

10\"'

10\"

10'

Frequency

(racfsec) response

Frequency (rad/sec)

Fig. 4.7

Prefilter

frequency

Fig. 4.8
the

of response Closed-loop

system

with a

notch

prefilter

1.2 1

1.2
1

0.8 0.6

0.8

\\

0.6
\302\246 0.4

\342\200\242 0.4

0.2 0
-0.2 S Time

0.2 0
10 (sees) 15
-0.2

I 5
Time 10

15

20

(sees)

Fig.

4.9

of the system with

Closed-loop step-response
a notch

Fig. 4.10
of

Closed-loop step-response
system

prefilter

the

with the
of two

prefilter

composed

notches

Chapter 4. Shaping The

phase
gain

the

Loop

Response
contributes hump

103
to the a small,

response and notch

in Fig. to the with

nonlinearity

1.6 dB additional

4.8 still has a hump at co = 1 which overshoot. By compensating for the

with

= [1 0.6 1]; nr2 = [1 0.5 1] ,\342\200\242 6x2 nc2 = conv(nr2, nc); gc2 = conv(dr2,

gc);

bode(nc2,
step(nc2,

gc2,
gc2)

w)

one can further reduce the overshoot as shown in Fig. 4.10. A still economical equalization can be devisedand implemented. becomes less accuratewhen the plant parameters The equalization nominal. The plant gain variations can be specified by a multiplier variations in k can be calculated as follows:

better

and

more
the

deviate from
k.

The

effects

of

n = conv([ll

d
k

= =

7.7 34 conv([l 1; n = conv(n, logspace(-l,1,200);

55 110 36],
97 83 k);

0], [1 10])
% specify
%

[-1,10]);

k
response diagram

bode(n,
[mag, plot(phase,

d,
phase]

w)

= bode(n,
20*loglO(mag))

open-loop Nyquist

d,

w)

; %

n = conv([0 g = n + d;

grid

0
w)

1],

n);
%

bode(n, g,
nr nc

closed-loop

[1

bode(nr,

1 0.81];

dr

dr,

= [1 2

0.81] ;
%

response

w)

= conv(nr,

n)

bode(nc, gc, w) nr2 = [1 0.5 1]; dr2 bode(nr2 ,dr2, w) nc2 = conv(nr2, nc); bode(nc2, gc2, w)
step(nc2,

gc = conv(dr,
% =

prefilter response

notch with

g);
1];
% second

response notch

closed-loop

[1
=

0.6

gc2
plant

notch
; response response

response
with notches with notches

conv(dr2, closed-loop
%

gc)
step

gc2) in the
gain

For

\302\26120% variations

coefficient, 10%.

the step-responses

are

shown

in

Fig. 4.11. The \\2

overshoot remains less than

k=0.8

1.5
k=2.5

0.8

II

to 1.2

0.6 \302\246\302\247 I\"

0.4
0.2

0.5

/
5
Time

/
10
(sees)

\\l
4
Time

-0.2

15

-0.5

6
(sees)

10

(a) Fig. 4.11

(b)
the

Closed-loop step-responsesof (a) for k = 1.2 and k = 0.8 and

system

(b) for

with notches, k = 2.5

104
When

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop

Response

8 dB
failure

from

response
of

gain coefficient increases to 2.5, i.e.,the plant's gain increases by thus reducing the gain stability margin to only 2 dB, the transient becomes oscillatory as shown in Fig. 4.1 l(b); still, this is not a catastrophic the controller.
the the

plant's nominal

With
with

\302\26140% variations

in k

the overshoot remains

starts exercise. in the

under

20%,

and

with

it >

3.2 (i.e.,

20 log & = 10.1

>x) the
variations

output

is left with

as a
small

recommended
(say, 5%)
and

student

the proof (simulation) exponentially; growing It is also recommended to make simulations

in the compensator coefficients of the polynomials to observe that these changes do not critically affect the system the coefficients can be appropriately rounded. performance, and therefore, To ensure that large-amplitude commands which the actuator will overload not and for to the transient self-oscillation, trigger responses improve large-amplitude can be made nonlinear. This is done by, first, splitting the commands, the compensation transfer two functions which function into the sum of and Cj(j) C(s) C2(s) compensator dominant at lower transfer functions of two parallel represent being paths, the first path link with an appropriate threshold in a saturation frequencies; and second, by placing front of the first path's linear link. The related theory and design methods are described as in Chapters and 13. The transfer of the paths can be found functions 10,11,
transfer

function

C, =
where

aj(s + Pl)

and

C2 =

[C(s)

- C,(*)]
be 0), or the

a0,

p\\ is the lowest pole the MATLAB function

in

of C(s)(pi
residue

can

and a0 is its residue. function bointegr

from

For finding p\\ and the Bode Step

toolbox inertia J

Appendix

14 can motor
8 is

be used.
rotates

Example 2. A dc = 0.027 Nm2.

voltage

a spacecraft radiometerantenna
antenna

whose

moment

of

is

the

constant Nm/A. The torque is k(U (the torque-to-current ratio) = ksQ. The angle 0 = [k(U- EB)/R]/(s2J). back electromotive force EB function transfer From the latter two equations, the voltage-to-angle
k = 0.7

applied

to

angle, sQis the the motor. The motor winding

the antenna

angular

velocity,

and U
motor

resistance

R =

2 fl.
EB)/R

The

where

the

1
k2/(RJ)]

13
s(s+
that

U
If
the the

RJ s[s+
loop

'
needs to be 1, and if the loop response should be C(s) driver transfer function

9.07)
in Example

n.p.

lag equals
the

Example 1, from Example 1 multiplied

same

as in

compensator

and

by

C =

l~

U l
Q

RJ

s +

s2~

k
code

^/W) s
for this

_ 0.077U+ 9.07) ~

The MATLAB
k =

transfer function's

numerator

and

denominator

is

0.7; res = 2; ja = 0.027; ncl - conv(res*ja/k,[1 a]);

Example
with

del
be

a = k*k/(res*ja);
=

[1

0] ;

3. To use the
frequency
fb

crossover

response = 12 Hz, for

in Example

1 as
replaced

a prototype
by
j/fflb

for

a control

system

must

75.4) the

in the denominator

transfer

functions the

ds of

loop

the loop and function transfer

for the prefilter. can be found

(where <% = 12x2n \302\253 ns and The numerator

with

Chapter

4. Shaping the

Loop Response
wb

105

n = conv([ll
d = conv([l

format short e;
numerators

7.7 34

55 110 36],

[-1,10]);
0
=

75.4;

[ns, dsj

97

83

0],

[1 10]);
d, notch

Ip21p(n,
the

wb) transfer

and
with

the

and

denominators

of

two

functions of the

prefilter

nr
nr2

=
=

[nrs,

[nr2s, dr2s]
will

[11 0.81]; dr = [1 2 0.81]; drs] = Ip21p(nr, dr, wb) [1 0.5 1]; dr2 = [1 0.6 1];
=

Ip21p(nr2,

dr2,

wb)

The results
calculations

be

displayed

with single
the

precision (format
stored

short e), although

the

will be

(Notice that
compensator and
multiplied

if we
retain

performed and apply the Ip21p

lAs2 as

numbers
transform the

the plant,

new

with double precision. to the not to the entire loop but only function must be transfer compensator

by a>l.)
We

invariable controller for

co >

a plant with a with flexible and modes, high-frequency

\342\200\242 At

Example 4.

can

now

write an example of a design specification nominal transfer function prescribed hard saturation in the actuator: gain coefficient
modes. minimized. in the
2 sec.
should

for

a timePa,

with

8,

the

nominal

loop

not

exceed

0.1/co3 in order to

gain-stabilize uncertain
\342\200\242 The \342\200\242 With

flexible

output effect the plant P

the commands), \342\200\242 The

of disturbances must be = kPn where 0.8 < it <1.2, rise time must be less than
under

linear state of operation (for small

be:

overshoot/undershoot

for small-amplitude
5%;

step-commands must

for the

nominal

plant,

for 0.8

<k

<1.2,

under

10%;
50%. to large-amplitude

for 0.6 < k <1.4,under 20%; for 0.4 < it < 2.5, the overshoot must be under \342\200\242 These norms on the overshoot arealso applied 10 times). (up to overloading the actuator
\342\200\242 No

step-commands

step command may trigger self-oscillation, for 0.4 < k < 2.5. The specifications on the overshoot minimum performance for the worst guarantee case of maximum plant and also assure that most in variations, parameter systems

production

(with than

the the

plant

parameters

close to

the

nominal)

have

much

better

worst case. performance From Example 1 it is seen that these specifications can be met when the stability 10 dB. If smaller stability and are chosen, the sensitivity in the margins are 30\302\260 margins increases and the of in it cause variations of deviations frequency neighborhood % larger the transient from the nominal. response

4.2.4 Reshaping the feedback

We

response

proceed

next

with

step

A2 from bandwidth.

Section 4.2.1,

i.e., with

shaping

the loop

response

over the functional

the

feedback

In many practical cases the disturbances' gain should also decrease with stabilized with a constant stability margin,
loop

amplitude
frequency. the

If, loop

with frequency, and the system is phaseto that gain response is similar further,

decreases

106
shown

Chapter 4. Shaping the

in Fig.

LoopResponse

4.2 and to be

To
response

match a
must
responses.

response C) in Fig. 4,12(a). the constant-slope gain specified disturbance response, rejection modified. Fig. 4.12(a) gives several of feasibly reshaped examples
The

loop gain
same

responses
the

redrawn

in

Fig.

area

under them

over
the

frequency

interval

at frequencies
responses

/> 1

and

stability

margins

on the arcsin/scale have the Therefore, the phase response can be the same for all shown gain
4.12(b)

[0,1].

(recall

C.12) from Section 3.9.5).

.25

.5

f,

log.

sc.

.125/.25

Fig. 4.12

Reshaped loopgain
can

responses

(b) the arcsin f

on (a)

the

scale

logarithmic

frequency

scale

and

Any

frequency

be chosen to

be

the

normalized

frequency/=

1 (or

co =

1). For
the

control system design it is commonly convenient to at the constant-slope which frequency response gain

use as the

normalized

frequency

is approximately

lOdB.

Example
Cassini
structural up

1. Propellantsloshing
tanks
with

in

spacecraft's
modes to

causes

dB

a possible sloshmode
i

gain magnitude

8dB. with over can

stabilization margin modes

To 8dB

the
at

gain provide upper stability range where the

16

- reshaped

nominal

be, the
least loop

8 0
range

loop gain
f,

log.

sc.

nominal

loop

gain of

needs
the

to be

16 dB.

shows the
problem,
loss constant
the

gain

C.12)

Fig. 4.13 Reshaping by reshaping the Numerically, slope response. in feedback at lower frequenciescan be estimated of the area of the loop gain) when the (preservation
obtained
the

Fig. 4.13 response to suit

slosh modes
the

loop gain

response

by application of the rule plot is redrawn on arcsin/

the

scale, with
4.2.5
When

normalized

frequency

00= 1 at

the

upper

end of

slosh

mode

range.

Bode cutoff
the

band/

frequency < 1 have the

components

of

the

expected

disturbances
within 171

within
functional

the

functional

same amplitudes,
4.14. The Bode

the

loop

constant as shown
To
function find

in Fig.

this

response,

value Ao = 20 made use of the

gain log

the must

band should be maximized. by C.15).

be

function

Q(jf) defined

The

Chapter 4. Shaping
2(l-y)9(#)
has

the

Loop

Response

107

D.3)
asymptote
in with

the

high-frequency

the
in

slope
Fig.

2A-y)n
4.14(a).

dB/oct.
It is

It

replaces the

the picture

constant-slope (and from the

response
formulas)

Fig.

4.2,

as shown
gain

seen from

that

this loop

at/=

1 equals

slope response has at/=0.5. in the Bode optimal feedback

In other words, the extended cutoff becomes

the value Ao that the constantfunctional bandwidth of AodB by one octave.

dB
t-plane

T-plane

asymptotic

slope

-6n dB/oct1
(a)

(b)
cutoff,

(c)
diagram

Fig. 4.14 From

the slope

Bodeoptimal
triangle

(a) Bode
Nyquist

diagram, (b) Nyquist

on T-plane
available

on

L-plane,

(c)
the

diagram

shown 0.5 to

in Fig.
and

4.14(a), the
feedback

loop

octaveis that
In the

12A -y)dB/oct
from

the

bandwidth

gain Ao is the in octaves plus 1

product

of

(the extra
D.4)

1):

Ao=12(l-y)(log2/b+l).
common

case

of

30\302\260 stability

margin,

i.e.,

= 1/6,

A0 =
This

10(log2/b+l).
formula

D.5)
useful

simple

is quite

for

rapid

estimation
margins

of

the

available

feedback.

Example

2. The
by

required to be constant
/b is
limited

prescribedstability
over

are

30\302\260 and

lOdB,
the

the feedback is frequency

the bandwidth

of [0,200] Hz, and

D.5)

crossover

the

system

dynamics to 6.4 kHz. From

the

available

feedback is

60 dB.

4.2.6

Band-pass

systems

of systems, the frequency band suppression systems, for example in vibration viewed The band can be as centered at include dc. some feedback does not functional transfer function realizable the physically finite band-pass /center- Generally, frequency

In some

can be found

by

substituting
\342\200\242

D.6)

108
for

Chapter
s

4. Shaping the Loop Response

function [2]. The loop response obtained with low-pass prototype transfer the low-pass Bode optimal cutoff is shown in Fig. 4.15. Notice that in for the Nyquist diagram tp avoid are shown: -180\302\260and Fig. 4.15(b), two critical points each of the points being a mapping of the T-plane point -1 onto the L-plane. 180\302\260,

in a from

D.6)

in,

loop phase lag,

degr

dB

-180\302\260

/
\\A->

-a
^180\302\260 ^/

'/

,A
center

vf, log.sc.

I
\"-180\302\260 -A -^180\302\260

\\ (a)
(b)

Fig.

4.15

Band-pass

optimal Bode cutoff:

A/ in

Bode

diagram

(a) and

Nyquist

diagram invariant

(b) of
the

The absolute transform D.6) as

frequency

bandwidth

of

the available

feedback is
equals

an

the
low-

is illustrated

Fig. 4.16,

and

it

the

bandwidth

of

prototype /0. (The bandwidths look equal because the scale frequency to a smaller relative bandwidth corresponds

of the three responses in the picture do not is logarithmic.) It is seen that a higher /center and steeper cutoff. slopes of the band-pass

Fig.4.16
bandwidth

Preservation

of operational
transform

Fig,

4,17

of the band-pass
relative

Bode diagrams for a wide-band band-pass system

wide,

When
steepness

the

functional

bandwidth
only

is

fairly

more
the

than 2
available

octaves,
small.

the

of the

low-frequency slope has

of

a small

effect on

feedback This

since the absolute bandwidth in Fig. 4,17. case is shown

the

entire

low-frequency roll-off

is rather

4.2.7
As

Nyquist-stable systems
shown
with

mentioned

responses
system

Section 4.2.2, and as will be detailed tailored are in Figs, 4.2, 4.12, 4.16, a saturation link in the loop. If, however, the
in

in

4.17

Chapters

10 and

to guarantee
in

11, the stability of a

with

system is furnished
Chapters

an

extra dynamic

nonlinear

link

of special

design (described

10,11,

and 13),

Chapter 4. Shaping
the

the

Loop

Response and the

109

loop

phase

lag, the
the

slope of the

Bode

diagram,

available feedbackcan
shown

be

increased

by using Nyquist-stable system loop response Fig. 4.18 instead line. shown the thin and x represent the of the phase-stabilizing Here, xx response by A At where > lower the system is and xx, amplitude stability margins. frequencies upper in The of this is the gain-stabilized. integral phase lag system larger than in the only as over the stable and a the feedback functional bandwidth is result, system, absolutely
in

larger. This
[9].

responsecan

be

generated

by pasting together

several elementary

responses

dB
T-plans

l-plane

degr

(a)

(c)
of a

Fig. 4.18
(thin

Comparison

Nyquist-stable

lines):

(a) Bode

system diagrams, (b) Nyquist

diagrams

with

an

diagrams

absolutely (not to

stable system

scale),

(c) Nyquist

on the which

L-plane
it steep

provides

is easier to implement (although of the response are the before the upper Bode step and the presence of two Bode slope of-6nidB/oct the of the lower step calculatedwith of the and width D.1), upper step from/g to/h the similarly derived formula
features

response Fig. 4.19(a) showsa simplified somewhat less feedback). The essential

steps,
with

0.6n,.

D.7)

dB degr
-6/T,

dB/oct

%;

-arg T

*.
n

j/

V 7\\ '9
1

\\

-10dB/oct '\302\246 log.sc

-X \302\246

\\ (a)
(a) Bode diagram

Fig.4.19

Simplified

Nyquist-stable

loop response:

and

(b) Nyquist

diagram on the L-plane

110 The larger

however, Fig. the

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop
is the

Response

cannot

of phase, the integral be arbitrarily big. A

by

larger

certain

4.20

is specified
will

the

features

available feedback. The phaselag, curve A(B) exemplified in of nonlinear links in the loop (nonlinear
boundary

compensators

be

discussed

in Chapters

10-13).

L-plane

flexible

mode

Fig. 4.20
specified

The

Nyquist

diagram

should

by the

properties of the

not penetrate the

dynamic

boundary

curve

nonlinear

compensator.

In Fig. 4.20, the Nyquist is shown with a loop on it caused by a flexible diagram mode of the plant. At frequencies of this mode, the phase stability margin is excessive. In accordance with the but the feedback, integral this reduces the achieved phase feedback deficitdue to die loop is rather small sincethe mode resonance is narrow and the excess in the integral of phase is small. 1 and Type 2 systems (recall Section3.7)are Nyquist-stable. The in Type stability such systems can be achieved In with and Bode the lower upper steps. practice, transition between the steep low-frequency area is most asymptote and the crossover often made gradual to simplify the compensator transfer thus reducing functions, somewhat the available at lower frequencies. feedback

4.3 Feedback bandwidth

limitations
dB

4.3.1
In frequency
first definitions

Feedback

bandwidth discuss
the

Section 4.3 we will on constrains physical loop

need
of we

high-

the

gain. However, to clarify the term feedback

30

N
A)

M f, log. sc.
B)

and bandwidth. In the literature in the professional language

-3

of
ffl#y

control

engineers,

this
following

term in

have

any

of the

three

interpretations

indicated

Wig. 4.11:
A)

Fig. 4.21 frequency

of the
bandwidth

Feedback bandwidth
OdB.

definitions

The crossover

/b, i.e.,the

loop

gain

exceeding

In this

book, this

definition

Chapter4. Shaping
for feedback bandwidth
B)
is accepted.
I

the

Loop

Response

111

The frequency /M where

tracking

M\\=

\\J4l,

i.e., 20 log 1MI

\302\273 -3

dB.
is

This frequency
typically

is

the

system

3dB

bandwidth.

The

frequency

from

1.3/b to

1.7/b.

C)

The

frequency

bandwidth

functional feedback.

up to which the loop gain of 30 dB feedback). This bandwidth

retains
is

also

a specified value (e.g., the called the bandwidth of

4.3.2
noise

Sensor

noise
the

at the

system output
shown
be

Next, consider system (here, N is understoodto

system unity feedback, the mean amplitude of noise at the output is
input

to

the

in Fig. 4.22. The sourceN representsthe sensor noise mean square amplitude of the noise). Since from the can be viewed as a tracking with output, the system system
the square
system

U,

In

shaping

the

loop

gain

is between response, the trade-off noise reduction and output

disturbance

Fig. 4.22

Sensornoise

effect

at system's

output

Larger leads to larger output noise, but smaller The output feedback bandwidth disturbances. of the mean square error caused by the noise can be found simulation by computer Another to do this is to find the noise way output power by output time-responses. of the frequency-domain (on a computer or even by graphical integration integration)
rejection.

noiseresponses.
Example

response
gain

has a

response

large. The hump response is also small.

This

in Fig. 4.23. This loop gain 1. Consider the Bode diagram shown rather steep cutoff after fb to reduce the output noise effect, but shallower and smaller feedback at lower frequencies. The phase stability margin is on the response of IMI is small; therefore, the overshoot in the transient

response

is employed

when

the

plant

need for large feedback at lower frequencies, the should be reduced to reduce frequency is command feedforward commonly system,
output

is already fairly accurate and there is no and positive feedbacknear the crossover noise. In such a output effect of the sensor used to improve the closed-loop input-

response.

because of

noise increases shown in Fig. 4.24, the output This causes a crossover frequency and beyond. in the output noise since the contribution of the noise spectral increase substantial to the noise bandwidth. On the other to the mean square error is proportional density should be hand, this response provides better disturbance rejection.The loop response therefore shapedin each specific case differently to reduce the total error.

When

the loop
the

responseis steep
feedback

as

positive

at the

112

Chapter 4. Shaping
dB

the

Loop

Response

-6dB/oct M
f,

dB
sc.
f,

log.

log.

sc.

Fig. 4.23
Example

Shallow slope

response
attitude

Fig. 4.24 Steeper sloperesponse

control
at

2. Consider

the spacecraft

a gyro as a sensor. The is accurate system drift causes attitude error. The drift gyro
employing

except
is

the

in Fig. 4.25 system lowest frequencies by a low-frequency

frequency

which

uses
the

where

eliminated

feedback
for the star

a second

sensor,
which

tracker loopis that

reduces
performed

reduces

a star tracker. The optimal the total noise

system
by

response two

the

mean
in

square error of the

frequency

output
using

the

domain or

Chapter

stars
maintain

the star tracker noise varies with are available in its field of view, the feedback the minimum of the error. Such an adaptive
8. Since

i.e., which The calculations can be the LQG method described in on whether time, depending bright need to be varied to path responses is illustrated in Chapter 9. system
from

the

sensors,

variable.

fcfi > fcri h

fc

\\

P \342\200\242+

\302\246

Gyroscope

4'

Star tracker

\302\253 \302\253

Fig. 4.25

Spacecraft

attitude

control

system

using two

sensors

4.3.3 Sensornoiseat dieactuator

In the

input

control system diagram

and

sensor

the

noise

input of the saturation of the saturation link NCA

in Fig. 4.26, the from the pre-amplifier in link is below the saturation

noise sourceN reflects

the

compensator.
threshold,

the noise from the When the signal at the the noise effect at the input

is

CAP + l

NA

C
i

Fig. 4.26

Noisesourcein

a feedback

system

Chapter 4. Shaping the

dB

LoopResponse

113

logsc

Fig.

4.27

Noise level at saturation

of P

link

input
\\CAP\\\302\273

With
other

the
At

typical

responses

and T

shown iVA \302\273 NIP

in

Fig. 4.26, does

1 at

lower
the

frequencies.
hand,

these

frequencies
higher

the noise
than the

not depend on
\\C\\

C. On the
frequencies
attained

at frequencies

noise.
within It

With proper loop shaping, 2 to 4 octaves above fb.

is seen

reducing /b, NA ~ NCA, and noise iVA is most prominent

decreases

at

the

from Fig.
link
\\C\\,

4.27 that
\\CA\\

the

increase

of the

feedback from

T to

7\" is

at

the price

of increasing
C

to

\\CA\\, i.e., at

to

the

nonlinear

because

>
the

but

in Fig. 4.26. also because

overloads

at the input the price of a biggernoise effect and The noise amplitude increase not only power to the frequency the noise power is proportional

bandwidth. When
result,
the

noise

the effective
control

gain

of the

the actuator, the actuator drops,

restricts

actuator
the

cannot

transfer
of the

distortions
the

system

accuracy

decreases. Hence,

noise

effect
in

the signal. As a signal increase, and at the input to the

operational

actuator
The
bandwidth

must be
optimal
while

bounded.This
shape
limiting

the available

feedback

the

band

by constraining

\\C\\.

of

the

Bode

diagram

which
by this
in

the noise
responses

effect can be found

which

provides

maximum feedback
with computer Bode steps.

simulation. Typically,the

are best

experimenting sense contain

Example 1. In
to the same

an

existing

actuator. If a better noise mean square amplitude,

mean square noise increased 1.4 times (since to the square root of the noise

bandwidth is limited by the noise at the input better sensors become availablewith half the the the feedback bandwidth can be increased. Maintaining at the actuator bandwidth can be input, the feedback amplitude noise is proportional the mean square amplitude of the white

system,

the

amplifier

and

bandwidth).
shift

4.3.4
The

Non-minimum-phase
n.p.

lag in the
it,

feedback loop typically

the

should

be less than
very

1 rad
This

at

/c,

or else

to
the

compensate for
feedback

Bode

step would

have to be

long.

limitation delay. delay.

large.

on

feasibility
which

can be
a phase
two

critical for loops including

lag
proportional

a substantial

Transport

delay,

causes

to frequency,

can be
large

particularly

Let us

consider

examples

of audio

systems

with

transport

114 Example 1.
difficult

Chapter 4. Shaping

the

Loop

Response and their frequency responses the room walls change

Sincespeaker systems
available,
a microphone
quality it

are

expensive

are
the

to

equalize, responses

frequency

since the sound wave on the way to listener's

would

reflectionsfrom
be

ears, and since commercially

good quality signalsup

not,

inexpensive

microphones to maintain

are easily

acousticalfeedbackfrom
good sound
using a

over

of placed in the vicinity the entire range of audio

advantageous one's ears. Is

to since

to make
it

possible

15,000Hz

feedback system like that

shown

in Fig.

4.28? Probably
suspect

nobody
the

does

this. There must be a good reason. We might time of the signal propagation about the feedback

that

the reason

is
out.

excessive

loop.

Let us

check it

noise

source

cd player
|^>{JJ

Of

Fig. 4.28
feedback

This

type system

of real time acoustical is not feasible

being the

Fig. 4.29 Soundsuppression feedback system distance / betweenthe

the speakers

The speedof sound

the microphone

33Om/sec, transport

and the

and

= 60kHz,
the

being 2 m,

the

allowable

phase limit.
be

lag BB(fc)= 2%x Thus, real-time by an

= 2500 x 0.0066 60,000 in

delay is 6.6 msec.For

this

frequency

fc = 15 x4

rad

can response

equalized

feedback adaptive system using

system
plant

which is 2500 is not possible. in Fig.

noise

times

(The

identification.)

Example
microphone

sound from the speaker and the To reduce the

speaker

The the between the noise. The acousticsignal propagation nonminimum introduces loop. phase lag into the feedback microphone and the compensating lag, the distance between the microphone phase should be short. The assembly of the microphone and the speaker is commonly
is placed where

2. A system for at the point

speaker

noise

rejection

is

diagrammed
the

4.29. The

it is

desired to keep

minimum.

cancels

mounted on a helmet. 30 dB of feedback is required up to 5 kHz, then frequency fA = 20 kHz. At When the pure delay is (l/40,000)/27i\302\273 this BB should not exceed 1 rad. Therefore, frequency, be and the microphone should sec and the distance between the 0.000008 speaker than 2.6 mm. shorter
Another

source
when

of
the

conversion
next

control

non-minimum phase lag is is digital. The effectsof

the

delay

in the

analog-to-digital
in

this

delay

will be analyzed

the

chapter.

4.3.5
The

Plant tolerances
plant

transmission

and the tolerances of the plant frequency, typically decreases with curves in the as illustrated function increase with limiting by frequency the and real transfer whose functions have 4.30. In zeros, plant poles only Fig. plants are are commonly smooth and monotonic. Suchresponses and their variations responses the minimum Since control. control and for position temperature rigid-body typical which is typically the for the worst be satisfied case, necessary stability margins must case of the largest plant gain, the feedback will be smaller in the case of the minimum gain

Chapter
gain.

4. Shaping the
response

Loop Response
reduce

115
minimum

plant

This

way the

plant

tolerances

the

guaranteed

feedback.

dB degr
plant

gain
nominal

plant phase lag

nominal

f,

log.

sc.

Fig. 4.30 For

plant the require

of Boundaries

monotonic

Fig. 4.31

Plant

gain

frequency

plant
plants

transfer

functions
responses,

responses

with

monotonic

response, nominal

as shown plant.

in Fig.

Larger
stability

it is convenient to considersome nominal is then performed for 4.30. The feedback loop design deviations from tolerances the nominal larger plant

increased

margins

for

the

nominal

response,

and thereby

limit

the

nominal

available

feedback.

For computer design and simulation, the plant uncertainty is most often modeled as that is of the transfer function multiplicative uncertainty, multiplication loop by some error response (i.e., addition of some uncertainty to the gain and phase responses). The multiplicative in Example 1 in is typically either a constant as uncertainty Section 4.2.3 (see Fig.4.11) ora function of frequency, as those shown in Fig. 4.30. of the plant transfer In general, the dependence function on its varying parameters can be complicated. For some plants, parameter uncertainty causes deviations from the like those shown nominal plant responses which are neither symmetrical nor monotonic, in Fig. 4.31. Uncertainties are also sometimes modeled addition of some error by vector function (additive uncertainty). to the transfer response
dB

f,

log. sc.

Fig. 4.32

Plant

structural

resonance

Fig.

4.33

Plant structural

resonance
diagram

on a
Flexible

Bode diagram
i.e.,
plants

on an /.-planeNyquist
composed

plants,

of rigid plants

bodies connected with

to specific

springs
vibration.

and

dampers,
Stiffness

have
and

structural

resonances
in

corresponding

modes of
zero

mass variations

flexible

change

the pole

and

frequencies

as

116 shown
transformers in

Chapter 4. Shaping
Fig.

the

Loop

Response systems
180\302\260 wide

4.32.
and

filters.

L-plane Nyquist uncertainty conveniently characterizes uncertainties in the transfer by specified

Similar responses are obtained in low-loss electrical The resonances typically produce loops nearly as shown in Fig. 4.33. Neither diagram multiplicative

such as
on the additive

nor

these effects.
function

It is

poles

better to and zeros.

describe such plants

4.3.6
Some

Lightly

damped

flexible

plants;

collocated and

non-collocatedcontrol

the poles and zeros of flexible functions are only lightly plants' transfer the damping coefficients as small as 1% and even 0.1%. The loop gain of the loops with such exhibit sharp peaks and notches as in the responses plants examples in Figs. 4.32 and 4.34. For the closed-loop to be stable, the modes should be gain- or phasesystem stabilized.The modes which need attention are the modes that are not already gainin the loop gain within the interval from -x to *i, stabilized, i.e., those resulting falling as the modes 2 and 3 shown in Fig. 4.34(a). Increasing the modal damping can reduce the value of the modal peak and notch and gain-stabilize the mode. Otherwise, the mode needs to be phase-stabilized as shown in Fig. 4.34(b).
of
damped,

with

T, dB

mode1
mode

dB
2

mode 1

f,

log. sc.

mode 3

mode 3
mode

mode4

(a)

(b)
Modes

Fig. 4.34
To

(b) on

(a) on the loop the L-plane Nyquist

gain

response

and

diagram

phase-stabilize
the

mode 3,
lag

a phase lag
so

might

be added

to
be

the

loop

mode at
critical

phase

of

-360\302\260,

points

-180\302\260and

-540\302\260as

resonance illustrated in Fig.

the

loop

will

kept

obtained by introducing n.p. lag since the filter

frequencies).

a low-pass will provide

filter in the the additional

at

loop

4.34. The required (this is a better solution

of attenuating

to center the away from the lag can be phase

than

adding

benefit

modes of higher

phase-stabilization is not of the gain stabilization

of the flexible mode is large, the frequency A must be the mode feasible typical case gain-stabilized. is shown in Fig. 4.35. The Bodestep of a structural mode a steep roll-off at frequencies the step. Gain-stabilization of the mode allows beyond band. The average loop gain at the frequency of reduces the feedback in the functional + x)dB. Damping of the high-frequency the than mode must be no higher B01ogQ bandwidth. mode would allow increased feedback
If

the plant's

phase

uncertainty

and

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop Response

117

T,

dB

f,

log.

sc.

-x Bode step

20logQ
Af,

Fig.

4.35

Gain-stabilization
mode

Fig.

4.36

of a

high-frequency

appendages

Mechanical plant and the sensor

the

with

flexible

collocated with

actuator

model for translational in Fig. 4.36, motion shown Next, consider flexible plant with masses M\\, M2, ... connected with The actuator consisting of rigid bodies springs. with the actuator applies a force to the first body. The motion sensor Si is collocated and senses the motion of the first body, so the control is called collocated. If the sensors are velocity sensors, the transfer function from the actuator force to the sensor Si is, in fact, the plant driving point The driving (or mobility). impedance of a passive system is positive real (see Appendix 3), and its phase point impedance The to the interval function of a lossless plant has [-90\302\260, 90\302\260]. impedance belongs axis, and the imaginary purely poles and zeros which alternate along the frequency and -90\302\260. Flexible phase of the plant transfer function alternates between 90\302\260 plants are discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.

Example 1. The
Fig. mode's
were

4.35

of the control system having plant is non-collocated since the plant has a pole at a pole. pole and zero follow, i.e., a pole follows the control would be collocated. reversed,
collocated

the zero

loop

frequency,

response shown in and then the

If the

mode pole-zeroorder

Example2. A
with

force-to-velocity

translational
respectively

two flexible
damping

appendagesresonating
is

at

3.32

transfer function of a body and 7.35rad/sec and

negligible

s2 +10

J2+5O

j j +11
The

j +54
in

masses

of the

appendages

this

example
in

the

mass

The gain
n = d =
w

of the main body which explains and phase responses are plotted

are approximately why the poles are rather Fig. 4.36 with

10 times smaller than

close

to the

zeros.

conv([l 0 10],[1 conv([1 0], [1

logspace@,

0
0

50]); d = conv(d,[1

11]);

0 54]);

1,

1000);

bode(n,d,w)

118
When

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop

Response
an extra integrator which changes the
or slope

the

sensor

differentiator respectively

should by

is a position sensor or an be added to this transfer

accelerometer, function

adds a zero-pole pair to the appendage lower-frequency modes) and 4.37. The modes do not destabilize the system since the phase between lag only decreases by 180\302\260 the added zero-pole pair. (However, the mode reduces the integral of phase, and therefore the average gain slope and the available feedback somewhat decrease.)
loop

When

- 6 dB/octor 6 dB/oct. the control is collocated,a flexible

as shown
in

response

Figs.

4.34

(two

50
I
\342\200\224_

I
-50

-1\342\200\224

^
0\302\260

\\\\

10

Frequency (rad/sec)
90

-90
10\"

10'
Frequency

(rad/sec) a collocated

Fig. 4.37

Bodediagram
with

for

two flexible

mechanical appendages
the

plant

Placing case
loop.
the

the

sensor

on any

other body makes

control

non-collocated.

In this
into

spring

connecting

the bodies introduces an extra

unwelcome phase lag

the

is collocated or nonthe sensor, on M\\, on Mi, or on be placed within in practice. The sensor must often encountered M3 in Fig. the power train someplace from the actuator to the tip of the tool or other object of control. When the sensor is placed closerto the actuator, i.e., on M\\, the feedback bandwidth can be widenedbut it is the position of the first body that is controlled. The will the error in the position of the the bodies introduce between tip. flexibility when the sensor is placed on the tool, i.e., on M%, or on the tip of the tool, on However, the the variable that needs to be controlled,but M3, then we are controlling exactly The results can be be in 4.35. best reduced as shown feedback bandwidth must Fig. sensors. these obtained by combining in Sections discussed The collocated and non-collocated control will be further 7.8.3 and 7.8.4. Thus, the sensor
The
whether

location defines
associated

the

control

collocated.

trade-off 4.36, is very

with

where

to place

Example 3. A
Appendix

Nyquist

diagram
Many

for a
flexible

flexible plant
modes

(Saturn

V controller)
this

is given
While

in

13, Fig.

A13.26.

are seen on

diagram.

the

Chapter 4. Shaping the

controller the

LoopResponse
where to
(in

119
place
the
be safe this

was

gyros:
would

on about serious discussions were going being designed, closer to the location that needed to be better controlled be

case
would it

control
collocated

non-collocated),

or closer to

the

engines

where

the control

and place Most

be easier to implement. the gyros closer to the engines. of the modes are gain-stabilized,
and would
the

It was

eventually decided to play mode seen

at
in

only

the large

the

upper

right

sector of

diagram

is phase-stabilized.

The plant parameter not reduce this phase lag by more frequency is 315\302\260. or else the stability margins will be violated. The control at these frequencies is than 45\302\260 controller with insufficiently cause analog. A digital high sampling frequency would make the in Section 5.10.7) and would be discussed large phase uncertainty (as will

The loop variation must

phase lag

the

mode's

central

system unstable.
of the air in compressibility Example 4. In pneumatic systems, a series\"spring\" the actuator and the plant. between control non-collocated and reduces the available feedback bandwidth.
the

actuator creates

of an cylinder This makes the

Example

5. In
this,

Example 1 of

Section4.2.5,the
of the

slosh

modes
and

Because of
shown
4.3.7
in

gain-stabilization

modes is required

are non-collocated. is implemented as

Fig.

4.14.

Unstable plants
are quite V launch vehicle and some common. For example, the Saturn in the combustion chamber or a are aerodynamically unstable; a slug formed in the chamber rotation of a prolate spacecraft is can make a rocket unstable; a large-gain external feedback electronic amplifier without circuitry is often For the purposes of analysis and design,an unstable can be equivalently plant link P with as a combination of a stable forward internal feedback path path makes the plant unstable, as shown in Fig. 4.38(a).

Unstableplants
airplanes
turbulence unstable;

unstable. presented
Bint

that

L-plane
\342\200\224

(a) Fig.

(b)

(c)

4.38

(a)

Plant

with (c)

internal Nyquist

feedback,

for the internal

and the diagrams of (b) Bodeand feedback

in Fig. 4.38(a). Assume that the plant Example 1. Considerthe system diagrammed a low-pass transfer function is a double integrator with an internal feedback path having are shown in Fig. 4.38(b). The internal Bint ~ bl(s + a). The Bodediagrams loop phase at all frequencies, unstable as seen from the and the plant becomes lag exceeds 180\302\260 Nyquist diagram in Fig. 4.38(c).

120 There are

two

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop
and

Response
designing

convenient

ways of

analyzing

such systems.

When the loop is disconnected at the input to the link P, the loop transfer function is T= (Bmt + BCA)P. After the desired frequency responsefor T is specified, the function for the compensator is C = {TIP - BiM)/(AB). The method required transfer is especiallyconvenient when BCA. Bm is small compared with The compensator can be directly designedfor the unstable plant. In this case, the the critical main-loop Nyquist diagram must encompass point in the
counterclockwise

direction,

as required

by

the

Nyquist-Bode

multiloop

criterion.

stability

4.4 Coupling in MIMOsystems

As

stated

in examples

in

Section

2.9,

coupling

is

typically

negligible

in well

control systems where the number of the actuators is kept small. However,at some the coupling can be large, and create stability problems. frequencies uncertain, In mechanical structures with multi-dimensional control, the actuators are typically in directions so the that between the applied mutually orthogonal coupling feedback is the include small. However, corresponding loops relatively plant might some flexible attachment, like an antenna, a solar panel, or a magnetometer boom on a in Fig. 4.39. The attachment's flexiblemode can be excited by any spacecraft, as shown of the actuators and will provide (reaction wheels, thrusters), signals to all the sensors. This coupling may occur at any frequency within a certain frequency range defined by
uncertainty

designed

in the

mass

and

stiffness

of the

appendage.

Fig. 4.39
with a

Mechanical

plant

Fig. 4.40

Block attitude

flexible appendage

diagram control

for the loops

coupled

Because
shown

in Fig.

controllers
The
criterion
stable

of the coupling, the block diagram for the coupled loops looks like that ratios for the 4.40. Here, K(s)is the coupling transfer function. The return the coupling into account are in x and taking y calculated without
Ty

7;= QAaP^and
and

system can be as follows. First,

robust. in the

CyAyPyBy.

designedwith
the

y-actuator

Then,

Ay

is switched

the multiloop system stability Bode-Nyquist is disabled and Tx is shaped so that the jc-loopis is kept on). The transfer on (while the ^-actuator

y-channel between Ay and Py is 1 + (TJFX)K2.The compensator Cy is this is not possible). then shaped properly to make the system stable (sometimes, The in the range of the flexible is the best choice since phasemode gain-stabilization
function

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop

Response
K2 =

121
a2M/ (s2 + 2?<o
+

stabilization

is

difficult

because

the

transfer

function

co/J

double complex poles with large associated phase uncertainty; here, a is some If gain-stabilization coefficient. cannot be used and the system needs to be phasein the x-loop shallower over the be modified to make the response stabilized, Cx should is associated of available feedback of The reduction range coupling. frequency with closure for the successive unavoidable. Bode diagrams stability loop analysis like those shown in Fig. 4.41. for the x- and y-loops, may look criterion,
contains dB

dB

N.
\\

y-loop

gain

when

li the x-loop Is closed

f,

log. sc.

N.

/,

log. sc.

-x

Fig. 4.41 (a) x-loop

Gain responses of the

while

attitude

control

loops:

y-loop

open,

(b) y-Ioop while

x-loop closed
the

Couplingbetween
about
the

x-

and y-controllers

can be
without

alsocausedby
a

effects

(even appendage). spacecraft about jr-actuators producerotation the y-axis, and y-actuators produce rotation at frequencies close to the frequency .x-axis. The effect is only profound and design are similar to those in about the z-axis. The system analysis flexible mode coupling.
z-axis
An translational rotational

in a

flexible

of rotation In this case,

about

the

of rotation
the

case

of

x-y

positioning
motions motion
flexibility,

table is
may

shown

in Fig.

4.42. The

become

coupled
and

via
to
the

due

to the
especially
rotation.

load asymmetry
at the

due

structural
structural When

frequency of
is large

mode the

of the number

of

the

actuators

(there
of

are many
elephant),

thousand

separate sensors.

muscles
should

in the
use

trunk

an

each control
and

loop
actuator

position

(or

Fig. 4.42

x-y

positioner

velocity)

force

makesthe
the

loop

transfer

This compound feedback function less sensitive to plant parameter

dissipative

variations,
plant.

output

mobility

of the

and damping

the

This

also

and makes reduces

of the load and the plant the variations of the loop coupling that are caused by variations can then be used effectively. Designof a loop parameters. Loop decoupling algorithms 7. will be discussed in Chapter with prescribed actuator mobility

4.5
In

Shaping
MIMO

parallel
even in
when

and

channel responses SISO control systems, several paths

several

parallel,
demonstrated as shown
frequency

especially
in Fig.
responses

actuators
stable

in Chapter

3, if two
then

4.43(a),
of

the

total

often connected in are was or sensors are employed. As m.p. links Wx and W2 are connected in parallel transfer function W\\ + W2 can become n.p. The
should

the parallel

channels

be

shaped

properly

for

the

combined

channel

to be

m.p.

122

Chapter

4. Shaping the Loop Response

dB
s-plane

*c

a
(a)

*c

(b)
channels,

(c)
for

Fig.4.43 (a) Parallel

Example
in

(b) Bode

diagrams
loci

Wi,

W2, and

W2 + Wi, and

(c) s-planeroot 1. The low-passlinks The Wi Fig. 4.43(a). steeproll-off

shown
between
thin

for Wi + W2

Wj

and

W2 are the
than

connected

in

parallel

as shown
roll-off

and
f\\

the three
where

Fig.

4.43(b).
two

At frequency

versions of shallower gains are equal, the

n,

in are W2

phase more

difference than

the
output

lines

show

is, respectively, the logarithmic responses

channels

less

equal

to n,

and

Jt. The

of IWi

+ W2\\ obtained

by vector addition

of the
the

links'

outputs

signals. of the links cancel

When

the

phase

difference

between

the channels

at/i is it,

each other
zeros
transfer

root

has a pair of purely imaginary loci for the zeros of the

the composite link transfer and therefore, function ij2itf\\. If the slope of W2 is gradually changed, the in Fig. 4.43(c) function cross the jto-axis as shown

and the

total

transfer

function
the

becomes
sum W\\ +
point

n.p.
-1.

As has been proven,

W\\IW%

does

not encompass

the
the

Wi is m.p. if and Since the ratio diagram encloses

only

if the

Nyquist diagram for

and

WJW2 is also stable

the

m.p.,

one can
the

determine whether
diagram
the

Nyquist

critical

point

by examining

Bode

for Wi/W2.
tolerances

When
they

can

produce

large

functions are not negligible, of the parallel channel transfer variations in W\\ + W2. The sensitivities of the sum to the

components,

Wl+W2
dW,

W1+W2

Wt

and

dW2

become

unlimited

as
Wi/W-,

the ratio
should

hodograph

of

be required

W1/W2 approaches -1. To constrain not to penetrate the

the safety

sensitivities, margin

the around

Chapter 4. Shaping the

the

LoopResponse
safety

123
as

point-1.

Analogous

to the

stability

margins,
as

the

phase

margin is defined

yjt,

amplitude safety margins, xmdxh A common two links is that one of the links practical reason for using parallel or better works at lower sensors) (actuators, frequencies, and the second link works them better at higher with Combining frequency selection filters generates frequencies. a link (actuator, or sensor) that is good overa wide frequency range. The composed link must be m.p. so that it can be included in the feedback transfer function loop. However, excessive selectivity of the filters can make the composite link n.p.
and the
with

shows the responses of the low-pass link W%, Wj and the high-pass link for the ratio W1/W2. It different selectivities. Fig. 4.44(b)showsthe Bode diagrams is seen that when the difference in the slope betweenW\\ and W2 responses increases, the Bode for the ratio steepens, the related lag increases, and the critical diagram phase point becomes enclosed by the related Nyquist diagram.
Fig. 4.44(a)

dB
f,

log.

sc.

//I

k \\Y\\

(a)

(b)
diagrams for (a)

Fig.4.44
In order to

Bode

Wz,

W,

and

(b) Wi/Wz

steep,
kind

the

Fig. 4.45(b).
are

sufficient while keeping the slope of Wi/W2 safety margins for W1/W2 can be shaped as in a Nyquist-stable diagram system, as in Fig. 4.45(a). Responses of this Then, W\\ and W2 can be as illustrated useful for systems with the main-vernier actuator arrangement particularly

preserve

Bode

described in

Section

2.7.

them the responses and then approximating with rational shaping functions is direct calculation of the channel transfer functions. Given the transfer function of the first link, the transfer function of the second link can be found as directly - W\\. This method works well if the links are precise (as when sensors' W2 = 1 readings are combined). If the links are imprecise (like actuators and different signal paths the and the is then the link parameter variations should through plant), high, selectivity be accounted for and sufficient introduced. safety margins

An alternative to

dB
wz

dB
sc.

f,

log.

sc.

-x
(a)

\\

0 -x
(b)
responses

f,

log.

Fig. 4.45 (a) Frequency-selective

(b)
Nyquist-stable

for
for

W and
Wi

Wz and

shape

which

preserve

diagram m.p. character of W\\

of Bode

/ W2

124
Example

Chapter 4. Shaping the

2. If W\\ is a

LoopResponse

low-pass,

a
1

s +

a
function

then the second channel transfer

W2=l-Wx

=
the

is a high-pass,and

ratio

W2

s
is 90\302\260 at all

betweenthe

The phase safety margin

channels

frequencies.

The

margin

is large,

but the

selectivity

is not

high.
the

Example 3. To improve
Butterworth low-pass

selectivity,

the first

link

is chosen

to be

a second-order

filter:

D.9)
The

second

link

transfer

function

is then

w2=i-wi
and

'

= 5E+4i)
s2+sj2

+ \\'

D.10)

the

ratio

1
W2

s(s

+
in still

The plots shown previous example but

Fig.

4.46 indicate quite wide. With

that

the

safety

margins
filters,

are less

than

in

the

higher-order

safety

margins

become

smaller. dB
dB

L-plane

20

20

10 0

///

10

7
180\302\260

-10
-20

90\302\260

-20

(a)

(b)
Nyquist

Fig. 4.46

Bode (a) and

(b) diagrams

for

W1,

W2

- W,

W1/W2

Chapter

4. Shaping

the Loop Response

125

4.6 Problems

The

slope

at

the

crossover

frequency

40

Hz
would

is
in

(a)-6dB/oct
dB be

(b)-9dB/oct
if

remains the same down to this frequency? slope is constant at all frequencies?
2

What (c)-10dB/oct (d)-12dB/oct.

is

the

feedback

at the

1.25 Hz

the

slope
if

What

loop phase lag

the

Bode step and 4 if = 1/6, the asymptote passes the slope is -18dB/oct, x= 10dB, y -10dB level at 1 kHz, and the n.p. lag at 1 kHz is 0.5 rad; is -12dB/oct, the asymptote passes the OdB level at 5 kHz, slope (b) the asymptotic and the n.p. lag at 5 kHz is 1 rad; the asymptote passes the -1OdB is -12dB/oct, level at (c) the asymptotic slope 100 Hz, and the n.p. lag at 100 Hz is 0.5 rad; the -10dB level at slope is -24dB/oct, the asymptote (d) the asymptotic passes 50 kHz, and the n.p. lag at 100 kHz is 0.6 rad. What is the
(a)
length

of the

the

asymptotic

3 Sketch the
which
slope

phase lag

response
omitted,

and the
with

Nyquist

diagram

the Bode
-18dB/oct.

step is
Is the
of

system stable?

low-frequency

for the optimal Bode cutoff slope -10dB/oct and asymptotic

in

At

the

frequency

structural

resonance

4=120
and

Hz or
the

higher

there

is a

narrow
is

resonance peak in
completely
with

the

plant

gain response

plant

phase

at

this

frequency

sampling

uncertain. (The phase uncertainty is 100 Hz. Digital controllers frequency

must

the

result of using will be studied

5.) The system

a digital controller in detail in Chapter

be

therefore

gain-stabilized

at

the

frequency

of the

structural

resonance 4t.
Using that

the
fc

assuming
initial

asymptotic = 2fbl and

slope
fa

-18dB/oct,
(which are
4.47,
of 4t

30\302\260 and typical

10dB

= 4fe
in

numbers

and

stability margins, and should be used for

the

estimates),
similar

express
to that to:

4 as
shown

a function
Fig.

and Q.
with

Make a sketch of
(e) 50 dB.

loop gain

20 log Q equal

response

but

numbers 40 dB;

(a) 20
\\

dB; (b) 25 dB;(c)30 dB;(d)

open-loop

on it, for the

peak value

dB

gain response

-12dB/oct

-10dB/oct
/st

frequency,

log. sc.

I xdB

20logO
-18dB/oct

Pig. 4.47 5

Feedback
Problem

bandwidth

limitation

due to

structural

resonance

The same
The

as

in

4, but

the resonance
the

uncertainty

range

starts
starts

at 170 Hz.
at 85

same

as in

Problem 4, but

resonance

uncertainty

range

Hz.

126 7 The

Chapter 4. Shaping

the

Loop

Response
is

crossoverfrequency

frequencies

over the

A, is 1 kHz, y= 1/6. The system up to &, with Bode optimal loop response. What bandwidth (a) [0,50], (b) [0,30], (c) [30,60]? is the

phase-stabilized

is the

at all available feedback

8 (a) What
main

feedback in dB at 1.5 Hz if the crossover frequency is 300 Hz and the is -10 dB/oct? (b) What is the maximum available feedback in dB at 1.6 Hz when the feedback is kept constant at frequencies below 1.6Hz, the system is phase-stabilized with 30\302\260 stability and the crossover frequency is 300 Hz? margins,
slope
feedback
with

9 The required frequencies

frequencies

at 10 slope

the

andx = 10dB?
In

at the

beginning

Hz is 40 dB, and the feedbackshould at lower increase -10 dB/oct. What is the crossover What are the frequency? and the end of the Bode step if the step's length is 0.8 oct

10

stability

bandwidth 100 Hz, amplitude stability 10dB, phase margin no n.p. lag, the attenuation in the feedback loop is required to be large over 1.5 kHz where there might be flexible in the plant. Calculate what modes attenuation at 1.5 kHz is available in the loop response with a Bode step if the What is the dB/oct. dB/oct; (b)-18 asymptotic slope is chosen to be conclusion? to the shape of the weight in the function Explain the result by referring

a system

with feedback
and 30\302\260,

margin

(a)-12

Bode phase
11

gain

relation.

In a GaAs microwavefeedbackamplifier, of there are two gain stages, and the length the feedback loop is 1 mm. The speed of signal propagation is 150,000 km/sec.At is fid = 1 rad? Considering this frequency is the length of what as fQ, what frequency the Bode step? What is the available feedback over the bandwidth (a) 0 to 3 GHz, (b) 1.5 to 3 GHz, (c) 2 GHz, (d) 2 to 3 GHz?
Find

12

the

loop

frequency:
(hLrad/sec;

for the system with crossover transfer function and the prefilter (a) 0.2 Hz; (b) 6 Hz; (c) 2 kHz; (d) 6 kHz; (e) 2 kHz; (f) 6 MHz; (g) 2 MHz; in described Use the 1 rad/sec crossover prototype (I) 100rad/sec.

Section 4.2.3.

13 The actuator

and

(a) 4A0
(b)

s)(s +

(c)
(d)

- s)(s + 5)/[/A0+ s)(s + 10)]; + 6)/[s? A0 + s)(s + 11)]; (e) 2.72A0 - s)(s Find the that makes the loop compensator
0.6A0
example

()(

2)/[/A0 + s)(s + 7)]; / )

plant transfer

function AP

is:

)[(

)(

)];

transfer

function

the

same

as

in

the

studied

in

Section

4.2.3,

where

T(s) =

1 10C(s)\342\200\224z

s i

= \342\200\224r

Us3 +55s2+U0S+
^ z

36 83

1
x

-.s +

10
.

lO +

s4+l.ls 3+3452 +97j +

s2

s+
cutoff

10
with frequency

14

Determine

the

band-pass
the the

transform

from the low-pass optimal Hz; Hz; Hz; Hz; Hz; Hz.

range

to (a) [0,1] rad/sec to (b) [0,2] rad/sec to (c) [0,3] rad/sec to (d) [0,4] rad/sec to (e) [0,5] rad/sec (f) [0,1] rad/secto

bandwidth bandwidth the bandwidth the bandwidth the bandwidth the bandwidth

[30,70] [50,70] [60,70] [40,70] [30,120] [30,100]

Chapter 4. Shaping 15
16
Draw

the

Loop

Response

127

Nyquist
for

diagram
Nyquist-stable with
A,

on the 7-plane (not

system
in

necessarily

to scale,

only to show the

shape)
Initial

the

Fig.

4.19.
shown

analysis

engineerassumed (wrongly)
later,

configuration

larger

a low-order feedback
that
will

compensator has is available than

feedback

that

in the plant

hardware

in

configuration

will be larger in configuration A Therefore, he decided that configuration should be chosen. Devisea counterexample to prove that optimal shaping for the Bode diagram must be used for initial analysis as well. (Hint: Use a plant with a flexible
a better

B. The system A even when,

controller

be

developed.

mode.)

17

the phase-gain chart in Fig. 3.42 (or the program from Appendix Using 5), calculate the phase response for a Nyquist-stable is: from 0 system whose loop gain response to 10 Hz, 60 dB; from 10 to 20 Hz, -50dB/oct; from 20 to 80 Hz, 10dB; from 80 to 320 Hz, -10 dB/oct; from 320 to 640 Hz, -10 dB; from 640 Hz, -18 dB/oct.
An

18

extra

management

level was

added to a four-level
the

management

system.
product

How

will

it

affect

the speed of

features
19 In a

(make a

accessing
estimate)?

market

and

adjusting

the

quantities

and

rough

the

like that shown in Fig. 4.19, 4 = 100 Hz, Nyquist-stable system with a response is and the 30\302\260, upper and lower gain stability margin stability margins are phase 10dB. Calculate the at the ends of the upper and lower Bode steps if the frequencies (b) -18 dB/oct, and the asymptotic slope slope at lower frequencies is (a) -12 dB/oct, is (a) -18 dB/oct, (b) -24 dB/oct.
The

20

loop gain plot crosses versions (a) and (b).

The

the 0

dB levelat 200kHz,

and

the rest

is as

in

Problem

19,

21

unstable

some narrow 22
Two

path Si. The path from links is 40 dB larger than

links have

can be equivalent^ represented as a stable plant with a feedback via the regular feedback loop the plant output to the plant input via path B\\ at most frequencies, but only by 20 dB larger over of the feedback system? range. How to approach the design frequency
plant

parallel

the
+

following

transfer

functions

respectively:
1000
(j: +

0 + 5H
(a)

8)

and
and

\"''
W2

0 +

40H +
+

100)
and

l-J

\"

3)(j +

10)O + 20)

(b)

1O)

6H

+ 10)
125)

0 + 50H +
=

W2

;0) =

1800

4H

+ 13H

+ 27)
+ 10)

0 +

(c)

25H + 4)
20H

0)

and

0
=

+ 50)
16)

W2

,w-

125

0 +15H
=

5H

(d)

Wx

0)

0 + 10H +
0 +

and

80H + 200)
link

W7

,0)

8000

0 + 6H +

20H

+ 40)

Is the

composite
minimum

W-\\{s) +

Wz(s) m.p.?
phase

23 Two

phase

links in

constant

gain coefficient k

parallel made a nonminimum has been added in parallel

to the

two

links.

link. A third link with How would you

128
find

Chapter 4. Shaping
the

the

Loop

Response

minimum

/c for the

total

transfer

function to
parallel

be m.p.?
to low-pass

24
25

Find that

transfer the

function G(s) of total transfer function

is 1. Is this

a high-passin
G(s)

12/[(s + 3)(s + 4)] so

realizable? two-port
the

Prove that if a transfer function of a linear passive of the signal source and the load, impedances other passive source and load impedances.
to selected is 5

is m.p.
function

with

some

passive
with

transfer

is m.p.

any

Answers

problems octaves
fc the below 40 Hz. Therefore,

1 (a) 1.25Hz

feedback

is 6

x 5 = 30 dB.

2 (a) The
length
3

is 3.32 log 2.3 = 1.2 oct),

y

frequency

= 1 kHz;

then, from D.2) fJk = 0.6x3 + 0.5 kHz. k = 0.435, and & = fJ2 = 0.22

= 2.3 (i.e.,the

step

(a) Since

= 1/6, the

to 50 Hz

the slope is
crossover.

from

=53dB. D.3+1)x10
(aI8log2(fc/fst)

= 4.3 oct down -10dB/oct. Thereare 3.32 logA000/50) Then, according to D.5), the available feedback is

= 20logi0aand/!)

/c/4>then

ft>=fst/2B0l09a)/18+2,
+

i.e.,
2]

f-st
fb

= 120; = 13.8881

Q = 10; fb =

fst/2*[20*loglO(Q)/18

The diagram

is shown

in Fig. 4.48.
r,

dB

40

\\-12

dB/oct

30

20

dB/Od c-10

10 0

2 25 .7 1.5

50 100

Hz,

log. SG. 10dB

.18.35

20 dB

-18
Fig. With

dB/oct

4.48

Loop response

Bode diagram

frequency

-10 dB/oct, disturbance rejection in dB at slope of the Bode diagram f </b/2 depends on the feedback bandwidth as 10log2(/b/*). % approximately At lower f < ftJ6, the slope can be increased to -12 dB/oct as shown by the frequencies to be employed dashed line. (In this case, a nonlinear dynamic compensator must assure global stability in Chapters as described 10 and 11.) When the tradeoff between the resonance frequency and the resonance discussing the available disturbance rejection at a meeting and quality (Q) of the object of control like with mechanical it is helpful for control engineers to have prepared plots designers, for two those shown in Fig. 4.49, exemplifying the available disturbance rejection structural resonance frequencies, fst = 50 Hz and 100 Hz. the

Chapter4. Shaping
m

the

Loop

Response

129

70

= 100Hz

ffl 70 \342\200\242o

60

= 50Hz L 81

\302\246\302\247

50

V\\VQ=30
\"

40

\\\\V/Q=

100

30
frequency,

Hz

i 20 1 10
dim

.751.5 3

\\55os

frequency \\ Hz \\ VV
.751.5

6 12
(b)

12

(a)
Fig. 4.49

Dependence of disturbance rejection and damping on the structural mode frequency

Chapter

COMPENSATOR DESIGN
Compensators, functions.

in

software

or hardware,

are

commonly

built

having

rational

transfer

Bode diagram is piece-linear. The slope of the segments of the 6n dB/oct, n is an integer. The asymptotic where is used to Bode diagram for the compensator approximate the conceptual Bodediagram (which may include
An

asymptotic

diagram is

segments of any slope). From function compensator transfer

Approximation

of

Bode diagramsis described. Lead and shown, and it is shown lag links are defined, their responses asymptotic to increase or reduce the slope of the compensatorBode how to use them diagram. A set of normalized plots is presented for a second-order low-pass functions having complex poles with different damping coefficients. The allocation of transfer function poles and zeros to cascaded links affects the recommendations are compensator dynamic range. This is demonstrated and
formulated
and

the the asymptotic Bode diagram immediately evident. an arbitrary constant-slope gain response

poles based

and zeros of the on asymptotic

are

about

how

to

construct

a compensator

by

cascading

the

links of the

first-

second-order.

consisting of a parallel connectionof links can be made in such a that each of the links over a certain frequency range. This is a dominates convenient way to make steps on the loop response. A digital can be viewed as a modification of an analog one in which compensator the analog integrators are replaced by discrete trapezoidal integrators. The trapezoidal and is the conversions of the the z-transform introduced, integrator analyzed,
Compensators way
polynomial

coefficients

tabulated.

and it is shown that the Tustin The Laplace and Tustin transforms are compared, transform is adequately accurate for practice. A design sequence It is explained how is recommended for digital controllers. to block diagrams, equations, and computer code for the first- and second-order generate is presented with links. A complete compensator design example digital compensator linear and nonlinear the derivation of a prototype links, analog compensator including Tustin and computer code. transform z-functions, equations of compensator links, The effect of aliasing is described and the loop response is considered for the reduction of the aliasing errors with reduced penalty to the available feedback.

5.1 Accuracy ofthe loopshaping

The

desired

frequency

response

of

the

compensator

has

chapters
frequency.
implementation,

in terms
In

of curves of
these

logarithmic

magnitude
imply

been presented and phase versus

functions

in

previous

logarithmic

general
a rational

curves

transcendental
the

of

approximation

to

ideal

transcendental

response
affects

s. For is almost of
the

always required.

The accuracy

of

the constant-slope

implementation
on the

directly

the value

available feedback. responses of the gain and phase Fig. ripples caused by the Chebyshev (equiripple) approximation of a desired constant-slope a rational transfer function. The function, by response higher the order of the rational the better can be the approximation be the ripples. and the smaller will Fig. 5.1(b) shows the relation between the ripple amplitudes of the gain and phase responses. In

5.1 (a) shows the

130

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design
y)%,

131
average

order for the maximum reducedby the value

the

gain

response

must be reducedcorrespondingly.

phase lag not to exceed A of the phase ripple as seenin

the

Fig.

5.1(c),

phase lag must be and the average slope of

{.-plane
phase

lag

average

phase lag

f,

log scale

0
gain

12
ripple

3
amplitude,

dB

(a)

(b)
between diagram

(c)
the ripple (c) phase

Fig. 5.1

and phase Gain lag diagrams (a), relations amplitudes (b), and the ripples on the Nyquist

1. A 5\302\260 Example phase ripple amplitude, an increase in the average phase margin will therefore be reducedby response
force
E7180\302\260) For which

i.e.,
by

10\302\260 peak-to-peak 5\302\260. The

ripples,

will

average

slope

of

the

gain

x 12

dB/oct =
length

1/3 dB/oct.
of

the

typical

4 octaves

is marginally Fig.

seenin
Thus,

5.1(b),
the

will be 1.2dB is 0.75 dB as acceptable. The corresponding gain ripple amplitude and the peak-to-peak ripplesin the gain response are 1.5 dB.
the cut-off,

the loss

in

the

feedback

dB \302\26105

and

accuracy in the loop gain respc required the compensator need not be precise.

ypically

not better
better

than

the smaller the ripples and the order of the compensator, The higher feedback accuracy of the loop response. Typically, the designer can achieve of order 8 to 15. available using a compensator to 5 dB of the theoretically

the

within

the 2 dB

5.2
The

Asymptotic Bode diagram

gain

for

transfer

function

s~\302\260 is

s2,

expressed

as -20nlog<o, and the Bode plot line with the slope -20ndB/dec, is a straight = -6n dB/oct as shown in or -6.021n dB/oct

12 dB/oct

use of octaves is preferred do not provide the necessary resolution. The corresponding phase shift is
Fig.

5.2. The since decades at

f,

log.

sc.

constant the

-n90\302\260.

-6 dB/oct

Generally, of as

a rational

transfer

function

Laplace

variable s

can be expressed

Fig. 5.2

Constant-slope

Bode

diagrams

132

Chapter 5. Compensator Design

\302\253*\302\246\302\253

where

k is

a real

coefficientand
pairs.

the

zeros

sXi

and

the

poles

sPj

can

be real
replacing

or make
s by

complexconjugate

The

frequency

The gain frequency responseis

response is calculatedafter
-120 -

jco.

20
The

log

IL(/oo)l

= 20

log k + ?
+

20logl/to
2jt/2)/27Cfzl

sA\\

log

I;\302\251 jpjl.

gain

plots (Bode
zero are

diagrams) for
shown

transfer

functions

with

respectively
negative

the single
pole

real
20log

negative

201ogl(/a>
2rt/p)l

and

with

the
thin

single real
lines.

I2n/p/(;o) +

in Fig.

5.3(a),(b) by
3 dB

dB

dB

0
f,

f,

log. sc.

\\

/
1/4

\\

log. sc.

1/2

(a)

(b)
diagrams

(c)
pole

Fig.5.3

Bode

for a
asymptotic

single zero (a),single

gain

(b), and

the error of the

approximation

(c)

The responses can be approximated asymptotes, by their high- and low-frequency and by the thicker lines. These are two straight lines which have slopesOdB/oct of the to the frequency and which intersect at the corner frequency equal \302\2616dB/oct, or of the pole^. zero/j
shown
by

is replaced the expression (j(O + 2itf,) asymptotic gain, is whether real or imaginary. The error of such approximation at the corner, ldB one octave is 3dB in Fig. 5.3(c). The error shown away from the corner, and less than 0.1 dB at two octaves. axis. A convenient scale for the / or <o frequency The diagrams are drawn against is lOdB/cm, 1 oct/cm. the diagram drawing the piece-linear several real poles and zeros, asymptotic For a function having and bends at each by 6dB/oct. zero corner frequency Bode diagram bendswword at each pole frequency. downward, by -6dB/oct.
the

For

calculation

of the

its

larger

component,

Example 1,The
LQ<o)

asymptotic

Bode

diagram
+ 20)

for

the

function

(;co + 0.5)(;a)+ 2)Q(io

(;<o +

j(a+10) 0.2)(;a> + 0.3)(

the

can

be

drawn

as follows. First,

value

of the

some frequency, for instance, at the

frequency

asymptotic Bode diagram <o = 1. It is

is calculated

at

4 /00X2X2O = 4 = \342\200\224 = J,
joax

jcoxlO

j(Q

j
5.4.

i.e., the

gain

is 12dB

as

shown

in Fig.

Chapter 5, Compensator Design

The

133

of the asymptotic diagram at this frequency to the resulting slope corresponds of can is -6 the be drawn it dB/oct. Then, /'to, i.e., asymptotic diagram power by the at down at the the zeros, and \"bending\" response up poles, by 6dB/oct. The actual Bode diagram shown the asymptotic error by the thin line is obtained by adding

responses.

10

\302\246

16

32
transfer

Fig. 5.4
As
Asymptotic finding

Asymptotic

and

actual

Bode diagrams of a is
fairly

rational

function

seen

the

asymptotic

diagram

close

to

the actual
for

Bode diagram.
the

diagrams a rational

are

widely

used for conceptual

gain

design, and

purpose
a plot.

of

function

which

approximates

a gain

response defined by

is commonly verified by computer Bode shape of the actual diagrams For the of the numerator the coefficients and simulation. above example, polynomial known of the transfer function can be found from the roots denominator of the numerator and denominator with
The
rn

=
=

rd = [-0.2 -0.3
poly(rn);

[-0.5

-2 -20];

-10);

num

denum
and

= poly(rd); plot can

the

Bode

be obtained with

bode(num,

denum)
the

or by using

command

f reqs.

5.3
As

Approximation
mentioned

in Chapter
response.

of constant-slope gain response 4, constant-slopesegments are important components

in shaping

the loop frequency

Any

a product of a rational function can be decomposed into and an functions of s: s~p = s~m s~q where p and q are real, m is an integer, and 0 < q < 1. The irrational function s~q can be approximated by a rational function whose poles and zeros are real and alternate the frequency axis as illustrated in Fig. 5.5(a). The Bode along in Fig. 5.5(b), The pole-zero spacings a to s~q is shown plot of a rational approximation and b result in an average slope of - 6b/(a + b) dB/oct, which should equal - q dB/oct.

constant-slope

irrational

134

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

dB

s-plane

-K-O-

f, -*-O

H-O

Sr

log.

sc.

(a)

(b)
Alternating

Fig. 5.5
to s~m using

pole-zero

approximation

to s*
simple

Example 1. Fig. 5.6 shows

approximation
three

the

gain

and phase

responses for a
an

rational

zero-pole

pairs spaced evenly,

octave

apart:

T{s) =

E.1)
is nearly

The gain
-3dB/oct range.
the

slope

constant
frequency

at

over At the

a wide

20

gain

asymptotes,
45\302\260/2,in

corner frequencies, as transitions to the flat the phase lag is nearly with the Bode accordance
the -45\302\260

1
10 \302\246i

s i
10\"\"

phase phasergain relation. The -38\302\260

10\"' Frequency

10\"

10\302\260

(rad/sec)

at the
phase
the

center differs from

of the of

effects

half-integrator due to the gain asymptotes.

rather

-20 -40 10
Fig.

\\
\\

/
,.
1-\342\200\224_ 10\"

Example 2. A
example
approximation
was

extreme
following

is
by

the

10'
5.6

10\"
(rad/sec)

to

s~lB a

which

Frequency

generated

curve-fitting

program:

function

Gain and phase responsesof a with alternating real poles and zeros

+ 0.0005682^+0,000002178 + 2.234/ + L86b4 + 0.4276/ + 0.02954/ 0.4415/ ' E.2) C(s)= + 0.2007/ + 0.009201/ + 0.00010989s+0.0000001979 / + 2.462/ + 1.3037s4 Over

the

frequency

range
than

-2.007
This

dB/oct by less
high

0.05

deviates from the 0.01 to lOHz, the gain response remains within of the ideal while the 0.05\302\260 dB, phase

ideal
-30\302\260.

since the required accuracy for implementation dB or so. 0.5 is typically only systems compensators desired of can be used for approximation programs Curve-fitting computer out well. the this works most In however, Sometimes, cases, responses. compensator sensitive to the which too functions are transfer polynomial programs produce functions must be checked over by variations. coefficient Therefore, the transfer the software round-off errors and reflect the coefficients by increments which changing of the On the other hand, the tolerances of the hardware approximation implementation. of the poles and zeros as described in Sections 5.4-5.7, desired curve by the placement low-order links as described and of the compensator by cascading then implementation
accuracy
in

is rarely necessary

control

in

Section

5.6,

always results

in

a robust

design.

Chapter 5. Compensator Design

5.4
The

135

Lead
ideal

and

lag links
response

compensator 4. Computer

should be determined
from

by

subtracting

the

known

actuator/plant
Chapter

frequency response loop the iterative generation of frequency responsesmakes design of the and plant are compensator quick and effective. When linear models of the actuator can a trial compensator be carried out using in series with the available, the iteration
the

desired

response, as discussed in

actuator experience,

and plant,
purpose

until

the
will

desired
require

loop frequency
no more than blocks.

response is achieved.With

some

convergence

5 -10 iterations.

For the

of iterative

structural design, it
building

being composed of elementary function with a pole-zero pair

is best to regard the compensator as The simplest of these has the transfer

E.3)
2itfo

where function

fz and fp are the is called lead

than (fp

frequencies of the
when

frequency
comes

the </z).

pole Fig.

first

the pole, respectively. This transfer the pole, i.e., the zero is at a lower function is called lag when the pole (fz<fp)- The transfer 5.7 shows asymptotic Bode diagrams and Bode diagrams for
zero

and

the

zero

precedes

lead and lag transfer

dB

functions.

t
0

f,

log.

sc.

(a)
\"N,

m-2

ca \"O

So

\\

N 10'

-6 10'
Frequency
20

10\"

10'
(rad/sec)

10'

10\"

0 X
V

Frequency (rad/sec)

/
a.

\\

? a.
10'

8-10
s
10\"
-20

y
10\"

10\"

10\"

10'

Frequency (rad/sec)

Frequency (rad/sec)

(c)

(d)
lag (b)

Fig. 5.7

Lead

(a)

and

Bode asymptotic
(c)

diagrams

diagrams; frequency responses for

lead

(s+0.7)/(s+1.4)

and (thin lines) Bode and (d) lag (s+1.4)/(s+0.7)

136
The larger the
frequencies,

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

from the lower to the larger is the gain change the is lead (or larger phase phase lag). a lead link makes the loop gain Bode diagram locally shallower thus Adding the gain at low frequencies and locally the phase lag. reducing reducing Fig. 5.8 shows the use of a compensator to changethe slope -12 dB/oct of a double to the desired slope of-10 dB/oct with a single lead and with two leads. The integrator use of two lead links provides a closer approximation to the desired Bode diagram than could be achieved with just one lead link with a larger pole-zero separation.

pole-zeroseparation,
and the

the

higher

Tbefore

correction

lead (a)
Fig.
(b)

leadi

lead

5.8

Compensation

of a

doubleintegrator

with

(a) one and

(b) two

lead

links

thus increasing the loop gain Lag compensation steepens locallythe Bode diagram, at lower frequencies as shown in Fig. 5.9. As in the case of lead compensation, several are sometimes needed for better approximation accuracy. links lag

.Tdesired
Twith

gain,

dB

\\,

dB =

0.56a dec'degr

a lag
150\302\260

^
f,

aA

\\^

log. sc.

Fig. 5.9

Lag compensation

Fig. 5.10 Useof

to improve
C.10),

the

phase

integral

the

Before deciding to introduce further compensation one can use Bode's phase integral response, available in the feedback. improvement
desired

C.11)

the approximation to to estimate the

-10

a system, the desired loop gain response is a straight line with slope which corresponds to constant 150\302\260 phase lag as shown in Fig. 5.10. The current gain response is somewhat shallower, and there is an excessive phase stability with the area a decade margin xdegr. The phase integral indicates that elimination of this will yield an additional 0.56a dB of feedback excess at lower frequencies. The trade of the excessive for can be made by margin gain phase larger low-frequency loop

Example 1. In

dB/oct

introducing lag links.

Chapter5. Compensator
5.5

Design

137

Complex
lower
the

poles
these steps need to be reasonablysharp. To implement sharp and are zeros diagram, complex poles required.Complexpolescan to compensate for the plant response, and to shape the loop gain over

Upper and
angles on
be

Bode

Bode

also

required

the

functional

frequency
gain

band.
and

The normalized

phase

lag frequency

responses for the

complex

pole

pair

function
<\302\273\342\200\236

E.4)
s2

+Q
in

are presented

Fig.

5.11.

The magnitude

of the

function

E.4)
other

at the
is

s=j@0 and the Q = 1/BQwhere

first
? is

and

the last terms

cancel each

the

resonance where quality factor

the damping

coefficient.
lag, 1 yo.7

gain,

dB

10
-_

degr

/S

A^0.2

lag
180\302\260 \"

^^06^

1111

-10

90\302\260

: 1 0.6

I
-20

0.5
_-*-

Tl

1
\342\200\224 i i

iii

iii

0.25

0.5

4
a complex

relative frequency co/co0

Fig.

5.11

Gain and
Bode

phase lag responsesfor

is calculated
only
by

pole pair the last term

in

The
denominator

asymptotic

diagram

retaining
at

only

the

of E.4) at

co< oo0,and

the first
can

term

co >oo0.

E.4)

1. A Example with C = 0.5.

simple low-passfilter
third-order

be

obtained

by using

transfer

function

Example2. A
pole
link

low-pass

filter can
E.4). real

be obtained
The

by

cascading
the

a single-

and
higher

a link with
than

transfer

function

must be
used

the frequency poles

of

the

peak of the

complex
the

to form

Bode

step

compensates in Fig. 5.14.

between
transfer

complex frequency of pole and ? should be chosen such that the the roll-off of the real pole. This methods will be

pole,

notch or a peak response. Its

Example 3. The

difference

function

the two logarithmic is the ratio

responses of functions

in Fig.

5.11 is a

E.4):

138

Chapter 5. Compensator

Design

This

function

of the
peak
damping.

IL& at the frequency equals to 1 at zero and infinite frequencies, and to ?\342\200\236 where s = j'oo0.When ^n < ^j, a notch response results.When t# > L&, a follows. The width of the notch the or on the chosen response peak depends Such have been used in the prefilter described in Section 4.2.3. notches resonance

5.6 Cascaded links

When

the

elementary
the This

links of
link

the

compensator

are cascaded,
not

attention

should

be

paid not

to yet

the signal level at

junctions

so as

range.

is

the

distorted by saturation than the disturbance Example

amplitude range in the nonlinear

and

of
links,

the

the compensator's impair the largest of which signals and the smallest is still substantially
to

dynamic
is

larger

noise

mean-square
implementation s +

amplitudes.
of the

1. Considerthe

transfer

function

s + 500
10

j+

E.5)

1000

of the two links. The asymptotic for Wi and Wi as a cascade connection gain responses are shown in Fig. 5.12(a). It is seen that the signals at lower frequencies are attenuated in the first link by 54 dB, and then amplified in the second link by 34 dB. This way of not the best since after the attenuation, the signal the compensator is certainly making the noise floor drops dangerously close to the noise level, and after the amplification
will

be

raised.

dB

34

dB

1000
-54
(a)

2*=
w.

f, log.

sc.

(b)
of two

Fig. 5.12
Assume

Gain

responses

different implementations of the same

function

transfer

frequencies is appliedto the input as shown at 1 Hz and at 1 kHz the signal levels Fig. as also that shown in Assume there is a disturbance source at differ, Fig. 5.13(a). 5|xV the junction in of the links. Such disturbances be caused noise or interference may by and in round-off errors At 1 the Hz, analog systems, by digital signal systems. amplitude is only 2 |xV so that the signal will be heavily corrupted with the noise.
with

in

that a 1 mV signal At the junction 5.13(a).

various

between

the links,

Chapter5. Compensator
Noise
1mV

Design

139

.1mVat1Hz
1mVat1kHz
1mV

(a)

at 1kHz

Noise

(b)

1mV

1mVat1kHz

Fig. 5.13
It

Signal

levels

at link
same

junctions
transfer

for

the

responses

in Fig. 5.13
the

is

better

to implement

the

function

by cascading

following

links:

s+
.s

2 s + 500
1000
Fig.

E.6)
5.12(b).

+ 10,

The frequency responsesfor W3 and W4 are shown in have a much smaller dynamic range as indicated in Fig.
signal

5.13(b),
the

The signal levels and even the smallest noise.

amplitude

@.2 mV

at

1 Hz)

remains

much larger

than

5|xV

any

links with excessive attenuation or gain at The general rule is to avoid creatine link to in the same the i.e.. poles and the zeros which are close to frequency, keep this the slope of the total Bode rule is followed, the link affects each other. When also simplifies iterative over a small range-which relatively frequency diagram adjustments

of the

frequency responses.
plant
integrator

Example 2. The
behave

is a
at
and

as a
not

single
less

must be
0.9rad/sec,
the

than
the

10 dB
loop

but
response

gain

must loop transfer function and gain stability margins frequency. phase 30\302\260. The crossover frequency must be not less than at frequency lOrad/sec and higher must not exceed

single
zero

integrator

Ms.

The

The

-35 dB. For this,

loop
Let

at higher frequencies must must include a Bode step.

the

roll-off

be

-18

dB/oct

or steeper,

and

us

design

When
The

= 1 and C0b

the compensator as a cascade connection x - 10dB, then <od = 2. The desired

= 3.6.

of several
width

links.
the Bode

of

step D.2)

is 0.6x3= 1.8, i.e., ooc

slopes

in Fig. 5.14 is composed of pieces shown with asymptotic Bode diagram -6 dB/oct, -12 dB/oct, 0 dB/oct, and -18 dB/oct. At lower frequencies, it makes - 6dB/oct. The at frequencies 0.15 to 2 rad/sec. the averageslopeis -lOdB/oct slope A pair of complex zeros at coc make the corner at the beginning of the Bode step. A real somewhat smaller pole at to = 2.8 and a pair of complex poles at a frequency than in Example 2 in Section <oc form a third-order low-pass filter (as explained 5.5) at the end of the Bode step and effect the desired -18 dB/oct. slope, asymptotic

140
dB 60 50 40 30 20

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

.-lOdB/oct

10 0

2 i
.015

\302\253o, log. scale - i i i

-10
-20

.03 .06 .12

\302\253

.25 .5
n

v\\^
..

16

n ..ic\\

.06
-30
poles

.42 1.4 and zeros

2 3

-18 dB/oct

Fig. 5.14
Damping

Asymptotic

Bode for

diagram

coefficient of
the for

0.5 is chosen
corner

the

complex

zeros

in

order

for the

gain

response to pass through

0.4 is chosen pole at co =

the

complex
resulting

seen in Fig. 5.11. Damping coefficient of effect of the real poles to compensate for the rounding
point as
transfer 2.8 s +

2.8. The

loop

function s2 +

is

T(s) =
The

s + Q.42 5 + 0.06 s + 1.4

1
is composed when
even

2s-

2.8
four

s +2.4s
first-

compensator

of
must

or second-order

links. This
low, in

shows that
controllers.

example
of the

the order
function

of the

plant

transfer

function

is

the

order

compensator transfer
From the condition

be

reasonably

high

high-performance

that

at co

= %

= 1 the

asymptotic

loop

gain coefficient

k (Ixlxlx2.8x4xl)/(lxl.4x2.8x9xl)
the

= 1,
it was be

coefficient

\302\253 3.15.

By using
0 dB

this value of k initially,

level at co =
in

found that for to 4.

the

Bode

diagram
After

to pass

close to the
2.8 *

1, k must
the

increased

multiplication

of the

polynomials

numerator

and denominator:

n =

4
=

conv([l
27.1040

0.42],[1

2 4]!
18.8160

11.2000

54.2080

d = conv(conv([l
d = 1.0000
the

6.6600

0.06],[1 1.4]), conv([l 2.8],[1 2.4 9 0])) 23.3960 48.5880 38.1125 2.1168 0

loop

transfer

function becomes

T(s) =
The

Is2+54.2^ 112s3+ 27.

23.4s4

+ 18.8

+ s6 + 6.66s5

+ 48.6.S3
in

+ 381*2 + 2.12s
5.15(a).

loop

responses

are shown

Fig.

The Nyquist

diagram on the

L-plane

plotted
w

by
=

logspace(-l,

1);

[mag,

phase]

= bode(n,

d, w);

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

141

plot(phase,20*loglO(mag),'r',

title('L-plane
set(gca,'XTick',[-270
in Fig.

-180, 0,'wo')
diagram')

Nyquist

grid is
shown

-240

-210

-180 -150

-120 -90]:

5.15(b).
L-plane

50 40

Nyquist

diagram
I

30
1\302\260

20
10\"

-50

10

10'

10 0

Frequency (rad/sec)

\302\246\302\247-180

-10 -20 -30

-40

-270

1
-240-210-180-150-120

\342\200\236

10
Frequency

10\"

10'
(rad/sec)

(a)

(b)
the

Fig. 5.15

Loopfrequency response(a) and

Nyquist

diagram

(b)

It is recommended for it by changing students to play with this response, to modify the poles and zeros (or the coefficients of the polynomials) in order to get the feeling for the the zeros, and the polynomial of the response to the poles, coefficients. sensitivity For example, by increasing the complex pole damping coefficient the Nyquist diagram can be made more rounded; an n.p. lag can be added to the plant and the Bode step
made,

correspondingly,

wider;

by adding

complex poles or a notch, gain response at lower frequencies along the frequency axis by replacing 2),
and

the high-frequency asymptotic slope can be made steeper will also require lengthening which the step; the can be made steeper.The response can be shifted
s by as (as describedin Section the function by a constant. 4.2.3,

Example

along

the gain

axis,

by

multiplying

5.7
The shown

Parallel connection of links

compensator in Fig.

links in parallel as sum of the transfer of the elementary links Wj + W2 + W3. The poles of the compensator functions are just the The zeros of the of links. result from the the poles elementary compensator is 0 at that value of s at which interactions between the elementary links: the output the 0. sum of all the links' is outputs
may

be implemented

5.16. The

also compensator transfer

by

connecting

several

function

is equal

to

the

142
dB

Chapter5. Compensator

Design

\\^
n
1

f,

log. sc.

(a)
Fig. 5.16

(b)
Parallel

Parallel

connection

Fig. 5.17 (a)

links'
signals'

(b) output

gain responses addition at /12

It is convenient to design the compensator such that each one of the parallel links the response over a certain This band, as shown in Fig. 5.17(a). frequency can be designed and adjusted one at a time. (This configuration provides way the links also for an option of placing separate nonlinear in the parallel paths, if required, as links 11 and 13.) At the frequency described in Chapters at which the link responses cross, addition of the links' transfer can be found by vector (i.e., at/12,/23, etc.,) the output on functions. the the difference between signals of frequencyDepending phase output the summed be adjacent channels, signal larger or smaller than the amplitude may of the amplitude components. a convenient Parallellinksprovide way of implementing Bode steps.
dominates

crossover frequency must be 1 rad/sec.

50

Example1.In

the

system

shown

in

Fig.

5.18(a),

the plant

is

an

integrator

Us. The

co

-v. 0

-i

Ss \342\200\242\342\200\242
-50 10'
10\"

10'

Frequency (rad/sec)

(a)

'-180

\342\200\224

\342\200\224--

\\ -270

10
Frequency

10
(rad/sec)

10

(b)

Fig. 5.18

(a) Bodestep implementation

and

(b) the
link

Bode diagram
- 4/(s2+ 4s) and the lowthe resonance is at four

pass

is the parallel connection of the The compensator filter C2= 5/(s2+ 2As+l6) with ? = 0.3. In the

C\\

filter,

Chapter
times

5. Compensator

Design
gain

143
is -lO.ldB.

the

crossover

frequency,

and

the

low-frequency

The loop

response

T(s)=
is

9s2

+29.6^
+

+ 64
+ 64s2

s5 + 6.4/ seen that

large.

25.6.S3

in Fig. 5.18(b). It is shown lag at lower frequencies is too or in the common path.

the

Bode

This

step is well implemented, but the phase can be remedied with lead links placed in C\\

5.8
The

Simulation of a
PID

PID controller
function

of three parallel branches: Us,P, and Ds. The coefficients of the controller. A saturation link is commonly of the /-channel to improve the controller in the nonlinear performance will of operation, for large-level signals (this issue be considered in mode 10a This controller does not Bode is in not 13). implement Chapters step, optimal is most applications, but simple and as such, quite popular. with a flexible mode. We will consider an example with a double integrator plant is The The system block shown in 5.19. includes two CPI masses, Fig. plant diagram device viscous and CP2, a spring, and a dashpot friction). (a providing
controller

consists

/, P, D define placed in front

the

transfer

Compensator

Fig. 5.19
and

Block

diagram
integrator

for a

a double
can

plant

control loop a PID compensator having a flexible mode

MATLAB,
plant

The
and

simulation

be
transfer

performed
function

in

SIMULINK,
should

MATLAB is used,the
SPICE

for the

be first

or SPICE. When found. SIMULINK

allow
for

blockdiagrams
Example

derivation to be skipped (using the transfer function in Section ladder network analysis is described 7.6.1).

SIMULINK

1. In this example, we will use SPICE. In spite of a somewhat longer has SPICE to draw an equivalent schematic diagram, and the file using necessity input certain advantages: there is no need to generate a mathematical descriptionof the plant to voltage, electromechanical if we use the common analogies (force to current, velocity of the to an inductor with the inductance equal to the inverse mass to capacitor, spring equal to the spring stiffness coefficient, and the dashpot to a resistor with the resistance in detail in Section 7.1.1). is explained of the damping coefficient; the analogy inverse 13 in Fig. 5.20. The current to node is shown for the simulation The schematicdiagram the is calculated at node from 2) plant represents the force F. The position x (voltage (voltage at node 13)by integration. velocity

144

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

Fig.5.20SPICE
The
output

model

for the

system

shown

in Fig.

5.19

in the compensator the paths pass through and the voltage on the resistor the sum of the summing resistor RSUM, represents of the parallel paths. The integrators are imitated outputs by ideal controlled current sources links loaded into capacitors. Saturation are implemented using opposite-biased diodesshunting a resistive load. currents 1 ?2

of the

three parallel

This diagram representsa simple of simulating the performance of the block way in in and it 5.19 does not describe the of an analog SPICE, diagram Fig. implementation will be in considered the next compensator implementation (compensator chapter). below. Included in the file but not shown on the The SPICE input file is shown 13 to resistors nodes 1, 2, 8, and picture are the high-resistance leakage connecting SPICE. as ground, required by
*** ES

PID

example 12 1
1MEG

Figs.

5.19, 5.20 ***

;

RSRl

RSP2

***

2
5

; input signal
leakage

summer

resistor

0 0 0 6 5 0

1MEG

leakage

resistor

GSAT

3 0.001

; saturation

RSAT

Dl

DIODE
DIODE

IK

; threshold

in I-path
=

@.7+VT1)*GI1/GSAT

D2

7
6 0 8 9

.MODEL DIODE

VTl
VT2

IV

7 IV

* **

Gil

0 0 5 1

CI2

0 0 8

RSP8
*

8 9

10
2

; I-path
,-

; integral coefficient
leakage

1MEG

resistor

**

GP

***

0 0
0

proportional

coefficient

GDI LD GD2

0 3 3

4 0 1

; differential

coefficient

** *
***

0 4 1

RS

summing

resistor

Chapter
GAl

5. Compensator
;

Design
coefficient

145

***

10

9 0

actuator

gain

RSATA

10 0 IK
12 0

D3

10 11 DIODE
10 12

; saturation

in actuator

D4

DIODE
IV

VT3

11 0

VT4
GA2

IV

13 0 0

10 1

***

force source
mass

CP1

13 0 5

RSP13

13
13
2

of

the

main

1MEG

LP2

leakage
mass

14

0.1
13

CP2
RP

12 0 0.5
0

14 15 0.02
0

spring of flexible mode of second body losses in the flexible

integrator

resistor

body-

mode

GINT

CINT * **

2 0
V10

1
is

1
to
V2

***

force,
1

V13 is

velocity,
use
are

generate
position
frequency

position
responses

is

VTBST 1 0

AC

only
tested
when

when

** Pulse
*

.AC

DEC 20
10 0.1

0.01 10 ; use only

(Vmin
PULSE 10 (
0V Vmax

frequency

responses

tested

delay

rise

fall

width

VPULSE
.TRAN

10V
;

OS
when

OS
transient transient

OS

500
responses responses

period)

500

.PROBE
.END Since

; when ; or
of the

tested tested

other graphical postprocessor

15,

a system can be simulated using free of up to 25 nodes and available or PSPICE\302\256 from and Microsim. (In SPICE, the summers charge from Intusoft, can also be specified by algebraic of nonlinearities in most versions expressions; can t he transfer functions be their and also SPICE, zeros.) specifiedby poles
the

number

nodes is
presently

only

this

student

version of

SPICE which

allows

To plot the

closed-loop

response,

plot vdb
the

B),
ESUM

vp B).
second

To

plot

the

loop

response,
response,

connect
disable

input
vtest

to 0

and

then

plot
enable

vdbB),vpB).

To plot
vpulse

transient

with an

asterisk lines

and .AC
abscissa

and

and .tran.

To plot
linear
student and Running

the

Nyquist

diagram

with logarithmic

scales, changethe
0B

scale

to

make the

it vp

B).
is recommended

exercise. (a)

program The plots

as a
phase

frequency
stability

response
margins

should be madefor: of loop gain and checked;

response;

so that

can be the

f, log.
responses
the

sc.

(b) closed-loopfrequency
of the linear
links

(as

difference

between
different

signal levels and phases), input closed loop responsefor transient (c) thresholds. coefficients P, I, D and saturation be The loop gain response should
and output

similar

to

Fig. 5.21

Loop

gain

response

that

shown

in Fig.

5.21.
controllers
loop

filters

The loop response for PID and notches, to reduce the

gain

can be augmented by additional at the frequencies of the plant

low-pass structural

146
resonance

Chapter 5. Compensator Design

and provide

gain

stabilization

over

the frequency

range of the resonance.

Example2. A
in path

triple-pole

cut-off frequency, approximately,

front of

filter (two complex poles and one real) with the low-pass 4 times larger than the crossover frequency, is placed
plant.

of a

single

integrator

The
the

coefficient
loop

D is chosensuch

that

with

only this
P
it

the compensator

connected,

gain at lower

frequencies is -jedB.The

is where is chosen such that with only this path on, the crossover frequency must such that with only this path on, the loop gain be. The integral term can be chosen at the crossover has the high-frequency frequency is -jedB. The resulting response
coefficient
asymptotic

slope
with

the response

Drawing the a recommended

5.9
While

-18 dB/oct, and the lower-frequencies loop gain is lower than the crisp Bode step by about 5 dB. Bode diagrams and making MATLAB simulation asymptotic
student

that

of

is left

as

exercise.

Analog
many

and

digital

controllers

factors between an analog and a digital three system, may affect the choice are considerations and b andwidth, accuracy, important price. be remembered of When considering accuracy, it should that only the accuracies link the The the prefilter, summer, and feedback affect accuracy. path directly output and also of command feedforward links is much accuracy required of the compensator with less accurate elements. lower, so generally these can be implemented can be made very accurate and stable in time. For example, the Analog circuitry reference inside analog voltage source, resistors, and chopper-stabilized amplifiers are accurate to 7 or 8 digits. The dynamic of a voltmeters bench-type digital range to 23 bits. common op-ampis ljiV to 10 V. This dynamic range is equivalent In digital systems, the accuracyand the dynamic limited range are frequently by the A/D converter which is, typically, 12 to 23 bits. An dynamic range of the employed additional drawback of digital controllers is that the sample rate (typically, principal up to 1 MHz) and computational delay limit the bandwidth and the available feedback.

Because of

this,

feedback

loops with/b

> 100kHz should

of sensors

be
the and

analog.
prices ease

Other considerations

and of D/A and Another important

plants.

A/D issue

used, converters, power consumption, is the compensator's flexibility

the

are:

type

of a of

microcontroller

in

being

troubleshooting. adjusted for different

or

For

the great

majority that

of it

can be
determined

designed such

applications, will perform

either type

of controller,analog
the

digital,
two

well,
and

and

choice

between

the

is

mostly by the price of development

fabrication.

5.10

Digital

compensator

design
integrator

5.10.1 Discrete trapezoidal

As is
it

explained

in

Section

5.6,
the

for the

purpose of reducing
into
frequency

advantageous to different related

to

is

to break

compensator

several

reduce

the

time-constants, i.e., different errors, it is common rounding

function
function

dynamic range, required cascaded links, each link For a similar reason, regions.
signal

the

in digital

processing

(DSP)

to
and

implement a high-order transfer

second-order

as a
having

functions,

each such

cascade connection of first-order close to zeros. poles reasonably

Chapter5. Compensator
The second-order
p2s
transfer

Design

147

function

+pls

r
E.7)
using the
Ms

or

biquad,

can be
l/s

1
implemented with

analog

integrators

feedback

1/S

block

shown in Fig. 5.22 diagram of the (verification of the correspondence equation to the block diagram is left as a student

4 '
Fig.

Po

5.22

exercise).

Feedback
biquad

A similar
for

digital

operator,
Discrete

block diagram can be used of the biquad implementation must be implemented only the integration
trapezoidal
time

of a

implementation
function

transfer

in

discrete

steps

performed
signal

at
u(t)

sampling instants.
is sampled at
intervals

integration is shown Ts, 2Ts, 3TS ....

the

in Fig.
The

5.23. The
The

input

analog

output

v(f) represents

area which
interval

approximates

from the

sampling #n -1 to

integral
the

of

the

input.

increment

the shadowed in v@ for the time

sampling

#n is

\302\246Ts.

E.8)

(n-3)Ts

(n-2)Ts

(n-1)T8

nTs
p\\__ pi

k Ts/2

i k 1/Z 1

trapezoidal Fig. 5.24 Digital flowchart integration

(n-3)Ts (n-2)T

Fig. 5.23
Next, let
ZVn-l
ZHn_i

Trapezoidal

digital

integration z signify

multiplication

by

the time increaseby

one

sample

period so

that

= Vn,
= Mn.

With

this symbolism,

E.8) can be rewritten

as

148

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

zv
transfer

r
function

and

the

of the

discrete trapezoidal integrator

is

E10)
t\"T=Ft-

This

formula

is presented

as a

flowchart

in Fig.

5.24. Operator

z\021

can

be implemented

a sampledvalue and recalling it after the sampling time Ts, The biquad E.7) can be implemented by replacing digitally integrators l/s in the in Fig. 5.22 by digital flowchart An but flowchart can be integrators. simpler equivalent obtained by substituting into to and the E.10) E.7) replace l/s, resulting simplifying of z as a ratio of two The second-order expression to obtain a function polynomials. flowchart like the block in looks 5.22 but with different resulting Fig. diagram coefficients and with 1/z replacing l/s.
by storing

Next, three
\342\200\242 As

important

comments
the

need signal

to be

made.

seen

in Fig.
by

5.23,
discrete

input

is calculated
analog interval.

integration

integrator output reaches the In other words, compared

the

of sampling value averaged over the interval while only at the end of the sampling interval, value in the middle of the sampling average
with

analog

integration,

digital

integration

delays
\342\200\242 While nonminimum

signal

by Ts/2,

feedback system is being designed,the delay Ts/2 can be treated as 4.2.2 and 4.3.4, this lag should phase lag. As mentioned in Sections not exceed 1 rad at the crossover Therefore, the sampling frequency frequency. \302\253 = such at least 6 times a high sampling should be 2ji/1 larger than/b. With /s 1/Ts
a digital
is quite accurate. integration frequency, trapezoidal 2 it needs at least to identify samplesper period is only feasible for sinusoidal signals with processing Nyquist frequencyf^l.

\342\200\242 Since

a sinusoid,
frequencies

digital

signal

less

than the

5.10.2 Laplaceand Tustin

To

transforms

get an

additional

insight

into

the problem,
transform.

we

might

duplicate

the

results
by

of

the

previous

section

using the

Laplace

Since

1/z signifies

a delay

we T\302\247,

can

view 1/z as

the Laplacetransform
/s

of the

delay which

is
E.11)

z = exp\342\200\224\342\200\242
From here,

s=fslnz.
Function

E.12)
E.11) by in the

2ji/s of the left-hand plane of s, bounded maps the strip of width lines in Fig. 5.25(b), onto the unit radius disk of the z-plane shown of the s-plane maps onto the point A,0) of the z-plane, and Fig. 5.25(a). The origin onto the and the of (-1,0) /n/s, point z-plane. points -jnfs

the

dash-dotted

The Nyquist

frequencies

\302\261 mfs/2

of the

s-plane map onto points

in \302\261j

the z-plane.

Chapter 5. Compensator Design

149

'\302\246\302\246 M Laplace

Tustin

s-plane

s-plane
jfsn/2

z-plane

-1

jiT

0^1
-J

\342\200\2240

-fsn/2

-1.274
1

I .

(a)

(b)
of (a) (c) Tustin

(c) = 2fe(z- 1)/(z+1)

well s-plane

Fig. 5.25
Near

Mapping

and
the

with

the z-plane onto the transform s

with (b) function

s = fe

In z

origin,
Tustin

an exponent
\302\273

can be approximated
-x).

by a

bilinear
this

function,

i.e.,

when*

is small,
the

expBx)

+x)l{\\

In applications to

DSP,

approximation

is

known as

transform.

z-l

z+l

E.13)

i.e.,

E.14)
From

E.13),

the expression

for

the

integrator

l/s

is

s
This

l-z\021 2
is

that the Tustin transform uses E.10) signifying in transform shown trapezoidalintegration. Fig. 5.25(c) maps the entire left of s in as onto the unit radius disk the shown in half-plane Fig. 5.25(a). z-plane In practical control systems /b<0.1/s for the reasons cited in the ends of Sections and at all frequencies belowfi, the design uses only a 5.10.6. Therefore, in Fig. 5.25(a). Within this small part of the first quadrant of the mapping part of the the transform is of Tustin accurate. At the Bode frequencies step, from quadrant, quite of the Tustin transform, still remains decreased, 2/b to 4/b, the accuracy although of the loop gain response over this accuracy implementation adequate since the required expression

the

same as
Tustin

The

5.10.1

frequency range

also decreases.

150

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

In fact, in application between to compensator design, there is not much difference the Laplace and Tustin The Tustin transform is and either one can be used. transforms, used most frequently. The Tustin transform at transform can be matched to the Laplace a specified frequency by pre-warping. of using The advantages are, pre-warping and the method will not discussedhere. be however, insignificant It is seen s and f<; are similarly from E.14) that z remains scaled up the same when or down; for example,when/s is expressed in krad/sec. in kHz, s must be expressed
For z-transform

the purpose of verifying can be used: function

the

equations,

the following

evident propertiesof
of z

the

\342\200\242 a transfer \342\200\242 a transfer \342\200\242

multiplying

of s for s = 0, is equal to the transfer function transform function of s for s = \302\273, is equal to the Tustin a function of s by a constant is equivalent to multiplying
mapping

for z = 1; of z for z = -1;

the

function

by the same constant; \342\200\242 the z-transform can be also found by s onto the z-plane, and then appropriately

the poles and zeros of the function the gain coefficient. scaling

of

Example 1. The

Tustin

transform

of the

lead

s + 10
with

sampling

Table 5.1 in
function

Section

s with expression 100 Hz can be found by substituting frequency for the 5.10.4 gives algebraic expressions the coefficients m =

E.13).
of the

of z.

Numerically,

210, a,

= 0.9762, ao

= -0.9286,

and bo =

-0.9048. The

function

ofzis

0.9762-0.9286/z

1.0 -0.9048/

z
same

Example2.The
n = [1

problem

is solved

with

MATLAB

by

d = [1 10];

5];

fs

100;

[nd,dd]
dd

= bilinear(n,d,fs)

% sampling

frequency

in Hz

nd = 0.9762
=

-0.9286
-0.9048
transform

1.0000

example

Example 3. The Tustin are verified in the For s = 0, the function

properties

for the numeric

Tustin
Tustin

values of the
is also
is also
With

previous

For s = o\302\260, the

following. of s is 0.5;

for z = 1,the

transform
transform

0.5.
1.
transform

function

of s

The zero of the function E.14), the zero and the pole

is 1; for z = -1, the of s is -5, and the

function

pole

is -10.

Tustin

of the

of

z are

found to be, respectively,

2A+s __JI
2fs-s

200-5 _
200+5

095122

Chapter 5. Compensator
\342\200\224

Design

151

2f-+s
2fs-s

200-10
200 +

10

= 0.904762.

Due to the finite accuracy of the the calculated values of the pole and calculations, the zero differ somewhat from the exact values. The errors caused by the calculation errors and by the fact that the Tustin transform is only an approximation to the Laplace do not matter much for the digital in the forward functions of the transform, path feedback loop. However,the error might not be acceptable for the links in the feedback or in the prefilter. In this is to use instead the command case, a good option path

feedforward.

5.10.3

Design sequence
the

Digital controlsystemscan
\342\200\242 Given

be designed as follows: feedback bandwidth required fb, the sampling frequency /s is chosen; > > and for better /s 10/b, commonly, performance, /s 50/b. \342\200\242 of the optimal response, a rational transfer function of the analog By approximation into second-order rational and broken appropriately compensator is determined functions (as described in Section 5.5). \342\200\242 For simulation and tuning in analog SIMULINK, or SPICE can form, MATLAB, be used. The sampling delay 7V2 is imitated by introducing in the loop an all-pass a pole at frequency /$/3. with by placing pair (s -fs)/(s +/s) \302\260r pole-zero \342\200\242 of z which correspond to the secondThe Tustin transform is used to find functions order functions of s. \342\200\242 The is simulated using a digital control software package (for example, system

or directly SIMULINK),
functions
the

in C

or

in

another

\342\200\242 The

of z

are coded in,

and

implementation the system is tested the loop

language.

or simulated
gain
and

on

a computer

(including
\342\200\242 The

nonlinearities).

stability

margins

are verified by
self-oscillation

increasing

loop

phase

lag up

to the moments when

5.10.4
The

starts.

Block diagrams,
of z

equations, and computer code specifiedby

have block first-order

functions

can be

code.

The block

diagrams for the

by equations, or diagrams, and the second-order functions and feedback paths.

r

by

computer are

shown

in Fig.

5.26. Theseblockdiagrams

forward

1/z

IT
Mz

KpV
1/z

a0

(a) Fig, 5.26

Block

(b)
for (a)

diagrams

the

first-order

link,

(b) the

second-order

link

152

Chapter

5. Compensator function

Design
block

Using Mason's rule,

-l
\342\200\224

the

transfer

for

the

diagram

(a) is

found

to be

2-r-

or

a'Z

a\302\260

E.15)

and for

the block diagram

(b),

a2+alz~X+aoz~2
\021

or

atz

E.16)

+boz~2

The coefficients ax,

the
transfer

b-,

can

be obtained
function

by substituting
of s

E.13)

into

the

expressions

for

functions

of s.

For the

P\\s +

Po
the coefficients
Table

which

is bilinear,

are given
for
ao

in Table

5.1, where m =
function

2/s + q0.

5.1

Coefficients

bilinear

of z

ax

b0

(Pi2/a + Pa)lm

(-PiZfs

+po)lm

(.Q0-2fs)/m

For the

biquad

of s

p2s2 + pxs
2

+ p0
are given

the

coefficients

for the

biquad

of z

in

Table

5.2. of z

Table 5.2

Coefficientsfor
a\\

biquad

Dfs2P2+2/sPi
bx

+ po)/n

(-8fslP2+2Po)/n

Ws2P2-2fsp1

+ p0)/n

bo

(-$fs2
As
calculated

+ 2qo)/n

Dfs2-2/s

<7i+\302\253\342\200\236)/\302\253

4/sZ+<7i2/s + <7o
function

abeady
the

from
by

den

the coefficients mentioned, rational function of s with function MATLAB

the

of

the

rational

given

numerator

of z can be num and denominator

[numd,
where digital

dend]

= bilinear(num, frequency. To
with

den, fs)
verify

f s filters

is the sampling can be found

first-order

the

transform,

frequency

responses of

the

MATLAB
the

command
following

f reqz.
C code

For the
with

link

ao,

a\\, b0 renamed
AO

in Fig. 5.26(a), AO,Al, BO: /*

**

equations can

be used,
**

y =
r

r;
BO

using
first
updating

previous
component
r

= x

r;

/*

value of r to find of the output */

*/

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design
**

153

y +=

Al

r;

/*
**

adding
the

second component to output using updated r

*/

E.17)

each cycle. The cycle starts with the new sample The variables are recalculated r that is stored in the previous value of the input. First the value of the variable cycle is used, then this variable is updated. The cycle repeats/stimes per second, controlled by are commonly initialized to zeros, and they must be either some loop. The variables static or global to keep the values stored to be used in the next cycle. For
y =
the AO

second-order * w

link,
Al

similarly,

the

following

code

can be

used:

rl
w

= x

- BO * r;

* w

r;

Bl

r;

/* using

/*
/* /*

previous values of r,w */

r
w

updating

*/
*/ to

= rl;

+= A2

/* adding component

updating updating

r */
the

E.18)

output

*/

5.10.5 Compensator designexample

link antenna tracking the Earth has been placed on identical brushless motors with internal analog rate the antenna in two orthogonal The motors are feedback loops articulate directions. identical SISO controllers. controlled by two independent is the The sampling 8 Hz. Were the delay caused only by the sampling, frequency \302\253 not would 1.6 Hz. since handle crossover the must However, be/s/5 frequency computer the motor control loops but also other higher priority tasks, there is an additional only 500 msec delay caused by four real time interrupt (RTI) delays,125 msec each. Also, due to limited of the analog rate controllers for the motors bandwidth (already designed), the motors have 50 msecdelay. Since the total delay is not only 62.5 msec (of sampling) but + 500 + 50 = 600msec,the realizable 62.5 to crossover frequency is lower in proportion
A

small

the

Mars

telecommunication parabolic Lander. Two Pathfinder

this delay,

i.e.,

=0.17 Hz. /b < 1.6x62.5/600

The

includes

and has been done initially in the ^-domain. The controller is nonlinear, design + 1 and of two cascaded linear links, A saturation link in front C\\ C2. C\\ placed the makes the transfer function of the compensator on the signal level. When dependent level is below the saturation is the compensator transfer function threshold, signal is high, the compensator the signal transfer function is reduced to C2. (Cj + 1)C2.When The of such nonlinear dynamic compensators (NDCs) will be further operation described in Chapters 10 and 13. For small-signal function is amplitudes, the compensator

C=(C,
where

+ 1)C2
a single-pole

C\\ is

low-pass filter,

d
and

= 2.5/@.0833 a lead
link,

C2 is

154

Chapter

5. Compensator responses

Design
compensators

The asymptotic

gain

frequency

of the

are shown

in

Fig.

5.27.

dB
dB

30

20

10
n v/

x1

\\
.

f,

log.

sc.

50 40 30 20
1A 1\\J f,

-10

0.01

o!i

iS/\"

log,

sc.

-20

-10

O01

\\X

'1

-30 Fig. 5.27

Bode

Asymptotic

diagrams

Fig.5.28 Open-loop

of compensators

diagrams for small error(upper and large error (lowercurve)

compensates

asymptotic

Bode
curve)

The lead
phase

C2 provides

phase advance
extra

and

partially

the following
and

lags: the

0.05 sec of

of robustness), rate analog loop. The path C\\ is parallel to the path with unity gain. At zero frequency, Ci becomes 30. The asymptotic case of in Fig. 5.28 for the loop gain frequency responses are shown both C\\ and Ct operational, and for the case of C\\ - 0 (lower curve).The Bode step is very for large time delay of up to 7 RTI, and to to compensate long because of the necessity
lag of up to
the

7 RTI (for

i.e., up to 1.875 sec delay,

the delay

closed

reduce or eliminate
system MATLAB. The
frequency obtain

the
with

overshoot.
these

The

phase delay
After

of

analog the

compensators sampling was

adjustments the

was simulated
imitated

in

SPICE

and

in
at

by

an extra

pole placed

/s/3. the

several small

to

the

initial

desired

stability margins,
digital

design

proceeded

response were to conversion into

made to
digital

compensation.

The
controller C, =
C2 The

following
functions

compensator
Tustin

equations

were

obtained

from

the

analog

with the

transform:

@.15 + 0.15/z)/(l - 0.99/z) - 0.8883/z)/(l - 0.75/z) @.9

coefficients

E.19)
been rounded
to

E.20)
the required

in the
be

secondexpression can
C2 =

equations have
as

accuracy. The

rewritten

- 0.75/z). 0.9A - 0.987)/(l The be of the coefficient 0.987 should accuracy from 1 at lower frequencieswhere z approaches

high since this value is subtracted of the low1. Thus, for the accuracy the difference than 0.5 to better 6% coefficient be (i.e., dB), frequency gain 1 - 0.987 = 0.013must to 6%, i.e., to 0.0008,so that the number 0.8883 in be accurate E.20) should not be further rounded. in Fig. 5.29 (a),(b). shown to the flowchart Equations E.17) and E.18) correspond
rather

Chapter5. Compensator

Design

155

0.9

1/z

0.75/0.9 a
(a)

0.8883/0.9

(b)
Flowcharts

Fig. 5.29

corresponding

to equations

E.19), E.20)

The
of the

simplified

diagram includesa saturation and C2; a scaling block that

plant

(of

the

in Fig. 5.30. The block diagram is shown higher-gain, low-frequency path; linear links Cj has saturation and a dead zone; a delay block; and a model motor with its analog control electronics). feedback

loop

block

link

in the

saturation

sat_out

-1000

0.15 + 0.15/z

+1000
mot_error

1-

0.9 - 0.8883/z
1 -

scaling,
saturation,

0.99/z

0.75/z

dead

zone

2.5/(s+0.0833)

(s+0.106)/(s+2.23)

Controller, 8 Hz
Plant

sampling

dur out

mot_des

model,

80Hz

235 + 235/2

mot_rate

sampling

1-0.68/z
1464*30/(s+30)

+=mot_rate/80

mbt_position

1/s, integrator
controller

Fig. 5.30
The C

Motor

flowchart

code for the

PARl

compensator

follows:

tdefine

.15

#define

PAR2

.99

#define
\302\246define \302\246define

PAR3

.9
,

PAR4
PAR5

.75

.987

#define
\302\246define

THRESHP

1000

THRESHN

-THRESHP
=

global
global global

double r
double double

global double e global double v

global

d =
=

0.0;

0.0;
0.0;

u =
=

0.0;
0.0;

double
=

sat_out
>
THRESHP)

= 0.0;
/* saturation

sat_out
if
sat_out

mot_error;

*/

(mot_error

= THRESHP;

if d =
r

(mot_error
PARl

<

THRESHN)

sat_OUt

= THRESHN;
*

r;
+\302\246 PAR2

= sat_out

* r;

/* compensatorCl */

156
d +=
PAR1

Chapter

5, Compensator

Design

r;

u = d +

mot_error;
* *

v =

v +=
sampling
30 msec

-PAR5

+
PAR3

PAR4 *
e;

e;

/*

lead

e;
duration motor

C2 */

The variable

is the dur_out of 125 msec. The period rise-time. The motor transfer
rotation

of time

that the

is rate-stabilized is therefore

motor is on during by an analog loop

the
with

function

angle of
by

the

limited

s is shown
For

time the motor is on) with proportional bandwidth of the analog rate loop. The motor (plant)
is

to the
block.

that of an integrator (the an extra pole caused transfer function of

in Fig.

5.30, under

the

computer simulations in C, a digital motor model was employed.The transfer function of z is shown in Fig. 5.30 in the block. The rectangular sample-and-hold was used for simplicity, and for better accuracy the sampling frequency for integrator the model was set to 80 Hz, 10 times than that of the compensator. The data in higher the motor model is updated 10 times after each update in the controller. This system shown in Fig. 5.30 is an example of a multirate system (although the controller itself is In different multivariable rates rates are faster controllers, used, single-rate). frequently for processing rapidly and lower for rates variables. variables, changing slowly varying 5.10.6
An

Aliasing and
converter
the

noise

a sample-and-hold (S/H) link, i.e., a device which this at its until value the time of the next sampling. signal samples keeps output An example of such a link is shown in Fig. 5.31. The switch the input signal by samples for a duration at the and holds short times. The the sampling closing capacitorcharges the value of the until next of the S/H The is processed sampled signal sampling. output to the and form by a D/A converter at the input then returned to the analog digitally is also digital). to the plant (when the actuator actuator, or directly
A/D

contains

and

noise

component

sampling

Fig. 5.31

Sample-and-hold
circuit

link

diagram

Fig. 5.32
and in

Aliasing

The

S/H

link is

a linear time-variable circuit,

of

as

such,

modulator.

Modulation

the

high-frequency

noise

the

produces frequency-difference frequency and its harmonics in Fig. 5.32. It is seen that on is illustrated This effect called aliasing signal bandwidth. to it is discrete at the basis of the information distinguish impossible sampled points, with between the low-frequency signal with / and the high-frequency signal frequency two important implications for the control design system here, frequency nf. From follow. of the high-frequency noise are addedto the baseband signal at the First, the effects of the A/D converter. output

works as an amplitude link by the sampling products that fall within the
S/H

Chapter5. Compensator
error

Design

157

Aliasing might introduce substantial the high-frequency by rejecting a high-order anti-aliasing noise, input filter is commonly installed low-pass at the sample-and-hold the to input
link

error

in the

A/D conversion.

To reduce this
->DSP

Antialiasing
filter

A/D

(or

A/D

systemsas shown
like

of converter) in Fig. 5.33.

DSP

Noise

In closed-loop feedback systems that shown in Fig. 5.34, the highnoise sensor noise N causes the output frequency The noise is reduced filter. the anti-aliasing by

Fig.

5.33
in the

Anti-aliasing functional

filter

Noat

frequency band.

Fig.

5.34

Control system

with

antialiasing

filter

The filter selectivity is limited loop gain and input-output by its the effect of the of the antialiasing the attenuation filter at extent, closed-loop response.To a certain an increase of the gain of the digital by higher frequencies can be equalized of a prefilter in compensator (thus making the loop gain as desired)and the introduction the command path to reduce the inputoutput

The sensor noise is transformed

frequencies

closed-loop

gain.

into

the close

baseband largely from the to /s and its harmonics.

attenuation

of

the

smallerbetween the optimal response of antialiasing filter is thereforenot

and
the

the Therefore, filter can be anti-aliasing these bands. The frequency

feedback
monotonic,

the loop
optimum

gain

response

which

is close to

looks

like

that
the

shown
is

in

Fig.

5.35.

Its feedback

bandwidth

wider

by 0.3 to 0.5 octaves than response shown by the dotted

monotonic

Fig. 5.35
for

Bodediagrams Open-loop
of aliasing

line.
the

rejection

noise

Second, due to
Nyquist

aliasing,

gain of
dc

the

digital

filter

frequency
the

is the

same as the

frequency

gain of the

digital

compensator

gain. Therefore, and a small loop

for a sinusoidal signal a combination of a large

in

with

low-

attenuation

the

analog
In

plant
these

near

situations, 5.10.7

Nyquist may result in large frequency the sampling frequency must be substantially

gain and oscillation.

increased.

Transfer
section,

function for the fundamental

we present

In this

yet another view on

the

effect

of digital

compensation on

the

158

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design
(LTV)

feedbackloop.A
be

shown

margins

linear is a digital compensator in Section 7.11, time-dependencies of and can make the systems oscillate.

linear time-variable
linear

link.
the

As

will

systems

can reduce

stability

input

output

fundamental

of output

Fig. Consider

5.36

Signal at the

output

of a

sample-and-hold

link

the case when the signal and output is sinusoidal. The input signals of the in Fig. 5.36. Let's define the with 12 samples per period are plotted gain coefficient in fundamentals as the ratio of the amplitude of the output signal of this fundamental to the amplitude of the input signal. It is seen that the magnitude
S/H

link

gain coefficient is approximately seen that the lag, as long as the

1, and

the

phase

sampling

frequency

It is clearly lag is approximately 15\302\260. is relatively high, is inversely

to the sampling proportional When the number of

case),

frequency.

samplesper signal
circuit the phase

period

is only

two (the
Fig.
and

Nyquist

frequency
the

the output is sin<j>, amplitude

of

the

S/H
<j> is

is II-shaped

where

in as shown shift between the sampling

5.37, and

output

the input

signal.

Fig. 5.37
As follows
from

Effect

of the

phase

difference between the signal the amplitude of

the phase
the

and

the sampling of the

the

Fourier

analysis,
= 90\302\260, then

fundamental

output is is 1,
0

When, in and the equivalent

or
the the 180\302\260,

particular, gain

<|>

lag is
gain

the 90\302\260,

output

amplitude
<|>

coefficient

is 4/tc,

i.e., the

is 2.1

dB. When

approaches

gain

coefficient of
<(>)

uncertainty

gradually

can be
sufficient In plot

seen by
margins Fig.

comparing

in the gain and phase (due to approaches 0. The uncertainty of the as increases with the decrease sampling frequency, must be made stable with Figs. 5.36 and 5.37. The system
<|>.

for all possible

shown

5.38 are

the

stability
plane in this

on the

effect

logarithmic Nyquist of introducing an S/H link

of a

boundary and an example of a Nyquist well-designed LTI system. Considernext frequency. loop at the Nyquist
margin

the

Chapter
Oscillation usually

5. Compensator

Design

159

in

control and
is

periodical,

at the
plant

plant

output

systems, if it happens, is the shape of the oscillation close to sinusoidal due to the

/.-plane
-270\"

LTI

loop

filter be properties (this will further in Chapter 11). Because of the relations between the phase and amplitude illustrated in Fig. 5.37, and because of the extra 2.1 dB of gain on the fundamental, the gain of the LTI must be below the loop at the Nyquist frequency curves with maximum -v*:-2.1dB boundary centered at -270\302\260 and -90\302\260, to rule out an
low-pass discussed

-9O>

Nyquist frequency

Fig.

5.38

oscillation
with

at

this

frequency

with
resulting

any

possible

<|>,

boundary

Stability margin and the loop

function

jedB

margin.

The

penalty

in

the
on

transfer

uncertainty

available feedback is, typically, not if the Nyquist other hand, frequency
the part
which 90\302\260,

large.
should

On the
fall

at Nyquist

frequency
would
and

of the
why

Nyquist

diagram

which
the

is phase
slope

stabilized,

the

penalty

be up to
feedback.

would
the

require

reducing
frequency

of the

Bode diagram
high.

the

This is
5.11

sampling

must be kept sufficiently

Command

profiling
time-profile

The actuator force (or torque)

and
the

is often

required

not

to

include

sharp peaks,
position

settling

time

is required to

be as short

as possible.

In these

cases, the
through

or

out, either by passing it angle step-command needs to be smoothed Bessel prefilter or by replacingit with a smooth time-function. The smooth rising of the command from 0 to q over the time - n/2) + l]/2. - 2{tlxf], or with q[sin(nt/x expressedwith q[3(t/xJ

a high-order

interval

[0,t] can

be

Example1.Assume
ezplot('2*C*(x/0.5)'v2
A

= 2,

x = 0.5. MATLAB plots - 2*(x/0.5)A3)',[0

with

the first

function

with

0.5])

smooth

digital

command

sampling frequency /s
wheren

can be expressed

with

function

(A/n)(l

+ z~l/+ z'1 +... +

z~{n~l)?

= xfS-

5.12

Problems
The

crossover

frequencies

frequency below the

constant-slope Bode
(approximately) (d) 20 Hz, (e)
peak

is 100 Hz. The system must 30\302\260. The crossover with margin
diagram

be

phase-stabilized

loop 10

at gain approximates

all

in

the

can the

feedback be
by

increasedat

Chebyshev
(a)

sense.

2.72 Hz, if,

using
15

a higher-order
to
2\302\260?

compensator, the phase

much By how Hz, (b) 1 Hz, (c) 0.5 Hz,

peak-to-

ripples

are reduced

from

a real zero, an asymptotic Bode diagram was made By addition of a real pole and from 10 Hz to 30 Hz. What are the steeper by 6dB/oct over the frequency interval or pole and the zero frequencies?Will the new Bode diagram be more concave if the more convex? What happens to the diagram pole and zero are interchanged?
Draw

an
gain

asymptotic
coefficient

Bode diagram
10 at

for

the

function
co, i.e.,

(a)
0.5,

co = 0; zeros(in

having: in rad/sec)

1, 3, 6, and

poles

(in

co)

4, 8;

160
(b) gain

Chapter 5. Compensator
10 dB at co= 2, zeros(in co) 10 at f = <*>, zeros
f=200,

Design

2,5,5,

and poles

(in

co) 1,

3,20;
poles

(c)

gain

coefficient

(in Hz)

15, 30,

400, and

(in Hz)

60,100, 0, 10,

200; (d) gain 20 dB at

zeros

1600.

(in Hz)
cm.

100, 200, 1000,and

poles
from

(in Hz)

1oct/1 Use scales: 10dB/1cm,

0.1 = 0 dB two
responses

Find

using the
octaves

rule

for

the

error: 3

the Bode diagrams dB at pole, 1dB one octave

asymptotic from

the

pole,

from the

pole.
function:

4 Use MATLAB to make Bode plots for the (a) T(s) = 100/[s(s+ 15)(s+100)]; + 100)(s + 500)]; (b) T[s) = 1000/[s(s (c) T{s) = 5000/[s(s + 200)(s + 6000)]; + 100)(s + 1000)]. (d) T[s)= 200/[s2(s
5
Find

slope (b) slope

(a)

function approximation of the constant slope 6 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 Hz; 9 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 Hz; 1 to 10 Hz; (c) slope 12 dB/oct, frequency range (d) slope 15dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 Hz; (e) slope 27 dB/oct, range 1 to 10 rad/sec; frequency 9 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 rad/sec; (f) slope range 1 to 10 rad/sec; (g)slope dB/oct, frequency 12 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 rad/sec; (h) slope 18 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 rad/sec. (i) slope 6 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 rad/sec. (j) slope
a rational

function:

12

Draw

(a)(s + 2)/(s+15);

asymptotic
+

Bode + 0.2);

diagrams

and make the plots with

MATLAB

for the

leads:

(b)(s
(e)(s
(f)

0.1)/(s

(d)(s + 2)/(s+

(c)(s+0.5)/(s

+ 2.5);
4).

+ 2.72)/(s +

21);
MATLAB

Draw

asymptotic

Bode diagrams and make the plots with

for the

lags:

(b)(s + 1)/(s

(c)(s +

5)/(s 7)/(s

(d)(s + 8)/(s + 4);

+ 2.5); + 2.72);

(e)(s +

(f) (s+16)/(s

(g)(s +
8 The
feedback

+ 2);
+ 4).
stability

8)/(S

phase
peaking 5.10)?
with

margin

is excessive

by

10\302\260 over

one

decade.

Find

the

lost

at lower frequencies.
must Find the

If

the

be 8dB,
polynomial

what

is

the

Fig.

corresponding

damping coefficient C, (use to the peaking frequency

the

300 Hz.

plots

in

10

Plot

MATLAB
with

the
the function

complex poles, (e) 0.99.

normalized low-pass frequency response with a pair of coefficient: (a) 0.0125; (b) 0.125; (c) 0.25;(d) 0.5; damping
ip2ip

Use the

MATLAB

to convert the

transfer

function

to that having

the

Chapter 5. Compensator
resonance

Design

161

frequency 5 Hz.

11

Plot with MATLAB the normalized band-pass frequency response with a pair of coefficient: (a) 0.01; (b) 0.1; (c) 0.2; (d) 0.4; complex poles, with the damping the low-pass transfer function (e) 0.99 (obtain the response by multiplying by s). Use the MATLAB to convert the transfer to that having the function function Ip21p

resonance frequency 50 Hz.

12

with the normalized high-pass frequency response with a pair of Plot MATLAB coefficient: complex poles, with the damping (a) 0.02; (b) 0.2; (c) 0.3; (d) 0.5; the low-pass transfer function (e) 0.99 (obtain the response by dividing by s2). to that function Use the MATLAB ip2 lp to convert the obtained response having the resonance frequency 15 Hz. a series of 5 notches Plot at (a) 1 rad/sec; (b) 10 compensator
with

13

the

notch

rad/sec; (c)10Hz;
function

amplitude
(d) 1 kHz;
links:

6 dB and various width, (e) 2.72 kHz.

centered

14 Breakthe
(a)

into cascaded

+ 20)(s+ 6000)]; 2)(s + 1000)/[s(s + 20)(s + 600)]. (b) 100(s + 0.1 )(s + 8)(s + 200)/[s(s (c) 5000(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 1000)/[s(s + 20)(s + 6000)]; (d) 100(s + 0.1)(s+ 8)(s + 200)/[s(s + 20)(s + 600)]. (e) 5000(s+ 1 )(s + 2)(s + 1000)/[s(s + 20)(s + 6000)]; + 20)(s + 600)]. + 0.1 )(s + 8)(s + 200)/[s(s (f) 100(s
5000(s

+ 1 )(s +

15 The

of the plant is Ms, and the n.p. lag of the plant is 1 rad at m.p. component 2 kHz. The amplitude stability margin must be 10 dB. The asymptotic slope must be the level at 2 kHz. The the -10dB -18dB/oct, asymptote crossing loopmust have a Bode step and -10dB/oct constant slope down to 100 Hz. Design an analog
of compensatorcomposed

cascaded

links.

16

Using the same

plant

and

of compensatorcomposed

parallel

requirements links.

as

in

Problem

15,

design

an analog

17 The feedback bandwidth must be steep response

by the effect of the sensor noise.The loop gain the slope ft, and to provide the stability right margin, of the loop gain must be only -6 dB/octfor two octaves below ft. fln(ft) = 1 rad. Design the compensator for the following plant and feedback bandwidth: + 300)(s+1000)]; ft = 3 kHz; (aI/[s(s + + ft = 300 Hz; (b) 10^/[s (s 100)]; ft = 30 Hz. (c) 10^/Is (s + 3)(s + 10)];
is limited after

30)(s

18

Verify

that

equations digital
into on

E.7) follow from compensator

second-order

the

diagram

in Fig.

5.22.
C

19

high-order
function

was implemented
links.
It

transfer
simulation

was

different

processors

or
simulation

using

different showed

while double-precision results, was modified by properly DSP

multipliers,
computers.

breaking
sufficient

the
to

became single-precision have Explain why this might

function of z into second-order obtain the same results on

without breaking the that a single-precision different compilers gave slightly the nearly identical results. After
in

found

all

happened.
in s,

20 The

poles of an analogcompensator,

are:

(a) -3,

-6, -8;

162
(b)-12,-60,-80;

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

(c)-13,-16,-85;
With

of the function of z using the poles fe = 50 Hz, find frequency MATLAB bilinear. (Hint: Each pole can be and/or command E.14) the function bilinear to the function 1/(s applying
sampling
Find

(d)-10,-600,-1500.

formula
found

by

21

the

Tustin

(a)C(s) =

transforms

from:

(b)C(s)=

=3(s (d)C(s) 22

(e) C(s) = 15(s+ 8)/[(s (f) C(s) = 2(s + 3)/s.

For

7)/(s

+ 20), + 100)s],

fe = 10 Hz, convert to C(s) from: sampling frequency /(z) = @.2174 + 2174/z)/A (b) /(z) = @.1200 + 0.1200/z)/A = /(z) A.33 0.4444/z)/A For fe = 100 Hz, convert to C[s) from: sampling frequency (d) t($ = @.22 + 22/z)/A

(a)

(c)

- 0.7391/r), 0.600/z), - 0.1111/z).

0.600/z),

(e)t($ =0.272 0.272/z)/A

+

- 0.74/z), -

(f) /(z) = A.1Design

23

for the analog plant P(s) = 50000(s + 200)/(s + 300), at frequencies below % approximately loop Bode diagram -10dB/oct. and the Assume h = 10 kHz, the aliasing noise is of critical importance, 10 dB and 30\302\260. Consider: and are, phase stability gain margins respectively, and asymptotic 4=1 kHz, a Bode step, monotonic response, (a) a version with slope-12dB/oct; with a notch at fe as in Fig. 5.35. ft, = 1.4 kHz, I Bode step, and (b) a version
a digital

compensator

with

the

slope

of the

24

Write

a program

in C

for

fi[z)

(a),(b),(c)

from

Problem 22.

25 Consider Example

2 in Section 5.6. Remove the Bode step. In the function T(s), and move the two remove the step-forming complex poles and zeros, real poles from co = 2 to the right until the guard-point phase stability margin becomes 30\302\260. will be the loop gain Where will these poles be? What at co = 10? Are the technical satisfied? specifications of the system with and (b) SIMULINK. P/D

26 Make simulations
with

controller

shown

in

Fig.

5.19

in Section

5.8

(a)

MATLAB

27

is being with retroreflectors scanning interferometer, a carriage a 5.39 to the of the via cable as shown in change lengths by Fig. is 20 cm, the position must be accurate optical paths. The carriage position range 0.1 mm, within mode with the within and the velocity, 3%. The lowest structural frequency in the 100 to 150 Hz range results from the cable flexibility.
In a

spacecraft

moved

a motor

Chapter 5. Compensator Design

optical

163

beam 1

optical beam 2

motor

cable

drum

Fig. 5.39
In the block the compensator

Retroreflector carriage
5.40(a),

diagram

in

Fig.

the prefilter, the

feedback

summer,

and

are

digital.

digital

signals,
analog

100 Hz sampling

signals

(a)

100 Hz sampling

digital signals,
< j_

digital 500_Hz

signals, sampling

analog

signals

(b)

Fig. 5.40
The

Block

diagrams

of the
limited

carriage
100 Hz

control

options

since the calculations are with several other tasks. connected directly to the motor shaft, so the sensor The position is control is collocated.(A more accurate position sensor, a laser interferometer, the science of the carriage data. This for taking used to measure the exact position and is not shown in the pictures.) sensor is not used for closed-loop position control is of the motor driver. The sensor output The D/A converter is placed at the input is 6 bandwidth limited to in Problem 4 in the control As discussed 4, Chapter digital.
sampling
by
performed

the

flight computer on a is A6-bit encoder)

frequency

is

to

time-sharing

basis

Hz.

Estimate

and this
D/A

accuracy (a) in sampling rate;

prefilter,

the control and the available feedback bandwidth compare case and (b) when: the sensor data is read with a rather high are placed in the command converters and sensor paths; the

the

command
circuitry

summer,
sufficient?

and the compensator

are analog. Is the

limitations

accuracy

of the

Draw block diagrams. Consider the advantages and modes of the controller implementation.

analog

of these

two

164

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

Answers to
6 (a)

selected

problems

The

diagram

is shown

in Fig.

5.41.
sc

dB

0
1

f,

log

-10 -20

Fig.5.41 14
(a)

Asymptotic

Bode

diagrams
1000)/(s

for the

lead (s + 2)/(s+ 15)

5000(s

+ 1)/s;

(s + 2)/(s + 20);(s +
must is

+ 6000) n.p. lag is 1 rad. and 4/2.8 = 0.7 kHz,

From

15 The
the

frequencyfc
Bode

step
or o)b
that

ratio

be 2 kHz 2.8 (i.e., in Figs.

0.35 kHz,
with

= 2.2 Bode

krad/sec. The required

since at this frequency 1.5 oct). Thus, & =

ideal

loop

is similar to
a

shown

wider

approximates

the general

step. The asymptotic diagram shape of the ideal Bodediagram.

5.15(a), 5.16

(Example

response shown in 1 in Section 5.6) however shown by the solid line

A = /d/2 = Fig. 5.42

E.2),

50

-10dB/oct
\302\246so

40

30

20 10 0
2.2k

10' o

10\" Frequency (rad/sec)

10

10*

tq

log.

scale

j? -90

-10 -20

138 275 550 1.1k

8.8k 1.76k

|-180
L -270

\\

-18

dB/oct

10\" Frequency (rad/sec)

10'

Fig.

5.42

Ideal and asymptotic

Fig. 5.43

Bode diagrams,

co

in krad/sec

Bode diagrams
The expression
= 10
in

Example

1 for

the return

ratio,

.s+
s +

0.4

+ s +1.65 _s2+2As

T(s)

0.1 (s + 2J

+ 9

needs

to be modified:
must

(a) It
express

be

co in

scaled to change a*, krad/sec and cob becomes

ratio

from

1 to

2.2.

2200. To avoid large numbers, be replaced For the scaling, s should

we

by

s/2.2. The

return

becomes

Chapter

5. Compensator
s2 +
T\342\200\2242

Design

165

r,(*)
(b)

s+
io s +

0.88

2.22

3.52s + 19.4
43.6

2.2
s

0.22

(s + 4.4)

+ s +5.28^

from 1.5 to 2.8, and must be increased Bode step frequency ratio be shifted the poles at the end of the Bode step must up 2.8/1.5 = 1.9times. Also, the two poles at 4.4 must be somewhat increased, say, to 5.5 (this is already shown in Fig. 5.40). The return ratio becomes
The
correspondingly,

T,

(s)

= 10

s +
s +

0.88
0.22

2.22 xE5/4.4J
(s + 5.5J ;;

~x

s2 + 3.5s +19.4 1.922.2

s2+10.7s+ 157 1
diagram
in

\302\246

be seen that the corners in the (It can the real poles and zeros of Tz(s).) Or,

asymptotic

Fig.

5.40

correspond

to

= 601
MATLAB

(s + 0.88)(s2+3 + 55J s(s + 0.22)(s

conv

5s +

19.4)

(s2 +10.7
multiply

s +157)
the

function

is used to

polynomials

in the numerator:

a = [601];

ab
and
in

[1

conv(a,b);

0.88]; num =

c = [1

3.5 19.4];

conv(ab,c) g =

the

denominator:

d = [1

de
The

0];

e = [1 0.22];
def

[1

5.5];

= =

den

conv(d,e); conv(deff,g)

= conv(de,f);

deff

= conv(def,f);

[1 10.7 157];

resulting

return

ratio

is

601s3
2

+ 2632s2

+13510* + 10260
5200.4s2

s6

+ 21.9s5

+ 309.7/
for

+ + 2117.8s3

+ 1044.8s

Bode diagram (-1, l. 6), to desired. Notice that the

The
logspace

function is plotted in with w = Fig. 5.42 the gain axis. The diagram is close to the axis is erroneously labeled in rad/sec since we frequency the bode command. The axis must be labeled in krad/sec. used, for simplicity, The loopphaseresponse in Fig. 5.42 does not yet include the n.p. lag. The lag can be modeled as described in Section add this 4.11, or instead, we can just is linearly phase lag (which proportional to the frequency) to the phase response in If we do this, we will see that the system is stable with the desired Fig. 5.42. stability
this
properly

scale

margins.

The compensatortransfer
T2 (s) -111 =

function

is
19.4)

6oi

+ 3.5s+ (s 1 + O.88)(s2 ?_\342\200\224_

(s + 0.22)(s+ 55)
cascaded

P(s)

(s

E.22)

10.7s

+ 157)

and can

be presented as three
(s +

links:

0.88)
5-

(s + 0.22)(s+ 55J

C2(s)

(s

5.5)

166

Chapter
+ 2\342\200\224

5. Compensator

Design

C3(s) =
In

3.5s

+ 19.4
\342\200\242

$ these

+ 10.7s

+ 1570
in

functions 16

expressions of s in rad/sec

$ is

krad/sec.

To

convert

(if desired),

s should
are

the compensator be replacedby s/1000.

functions

to

Three solutions

(among many
with the

possible)

given below.
Section

A)
for

We

might

start

compensator from
and

5.7 having

two parallel paths:

Ci = 4/(s2+ 4s)
the

Ck =

5/(s? + 2.4s +

16)

plant

1/s,

with

the

loop

response
9s

T(s) =
shown

C2(s)

+29.6j

+ 64 + 64s2 to widen the Bode step. This and increasing Ck 1.5 times.

s5 +6 As4

+ 25.6s3 be

can

in Fig. 5.19(b). This response must be done by reducing C\\ approximately

ratio

modified 1.2 times,

The return

becomes

3.3

75

\\\\

10.8/+

37.9s+

52.8

s2+4s
This

s2 + 2As
plotted

+16

)s

s5+6.4/+25.6s3

+ 64s2

response

with MATLABcommands
=

n = [10.8
w

37.9 52.8]; d
step

[1

6.4

25.6

64 0 0]

;\342\200\242

logspace(-l,1);
in Fig.

bode{n,d,w) is
shown

5.44. The

length

looks

about
50

right.

\342\200\224

-^

\"\342\200\224-. ~\342\200\224-^_

10
Frequency (rad/sec]

^.

-50 10\" Frequency (rad/sac)

\\ \\

\\

10'

10\302\260 Frequency (rad\302\2738ec)

10\" Frequency (Tad/sec)

Fig.

5.44

Bode step adjustments

Fig. 5.45
into

Loop

Bode

diagrams

Now,

a lead
With

must

be

introduced

to reduce

the slope at lower

frequencies.

the

lead,
+

3.3(s 0.3)
l)

15 s2 +2As

Ss1 +4s)(j +
With:

+ \\6)s

nl

= conv<3.3,[

1 0.3]);

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design

167

during

iterations,

adjust

the the

dl
%

(try
=

also
conv([l

zero 0.75, pole 4 0], [11]);

1.5)

zero

dld2
d
% % w

d2 = [1 2.4
=

during

iterations,

16];
0])
equal are

adjust

pole

conv(dl,d2);

n = conv(nl,d2)
vectors

= conv(dld2,[1
have

+ convG.5,dl)

both polynomials = logspace(-1,1);

since length cubic

bode(n,d,w)

T2(s) is converted to the

=

ratio

of polynomials

1O.8*3 +46Als2
sb

+ 85.18s+15.84 + 86.9j

T2

(s)

6s1= + 7.4s5

+ 32s

+ 64*
shape is acceptable.The crossover now only to scale the response for s to s@.95/2200) = s/2316.
to

The plot is shown and in Fig. 5.45. Its plotted. on the plot is 0.95 rad/sec. It remains frequency the crossover frequency to be at 2200 by changing

B)
function

We

will

use

the already

obtained

solution

Problem

9. The

compensator

T2(s)

= 601
(s +

(j +

0.88)(j2+3.5*+

19.4)
E.24)

P(s)

0.22)(s + 5.5)

5\342\200\224r + 10.7

(s2

j +

157)

or

T2(s) = -HI
P(s)

; \"l s5 + 21.9s + 309.7s3

-3 +

+ 601s3

2632s2

+ 13510s
5 2117.8*

+10260 E.25)
+ 5200.4^+1044.8

should be
transfer

decomposed into
represents

a sum

of transfer
all

function

a link, and

the

links

functions of lower order. Each such are connected in parallel. There

might be several options for such decomposition. into the sum of partial fractions The function can be decomposed

T2(s)
P(s)

rt \342\200\224

ii r2ls

+ rn

r3ls + r32

s +

0.22

(s + 55)

s2 +

10.7s

+ 157

s The numerator of the fraction with a single pole can be found by assigning the resulting equation for the residue. the value of the pole and solving During this can be neglected. Generally, the side exercise, all other fractions in the right-hand of the fractions (including those with multiple poles) coefficientsin the numerators can be found by adding the fractions in E.26) which results in a ratio of polynomials that result from comparing the in s, and solving a system of linear equations in E.25). of s at specific powersto those numerator coefficients of partial into a sum can be decomposed With MATLAB, the function E.26) and calculation method is ill-conditioned fractions as follows requires high (the accuracy in the initial data): num

den = [1 21.9 [Res,Pol,K]

= [601

2632 13510
309.7
=

10260];

2117.8

5200.4

1044.8];

residue(num,

den)

168
Res

Chapter 5. Compensator Design

=

Pol
*

K = []

1.0e+002
0.1598

-0.1684- 4.44101
-0.1684

0.1598 + 0.2042i

0.2042i

-5.3460
-5.4940

-5.3460 -11.3430i
+

+11.3430i
0.13961

0.0172 -

+ 4.4410i
O.OOOOi

-5.4940
-0.2200

- 0.1396i a pair
of complex

real poles -5.5, Due to rounding errors, instead of the double poles appears, with small imaginary parts. The compensator transfer T2(s)
P(s)

function

is

1.72
5+

0.22

- ;444.1 + - jO.l s + 5.494 396

-16.84

-16.84+ /444.1
5

+ 5.494

+ J0.1396

15.98 s2

;20.42
fractions

15.98;20.42
+

+ 5.346

- j\\1.343 s2 +
of the

'

5.346

+ ;11.343

The product of two a + jb

s-(c

type

\342\200\224

jb

+ jd)
of two

s-(c-jd)
(first-order to second-order) with
as real

is a ratio

polynomials

coefficients.

The

polynomials can
nuim_prod
den_prod
When

be found
=

follows:

= [2*a <-2*(a*c [1 (-2*c) (c*c

+ b*d)) + d*d)]

d is

the result of calculation

approximately,

inaccuracy (for

the

double

real poles) and

can be

then, neglected,

num_prod

= [2*a
this
we

denjirod
After

= [1 (-2*c)

(-2*a*c)]

(c*c)]
small
the
imaginary

making
that

double poles function

and neglecting the conversion, know must be real, we obtain

parts

compensator

of the transfer

T2(s)
P{s)

1.72 \342\200\242 2.029s-11.48

+

+ z\342\200\224

32j+634
+ 157

i + 0.22
solution

E+

55J

s2 +10.75

C)

In

the

to Problem
E+

function 9, the compensator

=m
P(s)

0.88)E2

+355 + 19.4)
+ 10.75+157)

(j+0.22)E+5.5JE2 product

can be

presented as the 601

5+55

of two

fractions,

T2(s)=
P(s)
With:

+ 19.4) E+0.88)E2+3.55

E+0.22)E+55)E2+10.75+157)

num

dl

= conv([l conv([l

0.88],[
0.22],

1 3.5
[1 5.5]);

19.4])

den = conv(dl, [1

10.7 157])

Chapter

5. Compensator

Design polynomials

169

the second

fraction

is converted

to the

ratio

of two

s3 + 4.38j2 + 22.48s+17.072
s4 With

+ 16.42s3 MATLAB,
follows

+ 219.414s2
the
(more

+910.987s+189.97
are used

E.29)
a calculation

function
digits

fractions as
conditioned

E.29) can
errors):

here since the

be decomposed into

sum of partial method is ill-

and

sensitive

to

rounding

num

den
Res

= [1
=

4.38 22.48
16.42

17.072];

[1

[Res,Pol,K]
=

= residue(num, den)
Pol

219.414

910.987

189.97];
K =

0.3889
0.2072

0.3889- 0.2973i
complex

+ 0.29731

-5.3500 +11.3304i
-5.5000

[]

-5.3500 -11.3304i
-0.2200

0.0151

The sum of the two

a +

pole

fractions

of the

type

jb

a- jb

jd)s-(c-]d)
is

a ratio

of two

polynomials

with

real

coefficients

which can

be found

as

follows:

prod_num = [2*a (-2*(a*c + = [1 (-2*c) (c*c + prod_den

Finally,

a = 0.3889;

b = 0.2973;

-5.35;
b*d))]

d = 11.3304;

d*d)]
0.7778*

the

compensator

transfer
f

function is
0.2072

T2(s) _

601 s+
5.5

0.0151

- 25758

P(s)

U +

0.22

* + 5.5

s2 +

]
preceded

10.7s

+ 157 J
links

which is the function of the parallel connection of + 5.5). by the link 601/(s There are many of the compensator's options be better suited for implementing multiwindow might
in

three

or followed

implementation. Some of them nonlinear controllers described

Chapter

13. and

24

(a)
The

Using

E.15) C code is:

E.17),

ifa = A6.67z+ 10)(z-1.667).

y=10*r;

r=x+

1.667

r;

+= 16.67

* r;

Chapter 6
I

ANALOGCONTROLLER
This

IMPLEMENTATION

chapter

analog

are most often analog electrical signals, it is convenient command summers and the compensatorsanalog. circuits are considered: a amplifier Operational
differentiator,

explores a variety electrical compensators.

of

issues

Since the sensors'

concerning

design and
outputs

implementation

of

and

the

actuators'

and economical to
summer,

make the

inputs

leads
compensator,

and
and RC

lags

in

inversion

and

noninversion

an and a integrator configurations, a constant

including

slope
controlled

compensators active

with

complex
in
is

poles,
in

computer

Basic types
compensators
described,

analog

compensators.
of

filters

that

are examined. and the use of the

with reviewed,

circuits are
discussed.

RC circuit design ftC-impedancechart

of a
and

are employed
the
explained.
tunable

feedback

system
domain

element
compensator

value
Switched

is

capacitor
briefly

an

example

band-pass

design.

Implementations
The

of dead

zone, saturation,

amplitude-window

circuits are

issues of analogcompensators breadboarding are TID, introduced, compensators, PID and with one variable parameter. compensators Methodsof loop gain and phase measurements are outlined. This is the last one in the introductory control course. chapter
most important

are surveyed.

Tunable

and

also

tunable

6.1

Active RC circuits
Operational

6.1.1
Industrial
actuators
electrical

amplifier

sensors
rule,

of electrical,
electrical

mechanical,hydraulic,
signals.
the

thermal, the

and input

other signals

produce, as a
are

output
Further,

Most

frequently,

variables for the

also

electrical.

commands

are

commonly

generated as
can be
block

signals.
the

subtracts
compensator,

In many cases, these signals are analog, and the feedback summer fed back signal from the In such cases, the command. analog analog prefilter,

command
implemented
operational

economically easily for these circuitsis the

and

feedback feedforward, and with active RC circuits.The

path
main

links
building
the

amplifier.
100

The dc gain of range, the amplifier

the

an op-ampis typically
gain

to 120dB.
coefficient

Following

flat-response

drops

linearly

with a

unity
unity

gain
gain tc/2

bandwidth
bandwidth

the

closeto

up to

f7, as shown from the frequency fj. With

can be
feedback

gain very close tofy/fap until of op-amp, in Fig. 6.1. Depending on the type 100kHz to 1 GHz. The amplifier phase lag is

a feedback
than

circuit added,
at all

the

system
the

is stable
loop

if

the phase lag of the is more than unity.

Op-amps

path

is less

tc/2

frequencies where
the

gain

are used
therefore

with

large

feedback
in

to make
anticipation

available gain
reduction.

must

be high,

of

stable in time. gain the feedback-induced

with

The
gain

For 500

example, at 10 kHz,

required to be 50 at

10 kHz,

if the gain then the

which

coefficient

of an

op-amp

feedback

of

10 is

op-amp gain
at 5

coefficient

with

no feedback

needs to

be at

least

puts/T

MHz.

170

Chapter6. Analog
dB

Controller

Implementation

171

\302\246\302\246\302\246\"'\302\246\302\246\302\246 r

.-6dB/oct
i \302\246 \302\246 /j log. i *

sc.

Fig. 6.1

Op-ampgain
inverting

frequency

response

Fig. 6.2 Inverting inverting summer

with the

amplifier

and

(dotted lines)
is shown in and Z% is the

The
Fig.

configuration
Z\\

of the

an op-amp signal

feedback amplifier

circuitry input,

6.2.

Two-pole

connects

source to

feedback

path impedance.
bandwidth
input

the feedback is large, the error where across the voltage small compared with the input voltage U\\ and the output voltage currents. l]%. Therefore, U\\ \342\200\224 I\\Z\\ and Ui = hUx, where I\\ and 1% are the input and output current of the op-amp itself is negligible, It follows that Next, since the input /2 = -l\\. the transfer function of the inverting is amplifier

Over the

op-amp

is

very

K=
The

-Zl.
input

F.1)
impedance

of the

inverting

amplifier

is Zx since at
that

the op-amp
node

input

the

voltage

is the
that and

The amplifier can be used as a unity gain inverter (when Z\\ as is shown sources, amplifier combining signals from different lines, so that the output signal is - (U\\IZ\\ + UJZm + UJZ^Zq. by the dotted Typically, \\Z\\\\ and I2y are chosen from 5 lcfl to 2 Mii. The impedance Za should not in the impedance and the consumed be too small or elsethe current power will be too not be too large since it reduces the big. The impedance Z\\, on the other hand, should noise whose mean square voltage input and increases the thermal signal at the amplifier is at room formula, temperature, according to the Johnson-Nyquist

feedback loop error,

the ground.

i.e.,

it is very

small, so

this

potential

is very

close to
= Zq)

of

as

a summer

here, R is the resistance connection of the input

faced

by the

input

port

of

the amplifier;

it

is

the

parallel

and feedback

resistances.

6.1.2 Integrator
An the

and differentiator
function

inverting schematic
for

diagrams

integrator with transfer diagram in Fig. 6.2 the integrator are shown
a wide

-l/(RiC2s) be

results Z\\ =Ri,

are chosen to
in Fig.

when the impedances in Zi= V(sC2). The Bode

closed-loop

6.3. The

slope of the

gain

is

-6 dB/octover

frequency

range.

172

Chapter6. Analog
dB

Controller

Implementation

OA

gain

,open-loop Input-output

gain

gain,

Fig. When

6.3

Integrator
gain

gain

responses is being

Fig. 6.4

Differentiator

gain

responses

connectedto

the right end of the two-pole Z2 must be the open-loop gain is the product of the op-amp + Z2). and the coefficient of the voltage divider R\\/(Ri gain coefficient of the feedback The loop gain is small at very low frequencies where the impedance well does not at these the integrator perform capacitor is very large. Therefore, the time is the is accurate when That not long. is, integrator integration very frequencies. the gain coefficient about the feedback At medium and higher loop is frequencies,
the open-loop
the

calculated,

ground.

Therefore,

f Ri+Z2

It is large
higher

and frequencies,

nearly

J?i

constant over the frequency dominant in becomes

with
90\302\260 phase

the

range where denominator

R\\

<

IZ2I =l/(coC2).

At
gain

and

the loop 2^ = R* in Fig. 6.4.

decreases

as a
inverting

single

integrator,

stability

margin.
with

An

differentiator

can

openexternal

and

closed-loop

responses

be implemented for the differentiator

Zi are

= \\l{<aC\\), shown

The The

with filter which, for the differentiator is a low-pass together some in the feedback loop. To provide the op-amp itself, produces a double integrator C can be introduced in the feedback loop in phase stability margin, a lead compensator in Fig. 6.5. at lower to reduce the gain front of the op-amp frequencies, as shown is much of the differentiator It is seen in Fig. 6.4 that the effective bandwidth but not This is one of the reasons smaller than that of the integrator. why integrators
feedback

circuit

differentiators

are usually

employed

in

analog

computers.

Fig. 6.5 6.1.3

Differentiator

schematic

diagram

Noninverting
unity

configuration
shown in Fig.

The

gain

amplifier

6.6(a), or

the

voltage

follower

described

Chapter 6. briefly
in in

Analog

Controller

Implementation path

173

Section

1.3,

The schematic
Fig.

diagram

Fig. 1.5, has the feedback of a more general noninverting

path

transmission
amplifier

configuration
+

6.6(b).

The feedback
function

transfer

function

is B

= Z]/(Zi

coefficient B-\\. is shown the feedback Z2);

amplifier transfer Z,

is MB,

i.e.,

F-2)

(a)
Fig.

(b) non-inverting

6.6

Follower (a) and

amplifier

(b)

in both the inverting and The fed back signal amplifier non-inverting configurations this feedback loop stabilizesthe output is proportional to the output Therefore, voltage. disturbances and of i.e., makes the output voltage nearly independent of various voltage, in Fig. 6.6 is the output impedance of the circuits the load impedance variations. Hence, is large. low over the range where the feedback

6.1.4
The
and with

and Op-amp dynamic range,noise,

packaging

dynamic
from the

is limited from above by the output voltage swing, range of the op-amp and drift. The input noise is typically comparable the noise by input to several kilo-ohms thermal noise of a resistor of several hundred ohms below
series R\\ in

connectedin
amp input,
keep
feedback like

to the

input. Therefore, external

and

Figs. 6.2

6.6(b),

do increase
the

resistancesin series with the opthe device noise.It is desirable to

immediately

these

resistances

small, especially in

op-amp

following
in

the

summer.

The input

voltage dc offset
the

to lmV

range, with
op-amp

thermal

internal (the parasitic dc bias) is typically to 10 uV/\302\260C drift in the 1 nV/\302\260C range.

the

lOnV

While

circuits are
the

tested, neither
will input,

of

the

input pins
initial

should

be

left

open or

else the voltageon

high thus

open

pin

depend this

on the charge

impedance producing

of the

op-amp

will
by

extremely remain for an unpredictable time,

charge.

Due

to the

confusion

for the
the

experimenter
desired
current

altering

the

readings

in

an

often

irreproducable

fashion.
larger

The choiceof/x depends on

the higher/T is, the
current must

be the

gain and the power in the transistors

power

consumption.

As a rule,
the

and consequently,

dc

consumed

in one case. The standard Op-amps come packaged as single, double, or quad in for 6.7. The the double and the are shown Fig. pinout is the same for the pinouts quad dual in line package (there also exist much (DIP) and surface mount (SM) package smaller

by the op-amp from

the

supply.

SM packages).

174
+VCC

Chapter 6. Analog 8 n nnn5

1

Controller

Implementation

16nnnnnnn
1uuuuuuunft
T

+VCC

\342\200\242mj|^jyy|L

uuuu

SM,

same

plnout

-vcc
Fig. 6.7

DIP

-vcc

5.0mF, 100V

TOP VIEW
OA,

DIP and

Typical doble and quad SM packages

Fig. 6.8
of mylar

Typical

size

capacitors
compensator.

One quad op-amp is sufficient for it of consumes an order Typically,

magnitude

all the
magnitude an

needs of
less

a typical
power,

analog

occupies

an order
than

of

space, magnitude digital microcontroller. an Breadboarding and testing such an analog controller takes,typically, order of magnitude less time than a with controller. so digital doing The values of the RC constants correspond to the poles and the zeros of the transfer can be large and the capacitors functions. For low-speed processes, these time constants

smaller

and

costs

order

of

less

becomebulky.
The

higher

are, however,
requirements

limited.

the resistances are, The resistance

thermal

the

smaller

the
with

capacitors
the

in series
noise

op-amp

can be. The resistances input is limited by the

and

resistance several
zero

of keeping the is limited by stray

below

certain level,

the

feedback
not

capacitances.

size

megohms. Thus, for example,i? = at a frequency of /= l/BnRQ \302\253 0.16 Hz. The capacitance must in time, like be stable of mylar capacitors is shown in Fig. 6.8.

Typically, resistor values should 2MQ and C = 0.5 \\i? can produce
that

exceed

a pole

or a

of

mylar

capacitors.

The

typical

6.1.5
With transfer

Transfer functions
the

with

multiple
in

poles
Fig.

and zeros
6.6

feedback
functions

amplifiers
can be
lag

shown realized with

lead

where

Z\\

and

Zi
in

are RC 6.9(a)

two-poles,
and (b),

multiple

real poles

and zeros.
Fig.

Non-inverting

and

compensators

are

shown

respectively.

(a)

(b)
lead (b)
implementation,

Fig.6.9
Inverting

Lag

(a) and

non-inverting

compensator

further
chapter.)

in

and (b). An inverting in Fig. 6.10(a) lead compensators are shown lag will be discussed in Fig. 6.10(c). shown (Design of these compensators to Problems 7, 8, and 9 at the end of the Sections 6.2.1, 6.2.2, and in solutions is

Chapter

6. Analog Controller
R2

Implementation

175

R3

R2

-VW-rAAAr

.Ri ^

BS

(a)

(b)

(c)
implementation,

Fig. 6.10
Fig. 6.11 approximation

Lead (a) and

the

(b),

and

lag (c)
of

inverting

shows

implementation

E.2) shifted to

cover the

band

from
R8

function transfer 1 to lOOHz.

555.2

s~m

which

uses

C8 C7 C6 C5 C4

500

R7

563.9

123.7

R6 R5 R4

423.3

51.44
23.7

308.13

185.0

13.1

R3 R2
R1

39.43
599.0

C3
fi in kQ

9.87

54.53

CinnF

Fig. 6.11

Implementation

of transfer

function s~1/3over the

T-circuit
compensation
output

band

from

1 to

100 Hz

implement
signal

Fig. 6.12(a) shows the bridged complex zeros. The mutual

of the
notch

employed

of

upper

path

B]

with

the phase-delayed

in front of an op-amp to the phase-advanced output of the path B2 produces signal

a broad

on the

Bode diagram.
dB

V ?

\\
f,

log. sc.

(a)

(b) of (a) the

(c)

Fig. 6.12
The

Implementation

complex
feedback

zeros, and (b) and

(c)complex

poles

allows path shown in Fig. 6.12(b) for the the The amplifier using responses pair. gain feedback path Bu feedback path B2, and both, are shown in Fig. 6.12(c). feedback of a complex-pole paths is also shown pair using parallel Implementation for the 100 kV, of the compensator in Fig. 6.13. (This circuit has been used as a part a klystron for 1.6 MW precision power supply B% transmitter.) The feedback path at higher frequencies. At the dominates at lower frequencies. The path B\\ dominates bridged
in

T-circuit

implementation of a complex

pole

crossing

so that

the

signals frequency, the output total feedback path has a

of the

feedback

paths

have

pair of complex

conjugate

nearly opposite zeros. As the result,

phase
the

176

Chapter

6.

Analog

Controller

Implementation

transfer function a complex factor closed-loop possesses Q pole pair. The quality in phase shift between the two paths. The difference can be depends on the difference series or parallel resistorsto the capacitors. adjusted by adding

._A/vvJ_ps.

Fig. 6.13 6.1.6

Fig.
with

with Compensator

parallel

feedback

paths

Active RC filters
6.14
the

transfer

shows the schematic for function

co:

a unity-gain

Sallen-Key

second-order

low-pass

filter

K(s) = +Q

,2

l( 1

F.3)

where
and

g =

co0(/?,+/?2)C2
This required

F.4)
of low-2

filter to
co0

is well-suited make
and

to

the in

implementation the

Bode

steps

frequency
elements
equations.

the damping

in examples coefficient C, - 1/B0

values

can be
For

chosen, and
example,

for
the

complex poles like those Sections 5.6 and 5.7. The pole are prescribed. Two of the circuit the remaining two can be found from the
resistor

when

values

are

initially

chosen,

C2 = l/tfflo^!

+ R2)Q], and

C, = l/(co02C2J?,/?2).

Fig. 6.14

Sallen-Key low-passfilter
feedback
to

Fig.

6.15

Multiple feedback

low-pass filter
A

multiple
sensitivity

second-order
parameter

low-pass

filter,

reduced
function

component

variations.

in Fig. 6.15, has shown It implements the transfer

-1

F.5)

The low-frequency gain coefficient Ho is limited by the prescribed Q. Particularly, Ho must be chosen lessthan 100 when Q ? 1, and less than 10 when Q approaches10. of this filter become inconvenient when Q exceeds 10.) For this values element (The three calculated from values can be chosen and the remaining filter, two of the element

Chapter 6. Analog
the
following

Controller

Implementation

177

equations:

Table 6.1
F.6)

Chebyshev1 kHz 1
2

low-pass

filter

p-p ripple,

dB
F.7)
Ry=R2,

k?2

8.13 7.55

6.17
100

3.01

R2R3C

R3,kQ.

12.8 12.8
47

12.3
1.305

Cj.nF

68

12.6 220

K
QVc2

C2,nF
F.8)

4.7

4.7

4.7

4.7

0.956

1.129

1.493

/o

1.05

0.907 0.841

0.803

Table

6.1

with Ho
all

= -1

and

resistances

the elements' values for the Chebyshev second-order low-pass filter cut-off frequency. The filter the same when remains response are increased and all capacitances reduced by the same factor.The corner
gives
1 kHz

the product and Q, by of the capacitances, changing by can be changed by changing capacitances. The gain coefficient then adjusting the ratio of the capacitances to preserve the desired R\\ and Q and changing both capacitances by some coefficient to preserve <ti0. The shown in Fig. 6.16(a) is often filter. This is an circuit called a state-variable of a summer with resistors and two consisting computer adjustment analog gain to that shown in Fig. 5.22. The block diagram is similar The circuit can integrators. linear differential mimic second-order bandequations describing low-pass,high-pass, filters. This circuit enables reliable implementation of poles bandpass, and band-rejection and zeros with of using band-pass compensators with stateQ up to 100. (An example filters will be given in Section variable 6.4.2.) frequency

can be
ratio

changed

changing

the

of the

High-pass

output

- .

r*

Low-pass output

>/Wv
(a)
Fig.

'>

Bandpass

output
(b)

6,16

(a) State-variable

filter,

(b) twin-T

notch

as ICs, with only four resistors to be addedto are available all in which frequency, Q, and the gain. There also exist IC filters resistors are built in and are programmable or controlledfrom a computer port. These circuits combine the best of the analog and the digital worlds: they are easily and with sampling. do not introduce the delay associated they reprogrammed, element values for for and Programs calculating plotting responses frequency and filters available are from feedback, Sallen-Key, multiple state-space many manufacturers Semiconductor). (e.g., Burr-Brown, Harris, MAXIM, National + 2?co0 +co02) can be implemented with the twin-T A notch (s2 + (ao2)/(s2 bridge

The state-variable filters

cut-off

set

the

178
shown
allow

Chapter 6. Analog
in Fig.
the

Controller

Implementation co0=

6.16(b). The
of co0and
allows

resonance

frequency

1/(RQ.
damping

adjustment

of

the damping

of

the

numerator

potentiometer

the adjustment

of

the

denominator

The variable resistors (which must be 0). The coefficient C, over the
different
to

range

0.01

to 0.16.
cascaded and

Example 1. Two frequencies, 1% under

structural

notches 1%

over

= 0.1 and slightly the resonance, can be used

with ?
the

resonance a plant resonance the

reject

resonance
while

by at
introducing

least 40
only

dB over
5\302\260 lag

range

\302\2611.4% of

the
two

nominal
octaves

frequency,
resonance.

at

the frequency

below

6.1.7 Nonlinear links

A

saturation

link when

can be

implemented with

arrangement
resistance

uses Zener

threshold

shown
on

diodes:4.3V
the shown

other

Zener.
in Fig.

small differential the voltage across the diode exceeds the threshold. The 5 V saturation in the figure results from the sum of the voltage drops across the open the Zener with inverse around V on the open diode of and 0.7 polarity, The resulting saturation with the response, gain coefficient of -2, is
the

diodes in

an op-amp as shown in feedback path that have

Fig.

6.17(a).

This

6.17(c).

zone output
(a)

* output
\342\200\2425

\302\246> ^

VCC-

output

V.

input

v\\
-VCC(c)

input

(d)
Saturation

Fig. 6.17
and

link
link

a dead

zone

(b)

(a) and its characteristic (c), and its characteristic (d)

link with its the input of a saturation by summing an the of such a and circuit, implementation output. Fig. 6.17(b) The is in dotted line indicates transmission shown signal resulting response Fig. 6.17(d). via the upper path, and the dashed line, via the lower path. The resulting characteristic is at the VCC level. By using different includes saturation not a pure dead zone-it thresholds and Zeners, characteristics with different dead zones and saturation resistors link

The deadzone

can be

formed
shows

inverted

Chapter can be

6. Analog Controller

Implementation

179

obtained.
it

Sometimes
windows

is

desirable

to direct signals
further

that

have

amplitudes
the

within
circuits

specified
shown
with

to

separate

outputs for
for
the

processing.

To

an extent

in

Fig. 6.17(b) do just that, which directs windows depending

amplitude

two
input

windows.
signal

a circuit Fig. 6.18(a) exemplifies

into
is

three

on

the

signal

amplitude.

The

windows,

whose block diagram

three outputs for further processing, circuit to combine signals via different shown in Fig. 6.18(b), can be designed in

similar

way.

Signal

amplitudes

IVtoVCC
Dead

zone 1

Dead zone Signal amplitudes

saturation

0.05,
1

0.05 to
Signal

1V

Saturation,

0.05

. amplitudes

below 0.05V

(a)

(b)
Three-window

Fig. 6.18

(a)

splitter

and (b)

combiner

Nonlinear dynamic links can be designed by combining nonlinear and linear links. and For example,rate can be limited by placing a saturation link in front of an integrator in Fig. 6.19. a tracking feedback loop with sufficient gain coefficient k as shown closing in the command path the plant from being included to prevent Rate limiters are often and also to reduce the overshoot in the control system velocity, damagedby excessive links will be given dynamic responseto large commands. Further examples of nonlinear
in

Chapters

11 and

13.

input

foutput

time (c)

VvV

Fig. 6.19

Rate limiting
(c)

follower,

(a) block

diagram, (b) schematicdiagram,

input

ramp

output following step

180

Chapter

6. Analog Controller

Implementation

6.2

Design
Cauer

and
and

iterations
Foster

in the element value domain

6.2.1

RC two-poles

RC two-poles are widely used as components of analog compensators.Not every function can be implemented as an impedance of an RC two-pole but only one whose poles and zeros are real, these polesand zeros alternating along the real axis of the and the closest to the origin constitutes a part of R. Foster's s-plane, being a pole (this
theorem function

that can

considers RC, RL, and generally be implemented in either of the Foster

LC

Any /?C-impedance two-poles). forms shown in Fig. 6.20. canonical

The parallel branch form

renders smallertotal

capacitance.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6.20

forms Foster canonical

Fig. 6.21
also states
that and

Cauer (ladder)
of f?C

canonical

of RC

two-pole
theorem
the zeros;

forms

two-pole

(Notice
system

that

Foster's

purely imaginary poles Chapters 4 and 7.) in any of the ladder can be implemented Also, any /?C-impedance function coefficients of a in Fig. 6.21. The element values are the (W. Cauer's) forms shown chain fraction of the impedance function. expansion in Figs. 6.9, and Cauer two-poles are employed in analog The Foster compensators
has control

alternating in discussed

of a lossless (LC) impedance this is the basis of collocated

6.10,6.11 and
Example

many

others.

the second,
an

op-amp

the first a series connections of R\\ and 1. Two parallelbranches, Cu and in the feedback of a seriesconnections of 1?2 and Ci, are often placed path The Bode the to form a compensator steeper. loop diagram making

frequencies

asymptotic

of the two zeros value of the impedance a>a=

cozi

and

co^,

of the

pole eopi, and

following

the equations:

high-frequency

are expressed

by the

V(R2C2),

from

which

the

element

values can

be easilyfound.

can for the Foster form in Fig. 6.20(a) the capacitances and resistances In general, The be calculated by expanding l/[sZ(s)]into a sum of elementary first-order functions. branch with known elements in each frequency response of this two-pole impedance found can be first the In with SPICE. be found can MATLAB, by response R,Ci easily = = and then and the residues -l/(/?iCj), using r-, l//?j poles p-, calculating
r

= [rl
den]

r2

.. ri

[num,

= residue(r,p);

..];

[pi

p2

.. pi

..];

bode(num,den)

Chapter 6. Analog
Example 2. Impedance

Controller

Implementation

181

1,000,000El00)(s Z(s) = + can

+ 2000)

s(s+500)
and
the

be

alternate, Foster

implemented and the form

as an RC-cixcmt since the poles lowest among them is a pole. We find

the zeros
elements'

are real,
values

they the

for

in Fig.

6.21(a) by expanding the num(s)

function

Y(s)

0.000001s1+0.0005
2100s1

sZ(s)

den(s) s2 +
components

+ 200,000
fraction

into the sum of two

of the

partial

expansion

den(s)
The

- pi

s-

\302\246+ ... p2

MATLAB

code

num

[r, p]

[0.000001
=

0.0005];
den)

den = [1 2100 200000];

residue(num,

calculates

and the poles: -2000, -100. the residues: 0.7895xl0\026, 0.2105X10\026, in the fraction of Y(s)/s a term Next, by comparing partial expansion of a resistor and of a connection a admittance series capacitor

with

the

s/R we identify
Rx

R = = 1.266

\\lr and MQ, C,

C = -rip. Therefore, = 390pF, R2

laboratory,

the

resistors

and the

capacitors are:

= 4.75

M?2, C2 =

2.1 nF.

While

working be of

in the
and

element values R
forms

C, rather

it is often more convenient to think in terms of the than in terms of poles and zeros. In this case, Cauer

can

use.
circuit

Example 3. Considerthe

shown

in Fig.

6.22(a).

(a)

(b)
of (a)

Fig.6.22 Example
We use
in

an RC

two-pole and (b) of its

C\\.

impedance is

modulus dominant

response at lower

this

example

C2\302\253

The

capacitance

C\\

182
frequencies

Chapter6. Analog
where
f\\ its

Controller

Implementation

impedance

X\\ =

l/BnfC)

is much
R\\ =

higher

than

R\\. Starting

at
the

frequency
higher

where

X\\ reduces

frequencies,

starting

Ru the resistor with /2, where X2

small C2becomes

below

becomes

dominant. equals
and

At even
becomes

l/B7t/2C2)
enough
X2

R1+R2,

impedance

of the

small capacitor
the

to shunt
=

R\\

dominant.

Beyond
the

frequency/3

where

the impedance can be

1/Bjc/3C2)
small,

equals R2,

capacitances'

impedances
= RJi^iRx

viewed as negligibly
identify

approximately and the total

impedance becomesRi#R2 From this

analysis

+ R2).
it is

it is

seen

that

easy to

the

elements

which need to

be

adjusted. increased at
needs

Example4. If
specific

the

total

impedance

of the circuit

in

Fig.

frequencies,

it is

/?i needs

done: at lower frequencies,Ci needs to be reduced; to be increased;over the interval I/2/3]. C2 needs to be reduced; at higher in R2 needs to be increased.In this way the loop response can be adjusted frequencies, the laboratory. The same method is convenient to use for loop adjustments with SPICE
to be

easy to see from

the

plot

needs to be in Fig. 6.22(b) what over the interval [fi/J,

6.22(a)

simulation.

When
form.

the

final

version

of the

reduce the values of the

With

design is being implemented,

and to

capacitors

convert

the

Cauer start

form with

some

experience,

it is

also possible to

be desirable to into the parallel Foster and make the iterations

it might

using

the Foster

form.

6.2.2.J?C-impedance chart
A and

chart

capacitors

for calculating the corner frequencies and is shown in Fig. 6.23. Using the

for chart

the determining is especially

laboratory

environment

where
and 10%, design).

the

accuracy

of calculation

need

not

be

values of resistors convenient in the high, the number

desk.

of iterations is substantial, accuracy is approximately (at least, for preliminary

answered.

the

computer might be on a i.e., 1 dB, which is sufficient this chart,

many

far-away

The

chart design

for

compensator

With

design

questions

can be

instantly

what

1. If the source impedance Example will place is the series capacitance that

kfl is 100

and

the load

resistance is
total at

400 kfl,
contour 20 Hz,

resistance

is 500 kfl,
15 nF.

the

capacitance

must

the pole at 20 Hz? - Since the have 500 kfl reactive impedance

i.e.,

it

is

Example 2. If the
shunting capacitance at the the capacitance

source

impedance
the

is 20
pole

kfl,

the

load

impedance

is 20

kfl,

and

the

is 1 (xF, where is
pole

frequency
the

equals
pole

of reactiveimpedance the parallel resistanceof the source and the

frequency?

- The

load

which

is

10 kfl.

Therefore,
it

frequency

is at

the

crossing

of the 1 |XF

line

and the

10 kfl

line, i.e.,

is 16

Hz.

Consider next the 3. For Example

capacitor

design
the

of the
lead
the

that

200 Hz? -

is shunting

7nF.What

resistance

inverting compensators depictedin Fig. 6.10. of the in Fig. 6.10(a), what is the capacitance zero to be at 100 kfl resistor i?3, for the compensator with this capacitor to make needs to be placed in series
link

a poleat

1 kHz?

- 20 kfl.

Chapter

6. Analog

Controller

Implementation
1kHz

183
10k

.1

1Hz

10

100

100k

10MQ

1Mfl

100k

10

.01

.1

1Hz
lag

10

100

1kHz

10k

100k

Fig. 6.23

ROimpedance frequency responses

in Fig.

4.For the Example

that

link

6.10(c), what
R2,

is the

capacitance

of

the

capacitor

Hz?- 7
of

is shunting
nF.

the

100

kfl

feedback

resistor
makes

for

the compensator

What

is the

resistance /?3that
link

a zero at 1 kHz?

- 20 kfl.
and

pole to be at

200

Example

5. For
shunting

the lead
capacitor

in Fig.

6.10(b),

the

is

the

parallel

the resistance at the connection of R$

connection

point

R4.

When

of the capacitor for the is the R3 = R4 = 200 kfl, it is 100 kfl. What capacitance for the resistance to be at What is the zero to 200 Hz? 7 nF. be at R2 pole compensator the same transconductance of the feedback 1kHz? This resistor must provide path at the is 5 times smaller than at the pole frequency, which this frequency as the T-branch is 5). Therefore, zero of the pole to the at dc (since the ratio transconductance In
of the compensators design in Fig. 6.10 is left as an exercise.

this

way,

is done

in

no

time.

Design

of

the

compensators

6.3
A

Analog
multiplying

compensator,
D/A

analog or digitallycontrolled
is an
it is
attenuator

converter

with

a digitally-controlled

coefficient. Using the converter, compensator via a computer

arid

command.

possible to change the parameters This method combines the best

the

frequency response can be modified

multiplying

analog

worlds:
converter

the compensator is
by

analog, without
Fig. 6.24
for

digital

attenuation analog of the digital delay, yet its

of an

software.
attenuator)

D/A

(i.e., controllable

shows the application of a the coefficients P changing

184
and /
in

Chapter

6. Analog

Controller

Implementation

implementation

with compensator of second-order

are

converters that

controlled

transfer function P + Ils. There exist ICs for transfer functions with built-in D/A multiplying from an external parallel bus.

Multiplying

D/A

Decoder, latch

<*).

Decoder,latch
Multiplying D/A

Multiplier

Fig. 6.24

Analog

compensator,

Fig. 6.25 Gain regulation

with

digitally

controlled
can

a multiplier

control

Analog of an

multipliers

analog

signal,

be used to as shown in

change the
Fig.

gain

coefficient

of a

link

under

the

6.25

and Fig.

1.19.

6.4 Switched-capacitor filters

6.4.1
Since

Switched-capacitor

circuits

the size of capacitorsin analog is limited by economy to considerations, circuitry the resistors must be big. However, when achieve the required large time constants, RC circuits are implemented as silicon active ICs, large resistors tend to occupy can be replaced by a circuit that substantial real As an alternative, estate. the resistor a small transfers the charge in small discrete steps. The resistor is imitated by charging it into the load using ah electronic capacitor C,/s times per second, and then discharging transfer switch. This method of charge (charge pump) is equivalent to a resistance R = l/(/sO. with transfer function 6.26 shows a integrator Fig. switched-capacitor

fsCAsC2).
dB

}U,

at 4,

at 4,

0
f,

log. sc.

Fig. 6.26

Switched-capacitor
integrator

Fig.

6.27

Change
with

in

the

frequency sampling

changing

response frequency

use switched-capacitor integrators, summers, Switched-capacitor active RC circuits is varied, all poles and zeros of the the and amplifiers. When frequency switching the frequency will transfer function response of by the same factor. Therefore, change scale without the switched-capacitor circuit will shift on the logarithmic frequency filter easy in Fig. 6.27. This makes the switched-capacitor changing its shape, as shown to tune. Bessel and filters, and switchedr Switched-capacitor Chebyshev, Butterworth,

Chapter

6. Analog

Controller
an

Implementation

185

capacitor

biquads
the

ground or to
6.4.2
As

VCC

programmable from of some of the IC

external

parallel

bus or

by

connection

to

pins,

are available

from severalmanufacturers.

Example

of compensator

design

an example of the application of switched-capacitor circuits in control compensators, we consider a 3-input, control of a 3-output system for rejecting the vibrations a camera's focal sensors. The sensors are cooled cold by spacecraft plane finger to a cryogenic cooleras shown in Fig. 6.28. The connected thermally and mechanically cooler's vibration is counteracted by three piezoelement actuators placed orthogonally the cooler and its armature. This disturbance rejection feedback between is a system with zero kind of homing command. system,

Fig. 6.28

Control

loops
for

for vibration suppression a camera focal plane

of a

cooler cryogenic

The modes'

by the flexible modes of the cooler armature. 300 Hz, although their exact values remain frequencies kept The unknown. modes' can be low so that the on the Bode damping quite peaks diagram can be up to 40 dB high. As can be calculated, if the feedback is as system implemented a low-pass system, the feedback of 100 cannot be implemented over a bandwidth wider
is

The feedback bandwidth

limited

are

over

than

5 Hz.

The frequency

controlledby Therefore,in 60Hz range,

Due to
only

is between operation computer in accordance with order to effectively reject the disturbances the system should be the band-pass type.
the

of

cooler

50

and

60 Hz.

The frequency

is

a spacecraft

the

of the cooler. temperature with frequencies in the 50 to

the

system

parameter

variations,

the reliable
motor
with

3 Hz

system

while the frequency needs to be designed

Thus,

of

the

cooler

as

adaptive,

adjustable.
without

the

substantial

diagram should be slightly variations of its shape-which

Bode
the

of the feedback bandwidth is varies by 10 Hz. Therefore, the the feedback frequency response shifted along the frequency axis

can be

easily

implemented

by
the and

changing the sampling frequency for The three-axis sensor arrangement

actuators. implemented

switched-capacitor is

shifted
constant

circuit. With the matrix, experiments show that coupling from the ith piezoelement to thejth sensor is less by an order of magnitude than the coupling from the ith piezoelement to the ith sensor. the three loops can be considered Therefore,
fairly

decoupling as an analog

matrix

with

compensator. from the arrangement for by 90\302\260 coefficients was calculated

independent.

186 The loop Fig. 6.29(a). slopes at the

Chapter 6. Analog

Controller

Implementation

Bode diagrams for each of The response is a band-pass crossover frequencies.

the

three
version

channels are identical, of a PID controller,

and with

shown shallow

in

dB

f,

log.

sc.

Y (a)
Fig.
(b)

6.29

Compensator
the

frequency response
compensator

(a) and

block

diagram

(b)
is

The block bandpass dominate

with

diagram for
with

is shown
is a

in Fig.
shifts

6.29(b). Here, Wx
with

filter

quality

factor
have the

Two cascaded Fig. 6.29(a).

shallower
At

high-Qfilters
in

30, and W2 steep roll-off

bandpass with phase

filter

quality

factor

3.

of \302\261180\302\260. These

filters seen

at frequencies
the

functional

band (approximately
low-g and

2 Hz

wide)

higher

and the

lower frequencies,the
diagram

channel
which

in is dominant
as provides

slopes
the

of the

Bode

smaller

phase shift

the

desired

Each
10 kHz,

stability margin.
of

second-order

bandpass
filter

second-order

switched
the

capacitor
from

IC.

was controlled
range

the

flight

filters was implemented using a bandpass The of sampling frequency, nominally to vary the central frequency, as computer

required, within

of 50 to

60 Hz.

6.5 Miscellaneoushardware issues

6.5.1
Practical

Ground

performedby

and can be of analog compensators is simple and forgiving, a special background in electrical Still, some engineering. assorted hints and warnings are worth noting, as in the following. and noise, signal interference may result from improper Signal distortion, of a ground wire or a ground plane (a grounded of a The resistance grounding. layer is commonly very small, and for circuit is board) multilayer printed simplicity in most cases, but not is acceptable commonly considered to be zero. This assumption in all cases. Consider, for example,a power the schematic for the circuitry with supply shown in The a two6.30. includes a down-transformer, diagram Fig. diagram power
implementation
people

without

way

diode

rectifier,

a Fl-type through

RC low-passfilter
filter

to

smooth

the ripple

of

the

output

voltage,
The

and
ac

a voltage stabilizer IC.

current

the

capacitors

the

first

capacitor.
winding

The

currents

flowing

via

transformer
several

create

voltage

drops

is relatively large, especially through tab of the the ground plane to the central are of on the ground that plane typically

|XV and
ground,

can even reach

first,

several

mV.

To reduce
should

the

voltage

variations
the

on the

analog

the transformer

tap wire

be

placed

close to

capacitors,

Chapter and
point

6. Analog Controller
and
Any

Implementation

187

second,
as
the

the rectifier
in Fig.
currents
ac

ground

shown

6.30.

extra
the

the analog ground should between connection

analog

be

connected
grounds

in a
would

single
create

the

paths for

to flow via

ground

and to

produce voltagedrops.

VCC

Rectifier

ground

Fig. 6.30

Ground

for

voltage

regulator

Fig. 6.31

Grounding

for A/D

converter

In systems employing controllers, commonly, the actuator and the plant of a digital control loop are analog, The and the sensor in most cases is also analog. digital part of the with A/D sensor. The currents in the starts an converter the following digital loop than the lowest several orders of magnitude part of an A/D converterare typically larger should be made for the digital Therefore, analog signal to be measured. provisions currents not to interfere with the analog input signal. In particular, attention needs to be paid to maintaining ground configuration. proper over The digital currents should be prevented from flowing the analog ground and there of the analog ground would have producing voltage drops, otherwise different points the analog and digital different potentials. This is achievedby connecting at grounds
one point only.
within

Since commonly
converter,

the
point

analog
must

and digital
be the

grounds

are

already
the

connected
grounds

an

A/D

this
flows

only one connecting

VCC

as taken

shown

in Fig.

6.31.
also

The ac current
to avoid
between

via the

parasitic coupling between the

the

power supply
grounds. lines

The

line, and care should low impedance ac

be

connection

grounds

via power
power

supply

capacitors
shown

from
digital by

the

lines

should
it

must be eliminated. To do this, the blocking be connected to the proper ground points as

in Fig.

6.31.
part

In
to the
from

the ground

of the circuit, placed

the

is commonly
the

capacitors

close to
analog

the power
IC

supply line. In
line.

part

placed
the

in the power supply or else at higher

The

frequencies,

capacitors the impedance

imperfect

connect the VCC line large pulsed current are usually of the circuit, low-pass filters of the filters should be placed close to
IC

that

sufficient to consume

of

the

wires

might

introduce

parasitic feedback and coupling due to

6.5.2

ground.

Signal transmission
systems, long

In some control
connected
electromagnetic
transmitter with

the

cables.

interference.
output

sensors are far away from the controller and need to be The resulting communication link is subject to noise and of the asymmetrical transmission Fig. 6.32(a) shows signal
an

voltage
ground

Vt to
potential

asymmetrical

receiver

return
transmitter

wire. The
ground

at the input
various

to

the

potential

because of

ac

as the using common ground differs by Vs from the and dc currents from different receiver

188

Chapter flowing

6. Analog Controller

Implementation

sources
the

received

signal

through Vr =

the imperfect (non-zeroimpedance) Vt-V$ is corrupted with the ground

ground

wire.

As a result,

noise

Vg.

forward

wire

return wire

return

wire/ground\"

(a)

(b)
Parasitic

Fig. 6.32
To

feedback

due to

common

ground

avoid

separate shown

errors caused by imperfect ground, is only connected to return wire which in Fig. 6.32(b). Precision amplifiers

instrumentation
better A

amplifiers. They
complete ICs.

are

amplifiers are used with a transmitter output as ground are called with differential inputs of three op-amps or, composed commonly
differential
the

at the

to the

amplifier with the gain coefficient of 2 can be built according for an schematic diagram in Fig. 6.33. The amplifier is an acceptable replacement half of does not exceed instrumentation amplifier when the common signal component the case. the VCC (so it will not saturate the amplifiers) which is commonly

yet,

as purchased differential simple

2{V'-V)

10k

10k Fig.

*10k\"

6.33

Differential amplifier
sources small

Electromagnetic
the signal wires

interference from various could contaminate relatively

the

in an analog
long
by

industrial

environment
in

into

signals
wires.

the

control
the

loop,
pair

especially when wires reduces

links

the

difference

are connected with rather in the voltages induced

Twisting

of

external

magnetic

fields in each
the

of

the

wires,

and

these voltages

due to

their

opposite

polarity

cancel

each other at

input

to the
As

shown

interference

differential receiver. in Fig. 6.34(a), bifilar series at higher frequencies where it

signal,

coils
is

rather

are employed for easy to make

since

suppression of the
the

coil

with

high

inductive impedance. For the flows

through

the coil
in

impedance is small
directions
the

the signal

current

For

the

suppressing

coil windings affecting interfering signal the interference.

the

two

opposite

producing
coil

only one wire,

no magnetic field. is high, thus impedance

Chapter 6. Analog

Controller

Implementation

189

(a)
(b) balun transformers to

(b)
(a) bifilar coil

Fig. 6.34

Using

to reject high-frequency
and

interference

and

reject low-frequency

medium-frequency
while

interference
using
used

receivers,

To reduce interference at lower and medium transformers balanced-to-unbalanced

frequencies dc,
this

(baluns) can
method

be

as

asymmetrical shown

in for

Fig. 6.34(b).

Since transformers
containing

do

not

convey

is only
feedback

suitable for
systems

signals

not

dc

components

(like sensor

signals in

vibration suppression).

6.5.3
The
Some

Stability

and feedback

testing in an

issues

internal

op-amp is maximum when

are

the

op-amp

op-amps

frequencies

in this and when

in

configuration

only

marginally
thus

capacitances
Fig.

the

feedback

the wires are long loop. Placing a

stability

introducing the

resistor in
margins.

is used as a follower. stable, especially at higher and inductances stray feedback in path as shown

6.35 commonly

provides sufficient

i
Fig. 6.35
Using in

a feedback the

resistor

Fig. 6.36
with

Reducing

the

effect

of cables

follower

on an op-amp feedbackloop
long

Amplifiers

are

often connected
input

the

Since

the cables'
and

impedances

shunt

rest of the equipment with the feedback for the op-amp,

make

cables.

the

cable

capacitance
instability the

the

resonances

in the
addition

cable can
of

the

op-amp

unstable.
and

The
input

can

be eliminated as shown The

by the
the

series

resistors
be resistor

at

the

input

output of
the

amplifier

in Fig.
into

6.36. The resistancescannot

circuit,

resistor
output An tuned,

introduces
impedance. oscilloscope or

noise

and the

output

too large increases

1 to

since

the amplifier

resistances

should

are commonly chosenfrom be connected to the breadboard

an oscilloscope,
amplifiers IC
many

2 kfl. the circuit is

problems inductances

while
possible

tested,
can be form a
an
by

troubleshooted.

Without

misunderstood. For example,somepower at 50 MHz, if the wires connecting the the signal resonance tank amplifying

with/T

of only 2 MHz
and

can oscillate
itself
at

are

too long

their

in the

parasitic feedback loop. Without

oscillation of

when a signal analyzer is used, this oscilloscope, small a only change in the gain and some reduction

might the output

manifest

power. (But,

the

190

Chapter
the

6.

Analog

Controller

Implementation
current

same time,
decreases.)

IC

gets

hot, the
the

power
the

supply

increases,

and the

output

signal

On the firmly

attached

breadboard, as shown
the

troubleshooting, to test

output, and some spare connectors The spare connectors will Fig, 6.37(a). at various nodes of the circuit. signals
input, in

should be

be

used

for

input

test points
output

50 n coaxial
cable

to

oscilloscope

flexible wire

oscilloscope

50H

(a)
Fig.

(b)

6.37

(a) Breadboard
reflections
the
at

with

connectors

and

(b) oscilloscope

matching

termination

Signal

can corrupt at least

implemented

measurements.

one on

cable from mismatched ends of a coaxial going to an oscilloscope the cable should be matched To eliminate the distortions, in Fig. 6.37(b) is convenient to have side. The test fixture shown the board. It matches the 50 Q cable and, at the price of attenuating the

of the probe 5 kfl which is 100 times, makes the input impedance for tasks. most sufficiently troubleshooting high While designing an experimental breadboard,it is a good practice to leave one of of changing the phase of the the for the purpose as an extra available inverter op-amps from that the sensor is the it is common sensor since signal output signal polarity quite not known or will be changed during experimentation.
measured

voltage

While closing control mechanicaland can be

either potentiometers from the sensors, to an
when

loops

over

damaged in the paths

by
from

high-amplitude oscillation, one should

the compensators
improve

some physical

plant,

especially

when

the plant
introduce

is

to

the

actuators,

or in
it

the

paths

be able to introduce feedback oscillation starts. Such potentiometers greatly

multiloop

gradually

and to reduce
the

rapidly

if

troubleshooting

options

systems

are tested.

6.6

PID tunable controller

PID

6.6.1
Fig.

compensator of

+ Dqs/(s
plant.

6.38 shows a block diagram + q). The third term is

scalar

a feedback
band-limited

system

with

a PID

compensator

co<q. Here,the
A

parameters

P, I,

and

D are

saturation

link is

commonly placed in

path approximating to be determined (tuned) for a specific of the integral term (and, if the plant front

differentiation

Us + P Ds for

Chapter is a

6. Analog Controller
in front

Implementation

191

double
13).

integrator,

also

of

the

proportional

term)

to prevent

windup

(see

Chapter

dB

l/s
p
qDs

\302\246

Ci
A

y
f,

log sc

C1
Fig. 6.38

s +

PID controller

block

diagram

Fig. 6.39 Bode diagrams for the PID compensator

Bode for each path of the compensator the entire Fig. 6.39 shows diagrams C\\ and The P dominates at midrange compensator. component frequencies, the component Us, at lower and the component Ds, at higher frequencies, Typically, the distance frequencies. betweenthe corner frequencies /ff and /pd is 2 octavesor more, and the compensator transfer function has two real zeros corresponding to thesefrequencies. The pole q in the is typically chosen to be from 3x27t/PD to 10x2tc/}>d. differentiator of a typical plant is convex, monotonic, and with increased slope at The Bode diagram higher

frequencies.

If the
The

plant

response attenuate

at higher the sensor desired

filter C-t is

commonly addedto
Bode diagram to have
with

frequencies is too shallow, noise and to gain-stabilize

PID

a low-pass

the system

at
for

higher

frequencies.

concave

response of the
the

compensator

needs to

be adjusted

the loop

slope.
at

real origin and two or more additional near the Ds term at term dominates /b, frequencies, typically, poles over and the Us term at lower as shown in 6.40. frequencies Fig. 4/b, up to/t/4 frequencies Thus, P can be tuned for the feedback bandwidth, D for the phase stability margin (D-term the lags of the high-frequency poles of P and C2), and compensates phase advancepartially is used for at lower frequencies. When a step test-command /, for disturbance rejection P is tuned for the rise-time/overshoot D for the overshoot trade-off, closed-loop tuning, until it starts affecting the overshoot too much. and the coefficient / is increased reduction,

In a

system

the plant having

a pole
the

the

at higher

dB

loop

gain

-6 dB/oct
f,

log

sc

For single
integrator

plant

\342\200\242\302\246-

For

double

integrator

plant

Fig. 6.40

Ranges of

dominant

terms

in PID compensators

192

Chapter6. Analog

Controller

Implementation

The PID controller for a double integrator plant uses the term Ds to reduce the of the loop Bode diagram at the crossover. When the plant has also several highthe PID controller frequency poles or a large n.p. lag, may be augmented by a fourth
slope

double differentiator. In fact, it is the industry standard for tunable controllers. The controller is easily tuned to provide robust and fairly good performance for a great variety of plants. It typically an acceptable transient response without provides or command feedforward. Several automatic based on tuning prefilter procedures tuning parallel
with

branch

a band-limited is

The PID

controller

very

popular.

the

are successfully and widely used. However, the performance of the optimal. With the same average loop gain at higher frequencies, the Bodeand prefilters can reducethe overshoot feedback, stepresponses provide larger
transient

response

controller

is not

6.6.2
In

TID compensator
PID

the

controller,
The

the vector
is larger by

diagram

at

the
each

Fig. 6.41(a).

output

3 dB than

comer frequencies of the components.

is as

shown

in

Rg.

6.41
As

Vector diagrams for

shown

corner

frequencies

for PID

(a) and TID (b) compensators

zero-slope F-path can be replaced by the tilted response T is a scalar tunable parameter. slope -2dB/oct, where of the transfer function s~m was already described in Section 5.3 and Implementation exemplified in Fig. 6.11. Bode diagrams for the T, I, and D paths' gains are shown in the band-limiting is not shown in the pole in the differentiator Fig. 6.43. (For simplicity,

in Fig.

6.42,

the

path Ts~m with

constant

gain

digram). dB
S//s

Dy Px>U

Texpl
/\\

/.
T

logsc

ho

Fig. 6.42

TID

controller

Fig.

6.43

Bode diagrams for

TID

compensator
The

vector

diagram

in Fig.
at

6.4 l(b) shows

comer

the

components

forming the
output

output

signal

of

the TID
frequency

compensator same as the amplitudes

response

the

of the

frequency fn>. The components. Because of this,

than

signal

amplitude

is the

is sharper

the

similar

comer in the

of the TID gain PID compensator. Due to this

the/io

comer

Chapter and

6. Analog Controller

Implementation

193

due to

the

slope

of the

T-term

gain

response,

the

controller

provides a better

loop

response.
Example whose the

1. Consider

PID and

for TID controllers

a first-order

transfer crossover

function frequency

possesses a triple is/b = 20 Hz. The

shown

real Bode

pole

at 80

Hz. Limited
for the
therefore,

plant using a sensor by the sensor noise,

achieved the

diagrams

PID and coefficient

At the

TID compensators are D (i.e., the same gain

noise).
typically

in Fig.

6.44(a). The

controllershave
nearly

loop gain

with same

at higher

frequencies and,
half

the same

level

of high-frequency
is 4dB
than
larger

critical

frequencies
a Bode

of about step).

fb, the the

than

that

in the

PID controller (although

feedback in the TID controller TID feedback is still smaller

the feedback

achievable with

dB

PID
PID
\\\\

TID

f,

log

sc

(a)

(b)
Nyquist (b) diagrams

Fig. 6.44

Bode(a)

and

for PIDand TIDcontrollers

The Z^plarie
is seen that
not

open-loop

the

PID in the

for PID and TID control are shown in Fig. 6.44(b). It diagrams and the phase margin is phase stability margin near/b is too large,70\302\260,

excessive

77D-compensator.
are

PID and TIDcontrollers

temperature controller is not
for

both

easy to
for

tune

when

the plant with

control

of an
with

industrial

furnace

variable

parameters change, e.g. payload. When the

be

supposed to be tuned

each

individual

plant, preference should

given

to a high-order

compensator

a Bode

step.

6.7

Tunable
Bilinear

compensator
transfer

with one variableparameter

environment.
and

6.7.1
Plant
dependence

function

characteristics
of

an

may depend on the varying aircraft's dynamics on altitude,

the

are the Examples of a dependence

telecommunication cable's attenuation on temperature. For the loop response to be for each of the of the environmental the intermediate values optimal parameter, for must be variable as shown in the block the diagram compensator resulting adaptive how the plant response varies system in Fig. 6.45 (and in Fig. 9.2). We assume we know the with environment so that cancellation of the changing (although not precisely, effects in an open-loop manner cannot be done).

194

Chapter

6. Analog

Controller

Implementation

\302\273cp Environment

Fig.

6.45

Adaptive

system block diagram

Flowchart Fig. 6.46 on function dependent

transfer
W

for transfer a parameter

this

It

would

defines

system by only scalar parameter w. Here, w stands either for the variable transfer unilateral link, or for immitance of a variable two-pole. The function of linear Wiyv) is bilinear (a ratio functions) [1] and

both

to modify the and admittance) impedance

be convenient

coefficient a linear

(or immitance;
function

term

of

changing

of

one a

as

such

can be

expressed as

+W

F.13)

the variable impedanceof a two-pole, w\\ is the driving point the to which w If w designates the is connected. terminals impedance two-pole the transfer coefficient of an amplifier, then is the feedback path transmission -1/wj coefficient for this amplifier. to F.13) is shown The flowchart in Fig. 6.46. corresponding in Fig. 6.46 should The responses of the variable be compensator regulated not all functions of the form will do. For example,if F.13) smoothly. For this purpose, it is desired to gradually the slope of a Bode diagram from -6dB to 6dB, and change we to an and choose be a as differentiator, W@) W(\302\253>) correspondingly integrator, shown in Fig. 6.47, and only use a gain block w in series with the differentiator, then the with w to that of a differentiator response will be changed from that of an integrator a in the of from to is seen 0 as value, 6.48, but, frequency response large Fig. changed is not smooth. Win the intermediate position possesses a zero, i.e.,the regulation
If

w represents

between

dB

//s

>
w \342\200\224J

\\

Ds ->
Fig. 6.47
Block

n
t,

\\

\\

logsc
of a

diagram

of a

regulator

Fig. 6.48

Frequency

responses

regulator

6.7.2. Symmetrical regulator

Smooth

regulation

can
with

called symmetrical
when

be obtained with to the respect

Bode
nominal

symmetrical
value

regulators. Regulation w0 of the variable parameter

down,

is
w

the maximum

relative deflections

of w

from

w0,

up and

cause

symmetrical

Chapter

6.

Analog

Controller

Implementation
the

195 has the

following

(in dB)
property:

variations

in

Was

shown in Fig.

6.49, i.e., when

regulation

Q =

W(w0)

F.14)

dB 1/Q
r
d wto.

Fig.

6.49
of

Regulation
a symmetrical

frequency
regulator

Fig. 6.50

Flowchart

for

responses By substituting
and

symmetrical

regulator

this

expression

into F.13)

we have

F.15)
=

l+
W(w.)

(w/wo)Q
in Fig.

F.16)
regulator

The

flowchart

for the
of the

symmetrical

is shown

6.50.

The gain
201og|w|
changes

regulator

= (w/wo)
with

F.17)
w

gradually

second

component

variations in w. When retains the value but changes

= w0, the second component is the sign when w0 is switched from

0. The
0 to

<\302\273 as illustrated

variations second

in Fig. 6.49. The regulation of the gain response. It can the first-order term component,
wlw0

is exactly

be shown
regulation

that

symmetrical in the Taylor

the

for these
the gain

maximum

dominates to
for

extent

that

expansion of the 201oglWI

dependson
in

The regulator can be used

with

nearly

linearly

accordance

changing

available disturbancerejection of known plant parameter variations in adaptive effects systems (adaptive systems are in Chapter element can be used in place of the variable studied 9). Also, a nonlinear element w. In this case, a nonlinear dynamic link with desirable properties can be built. for enhancing the system Such nonlinear links can be employed in compensators performanceas will be discussed in Chapters 10,11, and 13.

more than 20dB. the loop Bode diagram changing compensator for the trade-offs between the system requirements, solving the output noise. It can be used to compensate the and

over

the

range

in the

196

Chapter

6.

Analog

Controller

Implementation

6.7.3
A

Hardware

implementation
Fig. 6.5l(a).
RC

hardware

implementations

of such a regulator is shown in implementation of the block 1/Q as low-passand high-pass

The possible
are
shown

filters

in

Fig.

6.51(b)and(c).

-VW-HWV-

(a)

(b)

(C)

Fig. 6.51 (a) Symmetrical regulator implementation with (b) low-pass and (c) high-pass RC filters as 1/Q

The regulator responses with the filter are high-pass regulator can be used to vary the compensator response when Additional mostly at higher frequencies. examples are given in

shown

in

Fig.

6.52.

the

plant

response
11.7,13.5.

The varies

Sections

Fig. 6.52

Frequency responsesfor

the

symmetrical

regulator

Regulation of frequency responsescan be filters which can be made response) for However, using the filter response. gradual several coefficients which is less convenient.
impulse

performed
to

approximate

also with digital any desired

FIR

(finite

frequency changing

response

changes requires

6.8 Loop responsemeasurements

the loop frequency response,one has to calculate or measure the and the actual plant The choice between the simulations plant response. plant and For on size the measurements accessibility. might depend plant example,if the plant if it is very small like a or heavy is big or expensive(likea spacecraft machinery) or, is difficult or a micromachined mechanical device which microwave feedbackamplifier simulation of the plant should play a major role in the feedback loop to access, then and substantial efforts are design.In this case the plant model needs to be accurate, model is not the of the when this At to this model. project, beginning develop justified control to be for models be must design, simpler developed preliminary yet completed, able to answer the questions crucial for the plant design. On the last stages of the
design

To

and

to verify

Chapter

6. Analog

Controller

Implementation

197

is built, when the plant it can be measuredand the feedback loop tested. In all tested before the must be entire the first, cases, loop. compensator testing On the other hand, when the plant is inexpensive and easily measured, the or digital) can be designedwell directly in the laboratory while (analog compensator the and the elements the real with by measuring loop response adjusting working plant,

project,

or of analog compensators

coefficients be

in digital

compensators.

The loop response can or while

the

measured

when the

feedback loop is open

While cross
at

as

in Fig.

6.53,

tested, the
section
for

is in the closed-loop configuration. system can be broken, theoretically, at loop

carefully

any

the loop response is being In practice, the cross section. cross

must be

chosen

such

that the signal

excessively
after

this

section is

large enough

convenient

measurements
the

but
loop

not

such a
shown

signal.Typically,
in Fig.

is broken

to generate large to make it difficult the first stage C\\ of the compensator, as

6.53.

P \302\246?

tiki
|

Signal analyzer

Fig.

6.53

Breaking the

feedback loop
also depends on how easy is it control loops with separate in some systems, problem

The

choice
the

of the
load

cross section for breaking

the loop
output.

to simulate
compensators

for

For

the loop conventional

this is not an issue, but it can be a difficult or in magnetics. especially at microwave frequencies in the open-loop configuration Measurements of the open-loop are not response The feedback always convenient or even possible. loop transfer function measurements can be complicated feedback loops from the loop output to the loop input by parasitic at higher frequencies). Also, someplants cannot be used without feedback (especially could be or unstable, self-destructive, they dangerousto deal with. The control loops - however, need about such plants to be measured in the closed-loop configuration

perhapswith
Loop
in

reduced

feedback.

response measurements
configuration
the c,
that

the

closed-loop

require
system be
might

closed-loop
is not,

stable. If it

it still

input 1 i

i r

input

when the feedback be stable is reduced by an extra attenuator, i.e., the system is closed with smaller feedback.Injection of the signal
in Fig.

1 Signal

analyzer

Fig. 6.54
measurements

Loop response
with

into

the

feedback open-loop

loop

for
response
function

the loop

closed

the purpose

measurements with the loop kept closedis shown is the ratio of the signal at input 2 to the signal at 1 latter is to the \"reference\" of the (the input applied input analyzer). for the signal injection is shown A circuit in Fig. 6.55. The variable practical the loop gain, and the RC lead is used to increasethe test signal resistor allows reducing - as will be level at higher discussed below. The capacitance value frequencies C = 210\025//b places the zero of this lead at approximately 0.08/b, and the pole at 6.54. The

of the

loop transfer

198
approximately

Chapter 6. Analog
4/b.

Controller

Implementation

2k

rsn

Fig. 6.55

Summer

for

injecting

test-signals

into the

closed loop

If
includes

an an

analog inverting

compensator op-amp,
in

already the
with

injection can be implemented passive elements as shown using the op-amp as a summing
of

signal
a few

Fig.
amplifier.

6.56,

Signal analyzers typically use two types test-signals: swept-frequency sinusoidal

Fourier

and pseudorandom with fast subsequent Fig. 6.56 Signal injection using an transform (FFT) and averaging. already existing inverting amplifier Both methods are quite suitable for the loop measurements. At higher sinusoidal excitation is easy response frequencies,
implement shorter

to

and is time

appropriate.

At

low

frequencies,

FFT might

provide better accuracyor

often take Still, low-frequency response measurements in when the is the or than test some desired, field, performed longer especially in operation needs to be shut down to perform the test. Part of the equipment normally is employed with constant amplitude of sinusoidal is that when the test-signal problem of pseudorandom or with constant spectral density signalsat all frequencies, signals, the dynamic range of the signals at the output of the loop becomes very large, since the loop feedback band and -20 dB at higher gain is many tenths of dB in the functional test. Then, the signal amplitude margin frequencies still of interest for the stability becomes too small at chosen so as not to overload the actuator at lower frequencies and data recovery from the noise frequencies, requires multiple runs and higher averaging.

of measurements.

An extra in Fig.

linear

link

with

6.57, can be dynamic range of the

for accurate
In

introduced

the frequency, the gain increasing with at the signal analyzer generator

such as
output

that

shown

to

reduce

the
time

loop

output

signal and correspondingly to reduce the

the

required

measurements.
absence

the

of a signal analyzer,

loop

by-point,

at discrete

frequencies,
loop

with

a signal

response generator and

gain
oscilloscope

can be

measuredpointoscilloscope.

two-input

The
output

input signal
is applied
the

of the

is applied

to one

of the

Y-inputs,

and the
signals

loop
be

seen on

scope

to the other K-input. The phase difference screen with sufficient accuracy.

between

the

can

Chapter6. Analog

Controller

Implementation

199

f,

log

sc

(a)

(b)
to be

Fig. 6.57 (a) Gain

improve

response

corrector

the

measured

signal-to-noise

ratio, and (b) the

response

placed in

cascade

with the

correctorgain-frequency

signal source to

an addition of the circuitry shown in Fig. 6.58 two measurements. Here, loop response (optional) amplifiers increase the levels of the signals at the input and of the feedback loop. The output can be made to increase with in order to reduce the dynamic amplifier gain frequency of the range signals.
With

a sweep

generator and

a scope,

can

mechanize

the

Logarithmic
amplifier signal

generator

V,, loop phase

gain
lag

Yit

Saw tooth

Logarithmic

X,

frequency

generator

amplifier

Fig.

6.58

Set for

loop response measurements convert singlein

The
the polarity

two

single-supply
signals u2
Exclusive

sinusoidal signals

to and

comparators rectangular
u\\

as

illustrated

Fig. 6.59.
only

The

OR w3 is

serves

detector. Its output

one

signal

nonzero

as phase only when

as

of the

input signals
value

is nonzero
of the \302\2534

shown
\302\2533

n\342\200\224n\342\200\224

in Fig.
is

6.59. The average

to the
filter

signal
can

proportional

phase lag between w2

M4

and

producing low-pass Butterworth active RC filter. is relatively can be identified When the plant transfer function simple, the plant often to its This method is employed by its response to the step function input. applied as is discussed below. for tuning PID controllers for chemical processes is going on open-loop, the output While the process is made steady by adjusting the command manualy. Then, a small input as shown step is applied directly to the plant
in

Mi. The

be

Fig. 6.59 Time diagrams for the phase detector signals

Fig.

6.60(a).

variable)

This as shown in
The

step produces
Fig.

an

increment

in

the plant's
time
written

ouput t&

(controlled and in

6.60(b).
parameters

are determined.

From the in the

response, the delay PID controller

the rate the

form

200
a[l +
further

Chapter6. Analog
l/(bs)](l + cs)/(l +

Controller

Implementation

are set to be: a = l/(rtd), b = 5td, c = tJ2, d = 4, and then csld) This adjusted experimentally for good closed-loop performance. open-loop and does not necessarily lead to good Ziegler-Nichols tuning procedure is not universal of PID controllers for all possibleplants. tuning

command

step\302\261

output P

Time (a) (b)

Plant

Fig. 6.60

transient and

(a) block diagram A more generalapproach is of real poles and zeros, Matlab to obtain the same transient
a couple
plant

measurements, response (b) transient response

to create and adjust

response

plant

model

with

a transfer
model real

function

having
with this

the values of the as that of the

provides

poles plant.

and zeros Then,

using

model,

a compensator

can be designed that

the desired

loop response.

6.9 Problems

(a)

Design
with

configuration.

system
the

power

in the inverting for a control compensator 1 kHz feedback bandwidth. Choose fr, and choose resistors such that does consumption by the feedback resistorfrom the 12 V power supply

an

amplifier

with

The

amplifier

gain will

-25 coefficient be employed

using an op-amp
the

in

not exceed

3 mW.

0.2 mW.
2
with

(b) Do the
(a) Discuss
RC

same

for the

gain coefficient -100,

4=

100

kHz,

power

not exceeding as an op-amp

the accuracy of

implementation

of

a transfer
capacitors.

function

impedances. (b) Define the required

tolerances of resistorsand
for

Draw a (a) -ax-

schematic by- c,
by+c,

diagram

an op-amp

circuit

implementing

the

function:

(b)+ax+
(c)-ax+by-c,

(d)-ax+blydt-c,

(e) -ax + bdy/dt (f)l(-ax-by-c)dt.

- c,

Draw

schematic

diagram
for

100kiifeedbackresistor)
(a)-0.5x-0.2y-3;

and specify the values of a practical op-amp circuit

the

circuit

implementing

elements (use the function:

(b)+2x+8y+0,2;

(c)-3x+6y+1;

(d)-4x+4jyc/f+0.3;

(e)-2.72x 0.5dy/dt
+

+0.1;

(f)f(-6x+0.4y-2)df.

Chapter 6. Analog Using 20 k?2 feedback an analog implementation (a)

resistors

Controller

Implementation
draw

201
a schematic

of decoupling 0.0443/

in op-amp summers, matrix:

diagram

for

x = 0.5038*'+

+ 0.0772z'

y =

(b)

- 0.0215z' + 0.4796/ 0.0235*' z=- 0.0094*'- 0.0243/+ 0.5291 z7 x = -0.2x' + 0.05y'-0.1z/

- 0.7z' z = 0.001 x' - 0.002/

x'=

= 0.1x'

+ 0.6y'

+ 0.01z'

(c)

3x + 0.4y+0.3z

/=
x'

z' = 0.04x+0.1y+ 1.9z

(d)

0.3x-2.1y+0.2z

= 2x+0.1y+0.1z

/=

z'= 0.04x+0.4y+1.9z
x'

0.1x-3.1y+0.1z
y-z

(e)

= x+

y'= ~x+ y+ z

z'= x-y+z
y'=

(f)

x\" =

-x+y+Q.5lydt+z

z'= xthe

x+ y+

6
7

Choose

(a)

10 Hz;

type of op-amp for applications (b) 100 Hz; (c) 1 MHz.

requiring

low

noise

in the

bandwidth:

Choose the type of op-amp to use when the and the frequency band of interest is: (a) 0 to 1 kHz; (d) 1kHzto 10 kHz.
In

100

output power kHz; (b) 0

needs to be to 1 MHz; (c)

up

to

3 W

100 Hz

to

the

compensators
(at

the maximum gain the lead) must be for:

40 dB.ChooseRz

using the inverting lower frequencies

op-amp

configurations
higher find

in Fig. 6.10(a),(c),
frequencies

for the lag and at

and
the

for

= 1 M?2

remaining

element

values

(a) pole /p= 5 Hz, zero fz = 10 Hz; (b) pole fp= 12 Hz, zero fz = 20 Hz; (c) pole fp = 300 Hz, zero fz = 1000 Hz; (d) pole fp= 15 Hz, zero fz = 40 Hz; (e) pole fp = 27.2 Hz, zero fz = 120 Hz;
(f) pole
fp

= 800

Hz, zero

fz

= 3000

Hz.
with

Find the

elements
Fig.

analytically

(start

resistors),

or

with

MATLAB,

or with

the

chart
9

in

6.23.
op-amp
link,

Use a
implement

non-inverting

with
ffc =

a lead
Hz,
fp fp

assuming

RC feedback 500 kSi and dc

according to
gain

Fig.

6.9(b)

to

20

dB with

(a) fz (b) 4

= 100

= 300

= 50 Hz,

Hz;

= 150Hz;

202 (c) 4
(d)

Chapter 6. Analog
4 = 150 Hz,/p = 400 Hz; = 27.2Hz,/fp = 100Hz; (e)/z = 60 Hz, fp = 600 Hz, 4 (f)

Controller

Implementation

=10 Hz, $ = 100 Hz;

10

Use a
implement

non-inverting

op-amp
link,

(a)
(b)/p (c)/p

/p

Hz, 4 = 1000Hz; = 150Hz, 4 = 500 Hz; = 3Hz,4=10Hz.

= 300 a

a lag

assuming

with f?i =

RC feedback according to 10 kQ and dc gain 30 dB with

Fig.

6.9(a)

to

11

Find

transfer

function

with

three the

with be -6 dB/oct.Designa compensator Use an initially the inverting configuration. Bode diagram, the in MATLAB or SPICE then (a) simulate response asymptotic and the positions of poles and zeros (if using and then (b) MATLAB) adjust calculate the elementvalues, or directly elements (if adjust the values of the circuit using SPICE).

and the

response

slope -4

dB/octover
using

poles range

and two zeros approximating 3 to 30 Hz.The gain at dc must

the

be 26 dB,

gain

high-frequency

this transfer

function

must asymptote an op-amp in

12 Use the

op-amp

with RC

feedback
real

shown

using a real with SPICE.

pole and a
program

in Fig.

6.12(a)

zero,

and

a pair of

to produce a complex zeros. Make

broad

notch,

simulations

13

Use the
Sallen-Key

FILTER1

(available

from Burr-Brown) to

design the Hz and

in C,

following

filters:
= 0.3;

link with cut-off frequency of 200 (a) a low-pass second-order at 1 kHz; (b) Butterworth 3rd-order with cut-off (c) Chebyshev 5th-orderwith 0.4 dB peak-to-peak ripples

the

cut-off at 10 kHz;
(d)
Find

passband

and

Butterworth
filter

elements,

5th-order with cut-off at 30 Hz. simulate the filter performance,

(available with

and

plot the

gain

response.

14

Using
multiple

the FILTER2 program

feedback

from

Burr-Brown)

to design the

following

filters:
200

link singlesecond-order 3rd-order; (b) Butterworth

(a) a

Hz cut-off frequency and

? = 0.2;
passband;
gain

(c) Chebyshev

5th-order the

with

0.4

(d) Butterworth
Find

5th-order.
simulate
filter

dB peak-to-peak
filter

ripples
and

in

the

filter elements, to Find sensitivities

the
elements.

performance,

plot the

response.

15

Some
applications

anti-aliasing
the

contaminating

ICs filter the dc input to the output, without pass directly dc signal by the dc drift of the employed op-amp. For what are such filters especially suitable? a

16 (a) Implement
with

the

data
for

Bode step with in Example 1

the
in

Section

Sallen-Key 6.7,

lowpass filter shown using the method

in Fig.
illustrated

6.14
in

Fig. 6.19(a).

(b) Do it
stability

Hz, main Bode diagram slope -10 dB/oct, gain slope -18 dB/oct. asymptotic Bode diagram, with the lower and the upper Bode (c) Designa Nyquist-stable loop at -10 dB dB and 15 levels filters. steps respectively, Sallen-Key using Use the FILTER1 program from Burr-Brown, or use MATLABsimulation for secondthe

loop

with

fb

= 500

margin

10 dB, high-frequency

Chapter

6.

Analog

Controller

Implementation

203

order 17

links

with

appropriate
program

damping.
to study

Use the
of
margin

FILTER1

exists

when

implement a

Bodestep.

using

sensitivity of Sallen-Key filters. 1% resistor tolerances, when the

Show

filter

that plenty is used to

18

Prove

that

the equivalent
simulate
with

resistance of a
the

chargepump
6.18

is

R =

1/(Cfe).

19 Use SPICEto
these

circuits
and
draw

in

Figs.

and 6.19.

Discuss
of the

how

to

make

simulations
the

MATLAB

SIMULINK.
the

20

(a) Using
impedance
(starting

plot in Fig.

6.23,
circuit

frequency

of the RC
from
directly plot plot

response
in

magnitude

of the

in

Cauer

form

Fig.

input)
on with with

(b) make the

(c) make the
21

response

0.1 mF, 10 nF and resistances a copy of the chart);

SPICE; MATLAB

with capacitances 100 k?2, 5kQ (you can draw the

6.20(b),

after deriving the

the equations describing

circuit.

Using the plot in Fig. 6.23, find: of the parallel connection of 1 mF and 1 kfl; (a) where is the pole of impedance of the series connection of 10 nF and 10 kii; (b) where is the zero of impedance of 20 k?2 and 4 |xF at 300 Hz; (c) what is the impedance of the series connection needs to be connected in series with a 50 kii resistorto make a (d) what capacitor zero at 800 Hz; (e) what resistor needs to be connected in parallel with a 2 |iF capacitorto move the pole from 0 Hz to 30 Hz; connected in parallel to 100k?2 feedback (f) R and C for the series RC two-pole in inverting configuration; the transfer resistor of an op-amp function pole is at 200 Hz and the zero, at 800 Hz.
the

22 Choose ICsfor

circuit

in Fig. 6.58,

then

build

and test

the device.

23

Simulate

control (in

thrusters

a spacecraft loop for pointing modulation mode, pulse-width

in

with flexible

i.e.,

solar panels using

type of

with

saturation

characteristic) 24

using the compensators

for the

Fig.

6.12.

Make SPICE simulation

(a)

circuit

in

Fig. 6.12(a);
6.13. to solve

(b) Fig. 6.12(b);

(c) Fig.
25

Use MATLAB or SIMULINK

Problem 24.

Answers

to selected problems
1 kHz
gain

30 dB,

the closed-loop i.e., the open-loop gain = 750 kHz; ffe > 50 k?2, and R,
(a)

At

coefficient

is -25,

and the feedback

must

be

coefficient = 50/25

must

be 750.

Therefore, fr

> 750

x 1 kHz

=2

k\302\253.

by +5%, and of the changes impedance of a series feedback branch the coefficient increases 10%. The -5%, branch, by gain by, parallel approximately, the Because of this, the [0, -90\302\260]interval. angle of an RC impedance is within within or a capacitance of the impedance to a resistance of the modulus sensitivity (a)

When

204

Chapter the circuit is

6.

Analog

Controller

Implementation

less

than

1.

(d) The

summer is shown

in Fig.

6.61
R/a

c=im

Fig.

6.61

Implementation
diagram
in the

of function
is

-ax
in

+ bx
Fig.

[integral

of (y)]

- c

5 (a) The schematic 20 [^/(coefficient

relevant

shown equation).

6.62.

The

resistances

are

20k

Fig.

6.62

Schematic a lag
zero

diagram for a decoupling matrix

link

implementation

(a) Since k > fp, this is the gain coefficientat

frequency,

and

the schematic

in

Fig.

6.10(c)

frequency

must be

100. Then, fli

= 10

can be used, and k?2. At infinite

the

Ra

s 1 MQ.The

= 50. From here, f?3# Rz = 500 k?2, i.e., gain coefficient is 100/p/fz = R3. = 16 is from the condition 1/B %fzC) C nF found capacitance

10 at zero frequency, R1 = /V11 =45.5kO. (a) From the required gain coefficient At infinite the gain coefficient is 3 times larger (because the ratio of the frequency, pole to the zero frequenciesis 3), i.e.,it is 30. From this, the parallel connection of resistances f?i and fl3 is ft # R3 = fla/31 = 16.1 kfi and flb= 16.1fli/A6.1+ ft) =

25 k?2
extreme

so there is no need for a forward are designing compensator path from the equality found of calculations). The capacitance can accuracy = transfer function which of the of the the at compensator pole 1/(ffiC) f?3 frequency
(we

be

is the

0 = 21x10\"* F,

frequency of the zero

i.e.,

of

the

shunting

impedance

in

the

feedback

path;

C=20nF.

10

(a)

At zero

frequency,

the

gain

coefficient

is

At infinite fl2s306k?2. frequency, = (f?3 # R2 + f?i)/Ri. From 9.48 capacitance found from the

is

), wherefrom C = 400pF.

gain coefficient is 31.6/p/4 = 9.48. Thus, and f?3 = 477kQ. The here, R3 # fh = 848 k?2, condition that at the pole frequency R3 + Rz =
the

31.6 = (f?2+

ffi)/f?i

wherefrom

Chapter

7
I

LINEAR LINKS AND SYSTEM

Two approaches

SIMULATION

mechanical,thermal
topology
It

are presented for

and

modeling mathematical
plant

systems

composed

hydraulic

elements:

describing the system

uncertainty

elements and

of electrical,
the

is

value. The availablefeedback),the actuator output impedance needs to have a specific use of local feedback loopsto modify this impedance and, generally, the effect of feedback on impedance are considered, including parallel, series, and compound feedback.
Equivalent

connections, and deriving that to reduce the emphasized

of their

for the system. equations (and therefore, to increase

the

block

diagrams

drivers, motors, and gears, to simplify Several issues are considered collocated and noncollocated control,
output
connection

connection of two-ports, like are developed for chain modeling and to make it structural. system for feedback control: flexible structures, important and the effect of feedback on the sensor noise,

noise.

to the equations describing are analogous system equations parallel links and parallel connection of two two-poles. These analogies allow as will the theory for two-pole connection to be appliedto feedback systems, developed be explored in Chapters 10 and12. The chapter ends with a brief demonstration of the specifics of linear time-variable systems. For a shortened control course, Sections 7.2.2, 7.2.3,7.4.2-7.4.5, 7.5, and 7.11 can be omitted.
of two

The feedback

7.8.2, 7.10,

7.1

Mathematical
Electro-mechanical

analogies
analogies

7.1.1
The

first step
the

in

simulating system.
latter

a system This
case,

describing
computer. topology

behavior on a computer be done either by may

parameters

is to the

user

generate the equations or, preferably, by a

the system's elements and the input file. electrical and part mechanical, deal Control engineers with systems that are part such a system to an equivalent thermal, etc. Converting system containing only one kind of variable both the and described by only one kind of physical law can facilitate of the computer and the write-up preliminary back-of-the-envelope input file. analysis which were initially supposed to be allows the use of programs Also, the conversion as for control and like used the analysis of electrical circuits, SPICE, universal analysis simulation tools. between mechanical and electrical There exist several mathematical analogies which are those the most useful them, i.e., they preserve power, systems. Among into convert the product (voltage x current) the product (velocity x force).We will most often use the relating voltage U to velocity V, and analogy VOltage-to~velocity / to force F. current
In the describing of their

connections constitute

the

simulation

program

7.1and Example1.Figs.
is

7.2
the

show
diagram

seen

that the

topology of

an example of the is conveniently

fcj,

replaced
specified

coefficients by springs with spring by their masses M2, M4.

kj,

and

of this analogy. It are preserved, the inductors the capacitors, by rigid bodies
application

205

206

Chapter 7. Linear Links

and

System

Simulation

'i

2 4

Fig.7.1
schematic

Electrical

circuit

Fig. 7.2

diagram
4, Kirchhoff's

schematic equations

Mechanical circuit diagram*

For nodes2 and

correspondingly are

where

For

bodies

2 and

4, Newton's equations are

= 0,
where

F2 =

V2sM2.
equality

The the sum

Similarly,

of

the sum
to

of
the

forces

zero

equality

zero

reflects

the
the

equality

node corresponds to the of equality into account D'Alembert's force). of the sum of the voltages to (relative potentials) about a contour to zero of the sum of relative velocities about the contour. Zero
of
currents rigid

to

zero

at a

at a

body

(taking

voltage of
inertial coefficient,

electrical

\"ground\"

reference.

Resistance into capacitance

most commonly translates the converts into inverse the mass, inductance into

coefficient. Generally,electrical converts impedance is the ratio of relative velocity to force, the mobility load by a given force is small**. and/or heavy
Table

zero velocity of the the viscous damping of the stiffness inverse into mechanical mobility. Since of a difficult to move mobility
to

of

7.1 summarizes

the

analogy

for

translational

and rotational

motions.
The 7.3(a). and a linear amplifier in

the active Example 2. Consider suspension strut diagrammed in Fig. a dashpot of a spring, viscous (a device providing friction), motor (voice coil) connected in parallel and driven by an electrical

strut consists accordance

*

with

the

information

obtained
the

from
are

the

force

sensor

(load cell).
and

The
not

To

accentuate

similar to

** The term \" mechanical sometimes the inverseof the

resistors as is conventional

the analogy,

springs in drawing

shown similar to inductors, mechanical diagrams.

mean

impedance\"
mobility.

is sometimes used to

the mobility,

and

Chapter

7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation
analogy

207

Table 7.1
electrical

Voltage-to-velocity

translational

rotational

voltage U (or
current

V)

relative velocity V
force

relative angular
torque x

velocity

Q.

/
Z =

power P= UI
impedance

power P=VF U/I EC/ =

mobility

power P = Ox
mobility

Z=V/F

Z=Q/t
body,
contour \"Lx

at a
about

node, 11=0
a contour,

at a

along

rigid body, ZF = Q a contour through

connected

at a

rigid

= 0

along a sequence
ZAQ

through

a sequenceof
bodies,

connected bodies, of
inertia

IAV=0

= 0

capacitanceC
inductance

mass M

moment
fc)

l/(stiffnesscoefficient
l/(viscous

l/(angular
coefficient)

resistance

damping

stiffness) l/(angular viscous damping

coefficient
vibrations
strut,

B)
from shaking
of the
frequencies

of the
mobility

base should
is defined

be

prevented
ratio

the in

payload. velocities

For

the suspension

the

as the

difference
where

at its

ends to

the

not pass the vibration should should be low at lower frequencies in enough through. At the same time, the mobility of to the interest. for the motion of the base to be conveyed order Thus, the notion body of isolation and to the vibration of mobility is particularly design suspension applicable and without modulus of the with the mobility Fig. 7.3(b) exemplifies systems. force.

The

mobility

must be

large at

introducing

feedback to make the

isolation

better.

Payload

IZI

\302\246active

mobility

passive

mobility
Load
I

cell
f,

Base

log.

sc.

(a)

(b)
suspension

Fig. 7.3 (a) Active

and (b)
its

strut

mobility

frequency
with

response
degrees

of mechanical For the analysis systems the electro-mechanical such as ball joints, using mechanical is still possible). For complicated

many

of freedom

at

the

joints it

analogy

gets more difficult

(although

systems, specialized simulation programs of in the great majority FAST ADAMS \302\256 or SD be used However, should \302\256). (like with the deal with slides or control i.e., joints joints, pin cases, engineers only practical characterized each by only two variables, the position and the force or the angle and the to a joint of cascaded of a mechanical joint the analogy For these systems, using torque.
is of great help. electricaltwo-ports The voltage-to-velocity(i.e.,
current-to-force)

analogy

described

above

is

208

Chapter7. Linear
when

Links

and

System

Simulation

especially convenient

the

system

electricalmotors
micromachined

and

solenoids,

where

produces force. In Table 7.2 may

piezoelectricand

includes electromagnetic transducers like current creates a magnetic field which in turn electrostatic transducers (the latter are used in
the

the applied devices), more convenient. appear

voltage produces force, and Voltage-to-forceanalogy

analogy

shown in

Table 7.2
electrical

translational
V)

rotational
torque

voltage
current

U (or
/

force F
velocity

angular x

velocity Q.
P =

charge q

displacement

angle 9
power

power P=
impedance

UI
Z = U/I

power P=VF

Or
Y = through

inverseof

mobility

Y= F/I a

inverse of mobility along a contour

t /Q.
a

at a node, HI= 0

along a contour through sequence of connected

bodies,IAV=0
about

bodies,?AQ = 0
at

sequence of connected
a rigid

a contour,

at

a rigid

body, ZF = 0
coefficient fe)

body, Ix
stiffness)

=0

EU =

0
l/(stiffness l/(angular

capacitanceC
inductance

mass

moment
angular

of inertia
viscous

resistance

viscous damping coefficient

damping

B
7.1.2
The
heat

coefficient
heat

Electrical analogy to
electrical
flow
analogy

transfer

to

conductive

heat transfer
corresponding

is

shown

in Table

is measured

or Btu/sec, 1kW is analogous to Ohm'slaw.

in Watts

to 1.055

7.3. The heat Btu. The Fourier law

flow

for

Table 7.3
electrical

Voltage-to-temperature-difference

analogy

voltage
current

(potential difference) U (or V)

/

thermal temperature difference

heat

AT

flow

g
Zp =

power

P=UI

ATg
thermal

impedance Z = U/I HI = 0 at a node,

impedance

AT/g

at a body, ?g = 0 (not
heat

counting

accumulation
capacitance

capacitanceC
R =

thermal the and

in CT) CT which is

product the

of the

specific heat c

mass

resistance

dU/dl
radiation

thermal resistance /?T= dT/dg

and convection. Since radiation increases between the bodies (or between the

Heat

as the

also can be transferred by fourth power of the temperature

difference

Chapter

7. Linear it can

Links

and

System

Simulation

209

body

and

the

environment),

be represented by
equivalent
the

a nonlinear

transferred via convection, the

parameters

thermal and the

current source. For heat resistance depends on many

including

the geometry,

area,

air flow.

to

The analogy is exemplified in Fig. 7.4 by an equivalent electrical circuit employed narrow view photocamera. simulate the temperature control of the Cassini spacecraft
and

Here, H%
secondary

Hj

represent the case,

and

heaters attached to
T2, the

the

secondary

and

respectively. The temperatures

mirror,

Tc, and primary

T\\

represent

absolute

primary mirrors, of the temperatures

the
radiation

bodies'
into

specific heats
between free

thermoconductivities

of mirror. The capacitances are the products and the resistors characterize the masses, the heat sources the bodies. The nonlinear represent
and

space from the

Gc =

mirrors and
0.5 x

the

case:

G2 =

0.507 x 10~9x T24,

x 10\"9xTx\\ 10~9xT*, G, = 0.1

WV

VW

\302\253a^ ^2

^
a spacecraft

uc

^p

Fig.

7.4

Heat transfer analysis

for

photocamera
the

- the model also This circuit was simulated using SPICE incorporated and compensator. With this approach, the frequency and time responses without of the plant equations. derivation

driver

can be plotted

7.1.3 Hydraulic systems

Example

1. A
is filled

hydraulic system
with a
liquid

is exemplified

in

Fig. 7.5.
of
with

Here,

the

reservoir
at

of
each

volume vi node is 0.

The pipes connecting

present

at pressure kept the reservoir to

hi. The sum the cylinder

flow

the liquid flow current volume:

the

v2 and

of the or else the system must as a system with insignificant, distributed The valve controls the liquid flow parameters). by introducing extra resistance in the pipe, or switching it on and off. The valve is operated by an fed from the driver of the controller. The plunger stem moves a electromagnet amplifier

pressure liquid in

h%

resistances

Rh Rz to

the

liquid

the

pipe

(we consider be considered

volume

mechanical load with

mobility

Z^.

Controller

M
I

III

Ml 1/
\021 ^

Position

sensor

\"I- *1

Mechanical

Valve

load V2

J
Mechanical

Hydraulic variables

variables

Fig. 7.5

Hydraulic

system

example

210

Chapter 7. Linear Links

areas

and

System

Simulation

The dashed lines separate the mechanical variables.The power vertical dashed line. The hydraulic

on the drawing for hydraulic, electrical, and same to the left and to the right sides of the and mechanical to their diagrams can be converted electrical equivalents and connected an ideal transformer that the by preserves power and and the mechanical between the hydraulic provides appropriate correspondence variables. Then, this system can be simulated with a program for electrical circuits
is the

analysis.
An

electrical

analog

to a

hydraulic

system

is described

in Table
analogy

7.4.

Table 7.4
electrical

Voltage-to-difference-in-pressure

hydraulic

voltage
current

(potential difference) U
/

pressure difference Ah
flow
power

power P=UI

of liquid, volume P = Ahq

per sec,q

impedance Z = U/I
at

impedance Z = Ap/Ah
at a

a node,

U=0
= dU/dl

capacitance C

node, volume v
resistance

\"Lq

= 0

resistanceR
When
resistance
the

R =

dh/dq to h,
and

flow

of

liquid

in a

pipe is

laminar,

is proportional

the

R =
does

dh/dq

not depend

this case the

dependence

on h. However, in most applications, the flow of liquid of q on h is nonlinear, and the resistance is

is turbulent.

In

R==_
dq

ai)
q

The
devices.

design

problems

and

constraints

are

often

similar for various systems

and

Example
hydraulic

2. Fig.
amplifier.

7.6 demonstrates the

The

analogy

of (a) an
two

electrical amplifier to (b)

parallel of

electrical
signal

passing a

zone in

singlepolarity
voltage
the

(which

amplifier contains is the class B mode

branches,

each

operation).

A small

dead

i.e., when

quiescent mode, prevents supply the output currents of the combines signal is 0. The summer The input-output characteristic for the amplifier shown in Fig. 7.6(c) is not branches. a of large feedback contains dead zone. linear, and, particularly, By application quite the to shown is made much closer and in characteristic linear, 7.6) (not Fig. input-output times dead zone is reduced many (recall Section 1.7)., valve. The valve directs The hydraulic amplifier input is the position of the spool the liquid under pressure to the appropriate side of the plunger, thus providing output at the plunger stem. The dead zone be sufficiently large to reliably force should stop the the input the zone must be small enough for the signal is zero. Still, power waste when to be close to linear. characteristic input-output
input

the waste of power

current

in the

input

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and

System Simulation

211

\302\246\"

high
pressure

output

line
input

input:

output:
current

voltage
(a)

input: position

output: force
(c)
amplifier,

(b)
(b) spool

Fig. 7.6

(a) Electrical class B amplifier,

and

valve hydraulic mechanical

characteristic

(c) the

electrical amplifier's

input-output

difficult to implement in hydraulic amplifiers. The is different for different speeds spool valve amplifier of the action. When the output motion is slow, evena small opening suffices to provide full available but if the output motion is fast, a small nearly pressure on the plunger, to supply to the output is insufficient the liquid Thus, the input-output opening cylinder. characteristic is steep for slow motion, but the gain decreases for faster motions. These in the actuator variations limit the available accuracy of a nonlinearity and dynamics control and linearity can be improved by system using such an actuator. The dynamics local feedback about the actuator. This feedback can be implemented a using using on the application) with electrical sensor, pressure sensor (or a position depending a compensator, a power electrical (motor driver), and an electrical output, amplifier motor shaft. Such actuators are commercially moving the spool valve integrated available,and their input is an analog or digital electrical signal.

This

provision

is especially
of the

input-output

characteristic

7.2

Junctions
Structural

of unilateral
design

links

7.2.1
With

of subsystems which is composed are relatively structural design, the system large functional parts with rather interconnections between them. Structural simple design the analysis and design, and facilitates having several people work together simplifies for each of the subsystems are tailored on the same project. Since the specifications it the the such as to minimize (for overdesign prevents subsystems' requirements, for the links in the forward path can be much example, the accuracy requirements
relaxed

the required accuracy for the summer and feedback path links). It and trade-offs, troubleshooting. design verifying system performance, making simplifies for the subsystem the It facilitates redesigning since, as long as the requirements system, of the others. can be refined and redesigned independently are defined,each subsystem etc. For example, the The subsystems are composed of smaller subsystems, or connected in parallel. themselves are built from simpler links cascaded compensators the subsystems should be as simple as possible. Between The interface between in the block diagrams, the interface is the simplest: a single variable blocks cascaded link and the input of the following links. However, as the output of the preceding serves to include into the effects of loading, we have consideration in most links, physical link on the variable of the link. The of the the effects i.e., following output previous of described the notion effects of loading are conveniently using impedance.
from

212
7.2.2

Chapter

7.

Linear

Links and

System Simulation

Junction

variables
can be equivalently represented in Thevenin's and 7.7. or emf, /s is the Here, E is the open-circuit voltage, Fig. the free (unloaded) velocity, and FB is the brake force. When
source

Any electrical or mechanical Norton's forms shown in

short-circuit the

current,

Vf

is

internal

depend

source impedance on the value of the load

the

Zs is

small,

impedance

(or velocity V); when current / or force F.

source

impedance

the output voltage (or velocity) does not and therefore is called source of voltage U is very large, the source is called source of

(a)

(b)
representations
(for

Fig.7.7

Thevenin

and

Norton

of (a) electrical and

analogy)

(b) mechanical

signal sources

the

voltage-to-velocity

of driving in the design While the notion employed point impedance is universally in mechanical mechanical of electricalcircuits, systems design, driving point impedance This is probably so because at a mechanical (or mobility) is used less frequently. 3 angles and than For example, two variables to deal with. junction, there could be more the 3 torques need to be consideredat a ball joint. Nevertheless, as mentioned before, with one are the simple ones, like a slideor a pin most common mechanical junctions are position (or rotation) variable and one force (or torque) variable. Thesejunctions The notion of two-node similar to connections of electrical ports. mathematically the analysis of such systems. facilitates mobility of the a preceding link (two-port) loaded at the input impedance Fig. 7.8 shows following

link. EL,

The voltage at the

junction

is

(J

\302\246\302\246\302\246 \342\200\224

G.2)

and

the current

is
G.3)

zL + zs

t r
Driver

/
i\342\200\224i

U
Plant

Fig. 7.8

Variables

at

the

links' joint

For mechanical

systems,

Chapter

7.

Linear

Links and

System Simulation

213

vez, V =\302\246

G.4)

F=-

G.5)
zL+zs
the

When

impedance and much

UaE. lower

output impedance (mobility) Z$ is much lower than the input link, the effect of loading can be neglected Zl of the following (mobility) of an operational amplifier is typically For instance, the output impedance
driver's

than the

load impedance due to

the

application

of voltage

feedback.

7.2.3 Loadingdiagram
The

voltage

across

the terminals of

the

signal

source

with resistive

load

shown

in

Fig.

7.9(a) is

U = E-RsI.

G.6)
actuator

Fora rotary

mechanical

(motor),

similarly,

the

angular

velocity

is

Q = as-Rs'Z,
where

G.7)
load) relative
angular
\\

?tf

is the

free run (no

torque

(or stall

torque)

= Qf//?s>

the angular
0

When t equals the velocity. velocity becomeszero.

JrStall

brake

E
or 1

/, ort

\\
currem

/=(E-L0/W8
<b\"

u,\\l
|

\\

\\\\B)
D)
free

nl

/P=UI
/Z
voltage,

\\r
U

\302\253

S
ft u

C)

running

V
angular

velocity, Q

(a)

(b)
loading

(c)
diagrams

Fig.

7.9

source and (c)for

C) motor

Schematic diagram (a) and

motors: torque
with

for

(b)

an

electrical
inductive

linear signal
motor,

A) permanent feedback, D)

magnet motor, B) motor with velocity

feedback

in Fig. 7.9(b) reflects equation The loading Resistance G.6). diagram shown Rs determines the slope of the loading line I=(E- U)/Rs- The smaller the resistance, the the line. The output UI varies with It becomes zero the load resistance. steeper power is small, and also when when Rh is very small RL is very large and, therefore, the current so that the output voltage is small. motor described magnet Fig. 7.9(c)shows the loading diagram A) for a permanent do not the motor linear call \"linear\" the term linear since motor is by equations (we motion The reservedfor translational curve a nonlinear motors). B) exemplifies loading with a flux winding. The slopeof this curve defines the differential diagram for a motor of the motor. The power, of the angular resistance and i.e., the product output velocity to the power in Fig. 7.9(b). the torque, is definedsimilarly

214
The

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and

System Simulation

of feedback about the motor application be cannot increased. feedback although, certainly, output power Large torque maintains the torque constant as shown does not depend on by the curve C). The torque the on the load, within the range of the and, therefore, does not depend angular velocity motor torque and velocity The of the motor with output mobility capabilities. torque feedback is large as can be seen from the slope of the loading line. The loading line for a motor with feedback is shown by the curve D); the output of the velocity mobility motor is very low. and motors, is an important parameter of drivers and Output impedance (mobility) its implications will be discussed in the next section.
loading

curve can
the

be changedby

7.3 Effect of the plantandactuator ontheplant impedances

function

transfer

uncertainty

Plant parameter uncertainty affects the accuracy of the closed-loop transfer function in two ways. First, directly: the variations in the closed-loop transfer function are feedback times smaller than the plant transfer function variation. the smaller Second, indirectly: the the is the that can be feedback variations, larger plant implemented - as parameter will be shown in Chapters 5 and 9. In the hypothetical case that the plant is perfectly known (the so-called full state feedback feedback is described in Chapter 8), infinite available. When, on the other hand, the plant is completely unpredictable (as in the extreme case described in Alice in Wonderland: \"-... you can balance an eel on the end of your nose\,") no feedback control can be implemented. the plant transfer Reducing is an issue of high in feedback system design. function uncertainty priority As will be shown in the examples below, the plant transfer function uncertainty mobility. Therefore, an output depends to a large extent on the value of the actuator with an appropriate output actuator must be used. mobility
control
two

The a plant whose mass M is uncertain. Example 1. Consideran actuator driving variable is the Let's consider variable) (controlled system output plant velocity. extreme

respectively.
the

cases of the output When this mobility

source,

mobility is much

of the

actuator
mobility

shown

in Fig. the

7.10 (a)
actuator

and

(b),

larger than the

source.

load mobility,
is much

can be

viewed as a force
mobility,

and

when the actuator's

smaller than the

load

actuator

can be F

viewed as a velocity

V
1//W

->

Integrator

(a)
Fig.

(b)

7.10

Actuators

with

(a)

constant

force and
body

(b) constant

velocity

driving

rigid

plant acceleration

When the actuator are uncertain due to

source,

is a
the

force source,

the

plant

uncertainty

of M.
actuator

In

contrast,

when

F/M and the the actuator

plant

plant

velocity
velocity

is a

the

plant velocity
output

equals the

velocity,

and the
application

transfer

function

is

simply 1.
the

The actuator

mobility

can be

modified by

of local

feedback

about

actuator.

Chapter

7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

215

of this version Example 2. Considerthe plant depicted in Fig. 7.11. (The rotational of pointing a camera mounted on the end of a flexible boom system is the problem attached to a spacecraft.) The actuator is placed between the second body and the spring, and the position of the second body is controlled. If the actuator is a force source, i.e., its is very large, the suspension resonance does not appear on the plant output impedance transfer function response: the second sees the force F, and this force does not body only on the On the other a source actuator in a results hand, spring depend parameters. velocity profound resonance on the control loop response.

F
(orV)

L-Vk

(a)

(b) mechanical

(c)
its

Fig. 7.11

(a) Actuator
that

and

plant, (b)

equivalent

electrical

circuit diagram,

and (c) its

Notice

modification

in the circuit diagram, the order of the elements connected in electrical into the form (c) where one of the changed. Diagram (b) can be transformed terminals of the source E is grounded and the capacitor C\\ is floating (not connected to Similar modifications of mechanical diagrams the are not as evident. Conversion ground). from a mechanical to the equivalent electrical circuit might therefore simplify the analysis. attention also must be While choosing the actuator output impedance, paid to transmission from the base to the object of control, if this is a reduction of disturbance

series

can be

problem.

7.4
7.4.1
Examples

Effect of feedback on the impedance (mobility)

Large

feedback
already

with velocity

and force sensors

that

considered
output

showed

feedback
is defined
output by made

has a
the

profound

effect

on

impedance.
What

The
measured

impedance

(mobility)

type the

is

by the
if

sensor, is stabilizedand
output not

equal

of the sensor used. to the command or voltage is stabilized, its internal (output)

reference. Hence, and the feedback system impedance is 0 (certainly,

employed,
impedance

the

sensor

measures the is a voltage

exactly
output

voltage,
which

source

means

the feedback

system

is is high. If force feedback a velocity sourceis obtained. is employed, feedback and a linear combination of their force and velocity sensors are used, If both is called the feedback fed is back, compound. Compound feeedback is readings motion control systems. With in most biological and many robotic compound employed of the actuator and the of the control system at the joint the output mobility feedback, the can be introduced which makes smoother and load can be madeas desired, damping feedback interaction between various loops. A feedback loop about an actuator one measuring the force and the employed, the sensors are combined and fed back.A

sensor is 0, but very small). If a current current the a source, i.e., output represents a force source is obtained.If velocity employed,

is

depicted

other link

in Fig. 7.12. Two sensorsare of the velocity. The outputs measuring Z is included in the force sensor path.

216 The
with output

Chapter7. Linear
of

Links

and

System

Simulation
that

the link

must

have

the dimension
mobility.

V. Therefore,

the dimension

of Zis

of velocity so

it can

be summed

CA

return signal

vAf

U/B

L-

(a)

(b)
a linear
circuit
combination

Fig.7.12 (a)
Since the velocity and therefore the error

Feeding

back

of sensor

and (b) an
V

readings

equivalent

diagram

for the

junction

is small,
Z)]-

FZL, the the

return
return

signal
signal

equals

is BF(Zh + Z). If the feedback is large the command U. From here,

G.8)

F=U/[B(Zh +
The

the of the circuit diagram in same expression follows from analysis where the source with U/B Z is electromotive force and internal Fig. 7.14(b) impedance loaded at impedance From this that conclude we ZL, comparison large compound feedback makes the actuator output impedance (mobility) equal to the transfer function of the link Z. of the current and voltage at the junction In electrical systems, a linear combination can be obtained using Wheatstone bridge circuitry as will be shown in Section 7.4.5.

7.4.2 Blackman's formula

A two-wire

connection
the

where
(return)

the

current

in one network
can

current
impedance

in

second

wire, is
two-port
that

comprisesa single-directional
of

called a port. The

be

(direct) wire equals the

system

negative

of the

shown

in Fig.

7.13

an external
return

load

and a three-port linear system. Zl is the connected to the port with the output

impedance Z.
certainly

The feedback
depends

ratio

somehow

impedance ZL later) so that

when

(examples TsT(Zi).

in the system the on will be provided this definition, and is T@),

T(\302\260\302\260).

By
ratio

ZL=
ZL

0, the

return

3
Fig,

when
system

= \302\260\302\260, the return

ratio is

The

input
can

of a impedance be calculated

feedback
using

7.13
of

Driving
a feedback

Blackman's

formula,
7@)+ 1
+ 7X\302\260o)

point impedance system

G.9)

where

Zo

is

the

impedance
proofs

without

the

feedback,
and

i.e.,
7.)

with
The

the feedback
formula

disconnected. (The

loop
the

are given in

Appendices 6

expresses

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and System

that

Simulation

217

driving
calculate:

point
the

impedance via three impedance without the

by

quantities

are

feedback,

and the

simpler to estimate and feedback in the cases when the

much

system is simplified
7.4.3

setting

load impedance to

0 or \302\260\302\260.

Parallel

feedback

The parallel feedback block is shown in Fig. 7.14(a). Here, the output of the diagram forward path, the input of the feedback path, and the load are all connected in parallel. to the voltage across the load. The fed back signal is therefore proportional This is why feedback is also called voltage feedback. parallel

(a)
Fig.

(b) and (a) electrical

7.14

Parallel feedback,

(b)

mechanical

In a

parallel feedback circuit,

feedback

reducing

the

load

disconnectsthe

loop

and makes

T@) = 0, and

impedance

(mobility) to 0
reduces

Blackman's

formula

to

G.10)

Hence,negative
can

parallel

feedback
perfect

reduces
voltage

make nearly Chapter 1 and depicted in Fig.

be used to The
shown

sources,

the impedance. Largeparallel such as the one

feedback

described

in

1.5.

Such feedback is mechanical analog to parallel feedbackis rate feedback. It uses as a sensor a tachometer motor an optical Fig. 7.14(b). winding, The feedback makes the actuator a velocity sensor. encoder, or some other velocity of to the the the and source, input signal loading velocity proportional independent for in the motor which conditions. feedback can be employed, Velocity example, the tape in a tape recorder. The feedback maintains the tape velocity propagates
in

constant and

independent
A Y

of the
driver (i.e.,

tape tension.
with high input V is applied to
and
the

Example 1.
transconductance
YV).

amplifier when voltage

output the input,

has impedances is current output

The

impedance

from
output).

the

terminal is connected to the input terminal via a feedback two-polewith is Zs.The feedback The ZB. signal source impedance path transfer function, is no is connected to the current to the load YZS (when input output voltage, is Then, the output impedance of the amplifier
output

Z =
7.4.4

= (ZB+ZS)/(YZS
feedback
diagram

Series

A series

feedback

is shown

in Fig.

7.15(a). Here, three

ports

are connected

218
in

Chapter 7. Linear
the load,
this

Links

and

System
the

Simulation
input is why

series:

the

output

of the

same to proportional
that

the

current

flows

through

forward path, and these three

of the

feedback path,
signal

so

ports. The
load

feedback

is

current,

i.e.,

to the

load current.

This

series feedback
to

is also

called current
the feedback

feedback.

In this
makes

circuit, increasing the

impedance

\302\260\302\260 disconnects

loop

and

T(<*>) =

0, Then, Blackman'sformula

reduces

to

Z =

Zo[T@)+l].

G.11)

flux

winding

(a)

(b)

(c)
mechanical; the

Fig. 7.15
When current

Series feedback: (a)electrical,

feedback can

(b) increases

(c) series motor

series sources

is negative, be made using large

In

it

impedance.

Nearly perfect
source

series

feedback. a force
kind

Such a

current

was

depicted
using torque

in Fig.
sources

1.29.

mechanical

systems,
in

or a torque
of force

source

can

be made

series

feedback are

from a commonly

load cell or another

used
pulleys,

providing

or torque sensor. constant tension in proper

The
the

cable.

electrical motors, the flux winding is connected in series to the rotor as 7.15(c). The effect of the flux winding can be described by the following internal feedback mechanism. Increasingthe load, i.e., increasing the torque, increases the rotor current and, therefore, the flux winding current. This increases the voltage
In series
in Fig.
shown

drop

on the

flux

winding

and,
nearly

therefore,
constant

reduces

the

voltage

on the
the

rotor

winding,

thus

maintaining 7.4.5

the torque

and independent

of

load.

Compound

feedback
type

Compound
When both

feedback is the
17@I and
T@) +1
+1 7X\302\260o)

of feedback

when

both

T(Q)

and

are nonzero. T(\302\260\302\260)

are much \\T(\302\260\302\260)\\

larger than 1, then CAPB@)

CAPB(\302\260\302\260)

the

impedance

T@)

B@)

G.12)
B(oo)

does

not

depend

on the

forward

path

gain.

Compound voltage (and

feedback
at

differs
the
short

in

this

respect

from series
the

feedback and from parallel Compound feedback stabilizesnot

output
the

feedback.
the emf

or current

system's
circuit output

system's

impedance
systems, free

and

the

mechanical rotational brake torque, and Example

and

compound run velocity.

therefore, the feedback stabilizes

the

output but In the mobility,

current).

circuit for art amplifier with at the feedback diagram compound in Fig. 7.16. The output feedback at the input is shown is voltage connected to the input of the feedback path via the voltage divider /?], /?2-The current is sensed by the small series resistor /?3. The total signal at the input to the 5-circuit is
A output

1.

series

Chapter 7. Linear
approximately

Links

and

System

Simulation
the

219
is large,

UiR2/(R\\

to
from

the

rule

developed

+ #2) + 4^3- Therefore,when when we were consideringthe

feedback

according
directly

system

in Fig.

7.12, or

G.11),

the output

impedance is Ri(R\\

Fig.

7.16

Resistive compound feedbackat

the

output
an

of an amplifier of bridge the amplifier Z&

The circuit in Fig. 7.16 is often referred to feedback since resistors R\\, R2, R3 and the output
constitute bridge,

as

implementation

impedance is connected

of

and the

feedback
impedance

to one diagonal of the B-circuit input, to another diagonal. In high-frequency bridge amplifiers, with Wheatstone or transformer is often employed to make the output bridges a cable, a filter, or an antenna. equal to 75 Q or 50 Q to match
a Wheatstone

bridge. The

load impedance

feedback Example 2. When compound employs angular velocity and torque the output of a servo motor imitates a damper of desired value. This way a and this motor is driving can be damped the control accuracy improved. flexible plant to use velocity and torque The drawback of this method is the need sensors which may rate feedback and a be relatively expensive. Using only a rate sensor with resulting driver with an is for most sufficient commonly amplifier appropriate output impedance sensors,

practicalapplications.
3. When power losses in a motor are small, the motor output mobility is - as will be to the of the driver electrical impedance output amplifier proportional of to the the shown in Section 7.6.2. Then, obtain motor, it is required output mobility feedback in the driver which sufficient to implement only amplifier, requires compound the better this method resistors. several The smaller the motor resistance, winding
Example

works.

at any formula allows calculation of the driving point impedance - which is Until now, we only considered the output port of the actuator it can be any other most for the control system designer.However, the important port, at a specified While the impedance for example, the input port of a feedback amplifier. at this port, and 7@) and feedback Zo is the impedance without port is being calculated, Blackman's
port.
specified are 7\\<\302\273)

the return

ratios

with,

respectively,

this port

open or shorted.

onfeedback 7.5 Effect of loadimpedance

We
and

have
parallel

already

seen

that

the

load

impedance

affects

the

feedback

in the

cases of series
function

feedback.

Generally,
8):

the

return

ratio

can be

expressed as a bilinear

of ZL

[9] (see also Appendix

T{z

) =

ZnT@) _JL_U

+ Z,

k_LZ#

T(o\302\260)

G.13.)

Z0+ZL

220
It

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and
ZL =

System Simulation
from

is easy

to check

that

when

0,

then

G.13),

T(ZL) =

T@), and

when

The feedback on the load makes it more difficult to design dependence systems where the load impedance is uncertain when or could the vary, especially plant is flexible and the resonance frequencies not well known. It is preferable are in this case to have the feedback independent of the load. The general condition for this is

= Z0,

G.14)

since

in this to Blackman's formula, and therefore from case, according T(Q) = T(\302\260\302\260), In order a local loop about to implement this condition, G.13), T(ZL)= T@) = T(\302\260\302\260). can be made. This loop provides the actuator the desired value of the output impedance of the actuator, this impedance as (mobility) being Zo for the main loop over the plant shown in Fig. 7.17. Sucha combination of local and main feedback is called balanced

bridgefeedback.

FVi %

*-zs }f

zL-* ,
Load

2
B
1

Fig.

7.17

Balanced

bridge feedback
two-ports

7,6 Flowchart for

7.6.1
When

ofbidirectional chainconnection
of two-ports like electrical
the motors

Chain
two-ports or

connection

that can also be used as link depends on the load for the dynamos, gears, of an motor is affected electrical link. For the by following example, input impedance to the motor, and the gear input mobility is the input mobility of the gear connected

like

are bidirectional, and transformers

load

for a

affected by

its

load.
a pair
the

A general linear two-port is described by input variables and two output variables, like

of linear equations
equations:

relating

its

two

following

G.15)

Equations G.15) can be represented of the diagram for each bidirectional

links.

by

the block

diagram

in

Fig.

7.18.

The inside

two-port

is represented

by four

unidirectional

Chapter

7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

221

a1 I*

\302\2602

B)

'2

'1

(e)
/(zL)

r/Zs

1/21

1/2,

(f)

Fig.

7.18

Flowcharts
for

(b) a

(e),(f)block diagrams

parallel impedance two-port,

of two-ports, of (a) a cascade connection series impedance two-port, (d) a ladder network; and voltage signal sources the ladder network with current (c) a

222
The conditions.

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and

System Simulation

be understood from the boundary that Hi = coefficient under the condition the is shorted. The coefficient b is the condition that the output 0, i.e., under port reverse direction that l\\ = 0, i.e., that the the condition voltage gain coefficient under left is under the condition that the conductance port open. The coefficient d is the output left port is open. The coefficient c is the input under the condition that the impedance

of the meanings The coefficient

coefficients a, b, c, d can
a is
the

current

gain

output

port is

shorted.
electrical

Example 1. An
related flowchart h=
flowchart h=
are

two-port

consisting

of

shunting

impedance

Z\\ and

the

shown
and

in Fig.
UX=U2.

7.18(b). The equations

of the

two-port

are

li-{\\IZi)U2
2. An
shown

Example

electrical two-port
in Fig.

consisting

of series

impedance Zi
are

and

the

related

are h

7.18(c).

The equations of the

two-port

and

U^ZJt+U*

Example
7S with

3. A ladder
impedance

electricaltwo-port
Zs is shown
ratios in Fig.

loaded

at ZL and

excited
the

by

current

source

internal

7.18(d).
input

The transimpedances (the networks consisting of 3 and

of the

output voltages to

currents)

for the

of 5

branches, are, correspondingly,

\302\246

. Zi +z2 +z3
For numerator
(Zj

+z2)(z3

+z4

+z5)+z3z5
network

the

most

frequently encountered
and denominator dentr and denominators of the
dentr

consisting transimpedance

of

three

branches,

the

numtr
numerators

of the
branch
n\\

of the

impedances

in terms are expressed as shown below: nit d\\

numtr - nin^didjdi,
(when using MATLAB, vectors to be added).
an

= n%%

n$ + n\\ n-i

appropriate

number

of zeros

must

be

added flowcharts

in front

of the

The
the

flowchart

of

the network
resulting

can be
block
Zn,

obtainedby
is

cascading in Fig.

and series
current As

branches.The
flowing

diagram

shown

7.18(e);

for parallel here, /(Z,,) is

and Zn. f/(Z,,), the voltage across impedance in the summers in the upper row represent KirchhofFs law for the currents the nodes, and the summers in the lower row represent Kirchhoff s law for the voltages functions can transfer Bode diagrams of the flowcharts about the elementary contours. 7.7. be obtainedwith SIMULINK using commands described in Section n of a link function is higher than the order of order transfer When the numerator In this case asn can the solution. not be able to find the denominator, SIMULINK might a. be added to the denominator with a sufficiently small coefficient With current and voltage summers, any circuit (not only the ladder) can be modeled if with a flowchart and modified, only a few links. required,by changing

through

impedance

is seen,

Example 4. In
source consisting

the

of

emf

previous example, the E = 7sZs in series

signal source is equivalently

with

replaced

by a

impedance

Z%. The

resulting

block

diagram is shown

in Fig.

7.18(f).

further

example

is given in

Appendix 13.12.

Chapter7. Linear 7.6-2 DC motors

An

Links

and

System

Simulation

223

electrical

dc motor

is an electromechanical transducer.
motor
with

U characterize
to

the electrical side of the the mechanical load which is rotated In application to the motor,

model.
angular

The current / and the voltage The generated torque x is applied

velocity

Q.

equations
rewritten
%

G.15)
as follows:

can

be
Electrical

source =

kI-QJZm

(driver)

U =
and in

G.16)
in the
flowchart the

reflected Fig.

7.19.

Here, k is
conversion
the

Fig. 7.19

Electrical motor flowchart

torque
Zm

electromechanical

coefficient,
the

i.e.,

ratio

of the

break torque (i.e., the

the

when
is the

the velocity motor

inertia

Q. = 0) to
mobility mobility

applied

measured reflects

current. As follows from while the electrical winding the viscous friction in the

first

is open,

bearings

equation, i.e., when the current and the moment of

from

is 0.

output This
of

the

rotor,

Zm= MB +
forward

Zl is the
path

l/(Js).
load

mobility.

The transfer
second

function

the

output
A.3)

of

the

link

k in

the

to the

input of the

link k

can be found

using

as

zL

_ zLzm
Z

l + ZLZm
This

is the

The input
r and the
impedance

parallel connectionof
voltage

the

load

and motor
voltage (The

mobilities.
drop reactive
typically

U equals

the sum of the

rl on

the

winding

resistance
the

back electromotive
is most
frequently

force kSl.

component
much

of

winding

neglected

since

it is

smaller

than

the

resistance, but in some cases this reactance must also be accounted for.) If the mechanical and the winding resistance are neglected, losses, the rotor inertia, is converted then and U = k?l so that t?2 = IU, i.e., the from electrical to x=kl power

mechanicalforms
In most

without

losses.

brushless motors are used with a applications, in accordance are switched with rotor. The stator (phases) windings magnet permanent of the rotor obtained from position sensors the information about the angle position basedon the Hall effect or from optical encoders.The encoder consists of a disk on the on it and several photosensors motor shaft with specific patterns placed on the printed The encoders to read the printed information. and separated by specific stator angles can alsoserveas angle sensors for the feedback path. The sensors are described in more detail in Section 7.9.1. ac current generated by dc motor can be driven A permanent by sinusoidal magnet ac controlled of the current are to ac inverter. The phase and the frequency by a separate the or the information about rotor angle a sensor either rotor feedbackloop, using angle extractedfrom the currents and voltages in the motor windings. of rotation causes k on the angle The periodic dependenceof the coefficient

low-power feedbackcontrol

periodic
diagram,

variations

in

the

motor

torque. To

model this
k path.

effect
branch

in the
includes

system's block
a multiplier

a parallel

branch

can be

added to

the

This

224 to whose
the

Chapter 7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

the shaft angle is applied via the function afcsinmp, where a is of the the shaft is amplitude torque variations, <p angle, and n the number of A rotation. similar branch added in with the path 1/Zm in torque ripples per parallel can 7.19 be used to model the in motors. Fig. holding torque step is Higher power dc motors have both rotor and stator windings. The stator winding often referred to as a flux The motor can be controlled current the winding. by varying in either winding or in both windings. relative

second input

7.6.3 Motor output

Using
the

mobility
in Fig. 7.19, the motor output transmission from Q to x. The

the flowchart
of the

mobility link

Zou,

raot

can
the

be calculated
inverse

as

inverse

1/Zd,

which is

of the
mobility

output impedance
is

of the r)/^

driver

amplifier,

should be

connected from

U to

/. The

Zou,mo. =
(Derivation

(Zd +

G.17)

of this formula is requested in Problem and a small 21.) When r is relatively voltage driver is used,the actuator output mobility is low and the actuator approximates a velocity source.When the plant is driven by a velocity source, the angular is velocity constant and independent on the load and friction. The effect of r can be compensated using a small sensingresistorin series with the motor. The voltagedrop on this resistor is proportional to the voltage drop on r. By and applying it with proper of the driver this voltage phase to the input amplifying a an extra feedback amplifier (i.e., by making compensating loop), voltage at the output which has the same and opposite phase is created of the driver amplifier amplitude on the to thus effect of r. The sensing the r, voltage drop compensating compared should be temperature or some additional be added resistorshould circuitry dependent, of the to compensate for the temperature resistance. dependence winding be analyzed can and designed with Blackman's formula The same circuit by

with the output impedance equal to -r, thus amplifier making creating a driver Zd + r = 0 and Zoutmot = 0. in the compensating The feedback bandwidth loop is limited by the winding can be analyzed with the multiloop inductance. The system stability Bode-Nyquist of two-poles and/or with the Bode-Nyquist criterion for connections criterion, [2].

7.6.4

Piezoelements

Piezoelement
analyzed

actuators can
the

be
Electrical

using

following

equations:

source
dV
(driver) 1

I4] b

Mechanical

load

F = aU +

reflected
Fig.

7.20.

in the The

flowchart

shown

in

Fig. 7.20
output

Piezoactuator flowchart

coefficient
the

a is
of zero
velocity, to

measuredunder
It is the ratio
reverse

condition

of the clamped force

transmission

the

incident
V

direction

coefficient from

to

is clamped. i.e., when the output voltage. The coefficientb is the / while the input is shorted. port

Chapter 7. Linear Links

and

System

Simulation
under

225
that

The coefficientd is the inverse port is shorted. The coefficient

condition

of the
c

output

mobility

the condition

the

input
the

is the

input port electrical conductanceunder

that the

output

port

under the condition of zero output i.e., when velocity, the output is clamped. It is the ratio of the clamped force to the incident The voltage. coefficient b is the reverse direction transmission coefficient from V to / while the input The coefficient d is the inverse of the output mobility is shorted. under the port condition that the input is The is the shorted. coefficient c electrical input port port conductance under the condition that the output port is clamped.

The coefficient a

is measured

is clamped.

due

Both the electromagnetic actuators

to

the

hysteresis
Figs.

hysteresis 7.19

and the piezoactuators possess some hysteresis Most and the piezoelectric material often, the properties. is small and can be neglected. If not, it can be modeled by introducing links (described in Chapter in the diagrams in 10) into the elementary links and 7.20.

ferromagnetic

7.6.5 Drivers, transformers, and

The

gears

are typically are input impedances of driver high, i.e., the amplifiers amplifiers The amplifiers are characterized their transconductance voltage-controlled. by = Is/Ui with zero impedance load) or their coefficient YT (measured voltage gain = K EIU\\ (measured and with no load); here, U\\ is the voltage at the driver's input, t/2 is output.
amplifier

the voltage at the driver's of the driver. The driver

Evidently,
flowcharts

K=

FT

Zd where
in

Zj is

the

output

impedance

are shown

Fig.

7.21.

(a)

(b)
Flowcharts

(c)
driver
and at the the
amplifier

(d)
output

Fig. 7.21
Example

for

(c) a

(a), (b) a
driver, emf

with

impedance
E =

Zd,
motor

current

(d) a

voltage driver
the

angular flowcharts
load

Fig. 7.21(b), the can be calculated velocity

and the

1. In

output of

driver

U\\K.

The

or included

for the driver into the load, mobility Zl are

the obtained by cascading equations the motor in Fig. 7.19. With the motor mobility neglected to variations in the angular velocity Q. and its sensitivity
from

dQ.

Q=

l
and

It is
dependent

commonly desired that

on

velocity
ZL

in the

the
ISOI

load
needs

mobility
to be

(which

includes
sensitivity

velocity controlled systems be less the uncertain friction and load

depends

dynamics),
important

i.e.,

small. The

on Zd.

to choose and

implement Zd

properly.

The

sensitivity

Therefore, becomes small

it when

is

226

Chapter
+

7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

small (recall Example 1 from 7.3, the description of the effect the effect of of r in Section 7.6.2, and the actuator impedance described in
IZa

H is

Section

1/n

> \302\273(T)

Section
A

7.5).
flowchart
with

Vn
for
the

an
turn

transformer
shown

ratio
the

electrical n is

(b)

for

in Fig. 7.22(a), a mechanical gear

in

and a
with

flowchart

Fig. 7.22
V.n

Flowcharts

for

velocity

transformer

and

(b) a

(a) an electrical mechanical gear

ratio n,
the

The resistance of resistance of primary winding being r\\ and of the secondary, r2, the total equivalent = is r For the + a mechanical friction the viscous r\\ rilr?. primary gear box, equivalent coefficient for the motor output motion is B = Bx + B^n2. The composite flowchart of a driver and a motor with an attached gear box is a cascade connection of the three corresponding flowcharts.
Fig.

7.22(b).

driver has voltage gain coefficient 10 and output impedance + Q . 0.25?2. The motor winding impedance is 20 0:0003s and the motor constant is 0.1 Nm. The motor rotor's moment of inertia is 0.02 Nm2. The gear amplifies the motor torque twice, i.e., the gear ratio, the load angle to the motor angle (or, the load angular to the motor angular is 1:2. The losses in the gear and bearings make velocity velocity), B = 0.01Nm/(rad/sec). The load's moment of inertia load is 0.2 Nm2, i.e., the mobility is 5/s. The model for the driver, motor, gear, and load assembly shown in Fig. 7.23 is a cascade connection of the models in Figs. 7.21, 7.19,7.22, and the load. driver and Since the output of the the of the motor winding impedance impedance in series, the model the value of the link are connected can be simplified by changing and + 1/0.25 = 4 to 1/B0.25 + 0.003.S) the link 20 0.003s. eliminating
Example

2.

The

friction

torque

Fig.

7.23

Block diagram of
actuator

cascade

connection

of

driver,

motor,
the

gear, and
plant

load
not J\\

Example 3. The
rigid: (which
inertia

of the

previous examples appliedto

to

which is
of inertia

the

torque

(Tl -friction torque) is applied

gear

the body
and

with

moment

reflects
J3

the inertia of the is connected to the gear

the

and

the motor),
with

an

antenna

via a

shaft

torsional

stiffness

with moment coefficient k2. by the

network:
mobility

of
Z

Therefore,
which

is the

input

51s in Fig. 7.23 must be replaced mobility the of electrical ladder impedance equivalent IT-type
load

Chapter

7.

Linear

Links and

System Simulation
three poles:
about \302\261;A/jb,(/,+

227

This

mobility

has

two

zeros, imaginary where

and \302\261j^k21J3 ,
poles 0L is

J3)/

JlJi
in

and 0.
transfer

The pair of purely

will bring

a pair

of complex actuator.

poles
gear.

the

function QiJU\\ poles will be substantially

the

angular

velocity
mobility

of the
of the

output of the

These

damped

by the

output

7.6.6
Coulomb

Coulomb friction
friction

is modeled
on

by the

block shown
Vis
shown

in Fig. in Fig.

friction

force

FCouiomb

the velocity

7.24(a). 7.24(b).

The dependence of the

Plant

F
V

lynamics

Coulomb

uoulomb

p^
k

f
V 1 ^Coulomb

friction

Coulomb
friction

3*

(a)
Fig. 7.24 Coulomb friction and characteristic

(b)
model

Fig. 7.25

Model

system

of a dynamic with friction

model is commonly incorporated in the plant model as a feedback path 7.25. In this composite to the plant, applied plant model, F is the force and the difference between this force and the Coulomb friction force is applied to the is also shown in When the is not a pure summer actuator 7.23). (the Fig. plant dynamics can be included in the model as force source,the inverse of the actuator output mobility link. a feedback path in parallel with the Coulomb friction In Fig. 7.22, the model with viscous friction B, Instead of this of a gear was shown a Coulomb friction link can be placed. The Coulomb block (or, parallel to this block), link can be also placed parallelto the link 1/2^ in Fig. 7.19. It is seen that when friction is small, the link 1/2^ will dominate and the effect of Coulombfriction be will Zja on the greatly depends negligible. It is seen thereforethat the effect of Coulomb friction shown

The friction

in Fig.

actuator's
surface

output

mobility.

1. When a rigid is dragged over another rigid body with a rough body causes oscillation (with some soft spring, Coulomb friction re-arrangement In this case the actuator's a violin). of coordinates, this is the case of playing output the force source. However, when is large, and the actuator is a nearly pure impedance occurs. no oscillation is that of velocity,evidently, source
Example by a

7.7
A

Examples
system

of system modeling
can be
in

of the system elements and the topology by in MATLAB and mathematical SPICE), equations (as (as of The use of flowcharts simplifies the organization many other computer languages). in the flowcharts The equations the mathematical description of the system. expressed via a graphical can be entered in the input file of a computer simulation program \302\256 and some other control software packages). interface (as in SIMULINK model

described either
or by

their connections

Example 1. A

SIMULINK-like

model

of a control

system

using

a brushless

dc

228

Chapter 7. Linear
motor

Links

and

System

Simulation

permanent magnet

is shown

in Fig.
ideal

7.26.

motor

torque

Voltage

driver
command back

Motor
winding

Motor

Product

Plant

<p

constant Friction

dynamics

1/s

emf
position

admittance k3
constant

(mobility)

feedback
Motor

model
Quantizer

[f

k4

Fig.

7.26

Block diagram of

a control

system

The system includes an input with voltage output, a voltage a compensator summer, driver as a voltage controlled source of voltage U, a brushless permanent dc magnet with a position motor with motor constant k, a plant model, specified mobility, a friction a quantizer (since an optical encoder used as the angle (angle) feedback including the and cogging as periodic and the of motor variations models sensor), torque t the The is on angle <p. applied to the plant, the output dependencies output torque

force is subtracted from the driver's angular velocity is Q.. The back electromotive output voltage U, and, divided by the motor winding resistance r, produces the winding motor current /. The torque t is the ideal by the motor torque (current multiplied the are variations, constant) from which cogging torque, and friction torque torque the output to the input signal. The subtracted. SIMULINK can provide time-response to SIMULINK analysis tools (signal source; oscilloscopes; plotters; multiplexers are not shown in Fig. 7.26. Their use is described in the provide data for the workspace)
manuals.

inport
the

A loop Bode diagram 1 (from the Simulink output,

can be found
\"Connections\"

as

follows:

disconnect

the feedback path,

input,

attach

library)
bode

to

the

command

outport

to

loop

and

type

in the

MATLAB command
; response

window:

[A-,B,C,D]=linmod('file_name')

(A,B,C,
by

D, 1)
applying

The closed-loop frequency

to the system with explained in Chapter
Example
reconnected

can be

obtained

the same
matrices

program
is

feedback

path. The meaning

of the

A,B,C,D

8.

of system description are illustrated with an 2. The two methods below A with a in coil actuator of shown 7.27. voice isolation a vibration Fig. system example and load cell sensoris placed between two flexible bodies with mobilities Z\\ Zj. The of the voice coil should reduce source is on the second body, and the actions vibration has sensitivity the vibrations of the first body. The load cell together with its amplifier and the is characterized coil 1V/N, The voice by the coil resistance r = AQ. = a 3 N/A. The is lossless downk coefficient's electromechanical coefficient equivalent with the turn ratio of 3 (the ratio of the primary to the secondary transformer windings).

Chapter

7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

229

Fig. 7.28
electrical and

shows
to
the

the All

equivalent currents
Body 1

schematic

diagram.
left

voltages

of

the

vertical
electrical

Load cell

dashed line represent physical

variables

in amperes
line,

and

volts;

of

the

they

newtons

and

represent velocities
cell

right forces in in m/sec,

is therefore

to the

VC

correspondingly. The load

represented
by

an

ampermeter,
voltage be

in this
source. coded

Fig. 7.27
input

Vibration

isolation

system

case, a

current-controlled

The schematic

diagram can now

into the

file

of SPICE.

Loadcell

electrical

side

Voice coil

mechanical

side

Fig.

7.28

Equivalent schematic
a flowchart

diagram

for

a vibration
same

isolation system
It can
driver

Fig. 7.29 shows

example,

description
Zout

for
output

the

system.

be used, for
amplifier.

with

SIMULINK.

Here,

is the

impedance of the
force

to be

*\302\246 reduced feedback

by
vibr

velocity

of
body

second

Fig.

7.29

Flowchart

description of a disturbance isolation

method

feedback

system
of

The software,

choice of the modeling on the problem specifics,

depends

on

the
and,

availability

simulation

on the

system links,

to a

the driver designer's personal preferences. If, for example, amplifier and should not be changed, the compensator C is implemented then probably flowchart simulation with SIMULINK designer is a mechanical engineer, will take less time than simulation with SPICE. If, however, the driver needs amplifier with the compensator, the compensator to be designedand optimized is simultaneously is an electrical engineer, then the design and probably analog, and the designer is easier to perform using an equivalent simulation electrical schematic diagram and

on the large extent, is already designed in software, and the

SPICE.

230

Chapter

7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

7.8

Flexible

structures
of a that are

7.8.1 Impedance (mobility) The Foster theorem states

(mobility)
shown

lossless
the

system and poles of a driving imaginary and alternate frequencies, there could
point on

zeros

impedance

of a

lossless system
zero and
responses

in Fig.

7.30. At
frequency

purely at infinite

the jco-axis,
a pole

as
or a in
IZI
IZI

be either
are

zero.
Mobility

where IZI is falling, and 90\302\260 where Figs. 4.36, 7.31. The angle of the mobility is -90\302\260 is rising. The low-frequency reflect and the high-frequency asymptote asymptote either or inversely proportional to frequency. It is seen that being proportional

of non-dissipative

flexible plants

exemplified

in

Fig. 7.31(a),

the

high-frequency

asymptote by by

is shifted the

low-frequency asymptote is determined all the bodies connected together frequencies.

springs
asymptote
the

from the low-frequency rigid body mode, i.e., by which are considered stiff
is

the at

The masses of very low

one.

The
by All

high-frequency

determined solely is applied. force

the other

body to bodies

which

incident

are disconnected

from
very

this

body

since

large

at high

the springs' mobilities frequencies.

IZI,

become

s-plane

121,

dB log, sc.

dB
f, /,

log, sc.

yrx
(a)
Fig.

7TYX
(w

a lossless

Fig. 7.30 Polesand zeros two-pole impedance

of

7.31

scale: of a lossless system, logarithmic Driving point impedance (mobility) and a zero at infinite (a) having a pole at zero frequency frequency, and a prominent (b) with zeros at zero frequency and infinite frequency,

suspension mode of
the

It
asymptote

can

be

calculated

by the square

commonly depends on the actuator drives a massive on a spring, the pole-to-zero of the sum of the masses
smaller body, asymptote.
the

closer

pair lifts the high-frequency the zero This ratio to frequencies. pole in the flexible mode. If, for example, an mass participation a small additional mass is main from which body suspended ratio of the flexible mode equals the square root of the ratio to the mass of the main of the body. The smaller the mass and the smaller is the in the shift is the pole to the zero

that each

additional

zero-pole

ratio

of the

to the left of the jco-axis. As a Structural the poles and zeros displaces damping of IZI become smoothed. result, the peaks and valleys on the frequency Still, response the the losses in mechanical can beso small that without dampers peaks systems special reach 40 and even 60 dB over the smoothed responseof the mobility.

7.8.2
Distributed

Lossless distributed
structures

structures
be approximated
by

can

lumped

element

structures

with a

large

Chapter7. Linear
number

Links

and

System

Simulation

231

of elements

as shown

in

Fig.

7.32(a)

and (b).

(a)

F,x
1\342\200\224

(b) z

If

AAAr

AAAr

AAAr

f,

log so.

Fig. 7.32

(a) Distributed

structure,

parameters,

(b) its equivalent representation (c) Its driving point mobility

of

with

lumped

Correspondingly,
an

the impedance (mobility)

of poles
zeros
and

a distributed

structure Z(s) possesses

infinite

number

zeros,

as illustrated
far

in Fig.

7.32(c).

These polesand
signal and the high-frequency
parameters,
signal

can

reflected

be viewed back from the

very

resonances are
in

and therefore,

physical

in uncertainty becomes a criticalfactor 4. as has been discussedin Chapter The wave impedance (mobility) (mobility) is the input impedance extended so that no signal reflects at the far end and returns structure to infinity lossless distributed structure The wave impedance of a uniform the input. resistance
the

of the incident interference of the structure. The frequencies of structure sensitive to small variations of the uncertain. This are to a large extent systems, bandwidth the the of available feedback, limiting end

as producedby

of is

the

back to
the

= p 1/y/kM , where k
The

and

are the

stiffness

and

the

mass

per unit length

symmetrical

of

structure.

plot of
at

IZI

in logarithmic in Fig.

units is

commonly nearly

about

the wave

impedance as shown
the

7.32(c).

at some resistor (or, if end means loading the structure to the wave impedance the with mechanical, equal impedance (mobility) of the structure as extending to In this we can think of the structure. case, (mobility) the structure the wave of and the equaling input impedance (mobility) infinity,

Matching

far

at

a dashpot)

impedance (mobility).
the signal source and the structure is provided when at either end Matching mobility of the structure. can be considered a result of resonances of the structure fully damps it (since the if at either end no of the structure, and of the waves reflected at the ends interference no resonances take place). reflection occursdue to matching,
Matching

between

the

signal

source

output

mobility

equals

the wave

Example 1. A
panel
sun.
attitude

having moment of inertia The solar panel torsional

making

solar motor constant k is employed to rotate a spacecraft to the direction to the / to keep the panel perpendicular wave resonance frequency is ft. The spacecraft quarter This can be achieved this resonance. can be improved by damping control by the motor output equal to the solar panel wave mobility mobility approximately motor

with

p. The driver.

desiredmotor

output

mobility

can be

created

by

compound

feedback

in the analogy. / and c

the mobility using the We calculate In electrical transmission lines, the phase

voltage-to-velocity

electro-mechanical

is 2%fx(lc)m
unit

where x is
At

the

length

and

are

the

inductance = nil

2itfIx(lc)m

and capacitance wherefrom (lc)m

per

length.

the quarter

= 4xfT.

Then,

the

wave

impedance is p = (llc)m =

wave resonance,

232
l/DcxfT).
inertia

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and

System Simulation
which

The
J.

ex is

the

full

capacitance
and

of the line,
driver

is analogous

to the

moment of

Hence,

p = l/DJft)

the

output mobility is l/^Jfc2/,).

7.8.3 Collocated control

Frequently,

the actuator is a pure source of force or current), and the (or torque, sensor is connected to the same port of the plant but reads the variable which is related to the actuator variable by the plant driving point impedance (mobility). The transfer function is in this case the plant driving point impedance or admittance plant

feedback

(mobility or
mentioned

the

inverse

of mobility).

Such control is called collocated, as

is positive the

was

already

in Section
point

4.3.6.
impedance (mobility) of a passiveplant the function is constrained within
are the

The driving

real

(p.r.),

and the phase angle of of p.r. functions (Properties the controller design and

interval. [-90\302\260, 90\302\260] greatly

reviewed

in Appendix

2.) This feature

simplifies

stability

provision.
actuator operator

in Fig. 7.33(a), the shown Example 1. In the mechanical arrangement source and the sensor measures angular velocity d%/dt (or a linear torque the velocity, such as position or acceleration).

is a of

Shaft
, Zs

Load

(a)

(b)
is a

(c)

Fig. 7.33 (a)Actuator

<pi or \302\253p2, providing

case

with any of the sensors, is collocated torque source, control of collocated back signal; (b) block diagram control; (c) the of the actuator is finite; control is is considered in Section 7.8.4; the output mobility sensor collocated when sensor <pi is used and is non-collocated when <j>2 is used
the fed

In the

related block diagram

mobility

shown

in system.

Fig. 7.33(b),
the

the

plant

transfer

function the control

P =

<p/t

is the

of

the the

mechanical same

Since

the torque is
be

before

and after
<p2 is used. with

shaft

flexibility,
will

remains collocatedeven
if there will of the torque

when

the sensor

(The control
moment

not

be collocated
the

an additional

rigid body

substantial

of inertia at

point

application.)

control 7.8.4 Non-collocated

Contrary

to

the

structure have several may ports of a passivelossless is not constrained. As functions phase shift of the transfer this shift reduces the available feedback. phase be placed and the actuator cannot always The sensor

driving

point lossless

mobility,

transfer

functions been

between

different
the

and consecutive poles or zeros,

has

shown in Chapter

4,

For example,

exactly at the same location. for might be placed closer to the load. accuracy, force (or torque) source, an ideal the actuator If the plant were an ideal rigid or body, as shown in Fig. 7.33(c), the control is the control would still be collocated. Otherwise, collocatedwhen the first sensor is used and is not collocated, i.e., the actuator and plant
better

control

the

sensor

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and System

Simulation

233

when the second sensoris used.In this case, the as an approximation of the reality, the only valid a limited bandwidth. over approximation only being frequency With of the shaft connecting the motor and the load, to the flexibility respect the arises between of the mechanical structure and frequently designer misunderstanding the control loop designer about the of the statement: \"Higher meaning frequency structural than the frequency range of operation.\" The modes are much higher structural soundness over the working designer is mostly concerned with the structural frequency
transfer

function

is

not,

generally,

p.r.,

control

can be

called

collocated

range and
bandwidth

might

underestimate
only

the following square

factors: (a)
stiffness, the

the

is proportional to
must
shown Trying structural

the

root of

the

and

be many

times wider

than

functional

mode frequency structural (b) the control feedback loop band of the system (as has
as

been

4 and 5). to make the structure tend to design designers

in Chapters

as inexpensiveand
structures

lightweight

as possible,
within

with

structural

modes

falling

the

feedback bandwidth which the control system from achieving prevents This is why the control system designer/dynamicist needs to be involved

high

process before the mechanical give his recommendations for

structure
the

design
changes

required

is completed, and he in the structure and

structural modes

accuracy. in the design

be

must

able

to

to evaluate

the

proposed solutions in As has been shown

real in

time during Section

the meetings with the flexible 4.3.6, the plant

can

designer. restrict the

the

available
system

feedback. Introducing
performance.

structural

damping

greatly improve

control

The dampers

can be built
the The

eddy
structural

currents.

Using

modes.

Coulomb friction, using allows a substantial dampers dampers are, however, relatively
using

system

cost,

weight,

and dimensions,

the

dampers

hydraulic energy dissipation, or reduction of the effects of and to constrain the expensive, must be well justified by the

j available

performance improvement.

7.9 Sensor noise

7.9.1
For

Motion

sensors

7.9.1.1
position

Position
(or

and angle

sensors
sensors

angle)

commonly

employed:
and

(c) accelerometers.

variables' measurements, three categories of (a) position sensors, (b) rate (i.e., velocity)
sensors,

are

sensors,

and

For position

angle

transformers (LVDT), the resolvers, the star trackers are representative.

An

the optical

the potentiometers, the encoders, the

linear laser

variable

interferometers,

differential and

provide
with

electrical potentiometer high resolution and the still better than

with the
position

accurate potentiometers
resolution The

are universally
0.5\302\260.

moved can tap mechanically by the plant of 0.1%. Less reading accuracy and linearity used in small servos for radio-controlled toys,

LVDT

shown in Fig.
windings:

7.34(a) measuresthe
the

position

of the

plant
the
of

with

respect

to

the base. It has three

two

generator is applied in The voltageis amplified

product

opposite and

phases applied

symmetrical and the winding

synchronous

windings to
providing detector

which

a signal

from a

output

voltage.
is a

to a

of

this

voltage

and

the generator

voltage. The dc component

the output

of
the

which

detector's

234
output

Chapter 7. Linear
is proportional

Links

and

System

Simulation
from the central

to the

third

winding

displacement

position.

plant

sincrt

__j

LJ

. \342\200\236

Synchronous

detector

output \302\273 \342\200\224

coscct

(a)

(b)
Position

Fig. 7.34

sensors:

(a) LVDT,

(b) resolver

The maximum stroke of common LVDTs is from 0.1\" to 1\" with pretty good of precision LVDTs can be 1 rnicroinch. There also exist linearity, and the resolution ICs are available which all rotary versions of the device. incorporate Specialized necessary electronics. The resolver shown in Fig. 7.34(b) is a rotating transformer. It has two stator and two rotor windings. an ac signal is applied in To a pair of these windings windings can From the signal induced on the two other windings, the angle of rotation quadrature. be determined with high accuracy. The optical encoder was already briefly described in Section 7.6.2. The encoders can be absolute, with complicated which at any time give on the disk patterns optical about the shaft angle, or incremental, with of full information patterns simple black incremental be and lines. The encoders must accompanied alternating transparent of the counts. incremental encoders Quadrature by some electronics keeping track have two 90\302\260-shifted readers. This improves the accuracy by a factor of 2 and also gives of rotation. Interpolation of the data from the readers information about the direction
additionally

The laser interferometer compares

light

improves

twice

the angle reading

the

accuracy.
phases
target, The
and

of the
and

incident

reflected

from when

a mirror

interference

the

distances with
use modulated
The

placed on the distance changes gradually.

accuracy.

counts

interferometer
less

laser light with the the fringes of the can measure large

nanometer
light

Less accurate
precision

expensive

interferometers with an

beams.

star

tracker

is a

small

telescope

equipped

image

recognition system.

7.9.1.2 Rate
The

sensors

most often
is a

used rate (velocity) sensorsare

dynamo

the

tachometer

and the
the

gyroscope. The
can

tachometer

be only a windings in certain rotation angle tachometer is winding the tachometer is proportional to the motor angular velocity. In contrast to the resolver, able to detect the angle of rotation when not the rotation irate is very low since in this is below the noise level. case the signal on the tachometer winding The a a position servo loop. An electrical is with rate-gyro gyroscope winding

mounted on

the

same

shaft

as the

motor (or, there

on the motor's rotor or stator; separate tachometer winding brushless motors which are disconnected from the driver during The emf on the intervals, can be usedas tachometer windings).

motor

Chapter

7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

235

generates a torque
the

in position of the gyro to the base. The current of the is proportional to the base winding output signal gyro; this current velocity (i.e., the rate of the base rotation). The rate signal is analog. A/D angular the data interface with the rest of the system, but it loses some conversion simplifies For these reasons, it is common to use both information. the analog higher-frequency and digital outputs the gyro. from preserving

the relative

is

the

7.9.1.3

Accelerometers
use

The accelerometers
devices.

electromagnetic,

piezoelectric,
magnetic

piezoresistive,
proof

and

tunnel-effect

In an

the electromagnetic accelerometer,

spring.
coil

Motion

of

the base

relative to
the

the

proof

mass

surrounding

the proof mass which

base

is mechanically

is suspended on a electromotive force in a produces connected to the base. The proof

mass

a servo feedback loop which by This force creates accelerationnearly electromagnetic proof applies to the base the mass acceleration so remains still relative to the base. The proof equal force in accordance to Newton's second law is the measure value of the compensating

mass position relative to

is kept

constant

force to

the

mass.

of
the

the

acceleration.

a suspended proof mass and, via a servo loop, kept constant this force by some (e.g., current in the coil or a voltage of the acceleration. An example electrostatic of force) serves as the measure producing in Section an accelerometer control loop is given 11.9. A set of three accelerometers can be used to determine of the vector orthogonal the inclination a of vehicle. force and, therefore, gravity

There

position

exist many different types of which is measured by force. The signal producing

of accelerometers using
sensor

some

7.9.1.4 Noise responses

Ideally,

the output data is post-processed, motion are interchangeable: when sensors allow us to translate suitable integrations and differentiations between rates, positions, and accelerations. The principal difference between them is their dynamic accuracy domain characterization, their noise or, with the frequency characteristics, spectral the mean square error can be calculated The noise and power density responses. by of the spectral density with linear frequency of scale over the bandwidth integration

interest.
an accurate steady state value of the position, but Position sensors typically give the decreases when For it takes position changes rapidly. accuracy example, to identify dim stars in a star tracker, so considerable time to accumulate enough light of the spacecraft on which that this sensor cannot react fast to the position the changes star tracker is mounted. On the other hand, gyros have drift (slow and gradual change in and therefore do not determine the position the reading caused by device imperfections) accurately after some time passes from the initial setup. Gyros are worse in position than the star trackers at frequencies from 0 to 0.01 Hz, but get better at determination higher frequencies. At even higher frequencies (say, from 15 Hz and up) the gyro noise

their

increases and the

accelerometers

become

superior.
sensor

The frequency responses of typical positiondata are shown in Fig. 7.35.

noise

spectral

density converted to

236

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and

System Simulation

dB

position

sensor/

/
\342\200\224\"\302\246\"

accelerometer, f,

rate sensor

log sc.

Fig. 7.35
7.9.2 The

Frequency response of
of feedback

sensor

noise

normalized

to the sensor

input

Effect most

on the signal-to-noise ratio

are those
of resistors,

common
the

(which is

first

noiseis commonly
A feedback

noise sources in control systems after the feedback summer), amplifier

characterized
which

of

the

error

amplifier

and of
noise

sensors. The

loop
the

reduces
the

by its spectral density. both the signal source

signal

and

the

does not possible

There

change
and

ratio of

to the
the

noise at
signal-to-noise

the

system

often

convenient

to examine

ratio

source effects Thus, it is output. as if there were no

feedback.
the system is a caveat here: when is compared with and without performance the system should not be changed in any other aspect. Particularly, when the effect of the sensor noise is calculated, the transmission coefficient from the output to the system output sensor should remain Therefore, the feedback loop unchanged. should be disconnected betweenthe system not between the output and the sensor input, in Fig. 7.36. and the feedback sensor output path. The differenceis shown

feedback,

sensor noise

(b)

Fig. 7.36
As was

Disconnecting ratio

the at the

feedback

system
1.1.2, the

loop while (a) preserving the the ratio output, (b) changing

signal-to-noise

mentioned in
disconnecting

Section

preserved
system

while

the loading for the disconnected ports must be feedback path for appropriate comparison of the

with

and without

feedback.

Chapter7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

237

7.37 shows Example 1. Fig.

with the
outer

an

amplifier

feedback

path

from

the
the

emitter
input

of

the

stage

to the emitter

of

stage.
by

The

feedback
R2=

the signal-to-noise ratio not of change in the feedback, but because in the input contour the resistance because and increases which reduces the signal increases the noise. When the feedback is eliminated by ratio improves /?i = 0, the signal-to-noise setting
\302\260\302\260. This reduces

loop can

be

disconnected

setting

since
contour

in

this

case

the

resistance

Fig. 7.37
an emitter

Amplifier

with
path

in

the

input

feedback

decreases.
onto
the

are.loaded If, however, both disconnected ports of the feedback path the the that each sees when loads feedback is to closed, port path equal or without the feedback. noise ratio remains the same with

loads

signal-to-

7.10
7.10.1

Mathematical

analogies to the feedback system

analogy
E=UTE, From implements the equation in diagrammed Fig. 7.38(b). ET

Feedback-to-parallel-channel
Fig. 7.38(a) = (T+l)E=FEas

The summer in that U = E + TE

here it

follows

U
'

CAP
\\ET

CAP

m
(a)

T
(b)
between with

Fig. 7.38 Analogy and (b) a system

(a) a feedback two parallel forward

system paths.
this
paths.

The formulas
feedback
and

A.1), represents

the ratio ElU. When 17*1\302\2731, then introducing the channel \302\253 In all the this way, features of the feedback U*> ET and UJU -\\IB. A.1), equations A.2), and A.3) are apparent. This can be employed to analyze or simulate of system (a) when responses analogy this system is unstable and system (b) is stable. We will use this analogy in Chapter 12.

connection parallel I [/I and reduces T increases

A.2), the

and A.3)

remain

valid

for
two

system
When

which has no
I2\"+1I>1,

of

7.10.2 Feedback-to-two-pole-connection analogy the A.2), and A.3) also describe A.1), Equations of depicted in Fig. 7.39(a). The transfer functions
Ohm's

signals

the

law.

voltage
the

U\\

applied to - U2 U\\ = U

second

reflects

the

first two-pole produces two-pole voltage drop U2. summer in the feedback loop.
applied

to the

in the two-pole connections links in block diagram (b) recite causes current /, and this current

The

contour

equation

238

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and

System Simulation
u

r>\\f
iP Lj?j
I

(a)

(b) (a) a

Fig. 7.39
This

Analogy

between

two-poles' connection and (b) a feedbacksystem here,

ITI\302\2731,

large
the

feedback
second

condition
two-pole
result,

is

that

\\Z4\302\273 Il/J^l,

i.e.,

the

impedance of
the

first

two-pole.

As a

the

transmission

calculations: /= U/(l/Yi of a system with large the feedback path transfer function. The can be employed to analogy electrical two-poles for stability analysis in Chapter 10.
the current

is much larger in magnitude than the impedance can be second two-pole neglectedwhen considering to the + Zi) = UlZq. This is analogous closed-loop is the input divided feedback where the output

of

by

use

the

passivity

condition
will

of a
use

network

of

of feedback

systems. We

this

analogy

7.11 Linear time-variable systems

Linear

time-variable

links

(LTV)
When

are described
the

by

linear

equations
the

explicitly depend on time. the output, contrary sinusoidal,

signal

applied

to

input

of

to might

the case contain

necessarily sinusoidal,and

componentsare applied to the link input, LTV links of digital compensators this section we will consider Mathieu's
d 2yldt2
which

of a linear time-invariable harmonics. When several sinusoidal contains intermodulation products. the output In 5.10.7. have already been analyzed in Section
higher equation

whose coefficients an LTV link is link is not (LTI),

+ (a

+ 2.ecos(r))y

=0
an LTI

G.19)

is representative
this

e = 0,
with oscillation

the

system

LTV systems that might be encountered in practice. If lossless resonator,the solution being a sinusoid is on the 4a . The solution boundary between selfangular frequency and the exponential decay. The time-variable coefficient2ecosfchanges a behavior: some combinations of e and lead to solutions which are
of some
equation

describes

exponentially system. A

rising
instability

with

time,
stability

and

other diagram

combinations shown
equation

The

Ince-Strutt

introduce damping in Fig. 7.40 depicts the

into

the

areas

of

Stability and

in the

plane of the

parameters.

is shown in Fig. 7.41(a). system described by Mathieu's equation 2ecosf certain of the signal harmonics in the LTV link Intermodulation produces to the at its these Addition of passing COnJpOBgnts components signal through output. at the summer's output. When the the LTI link a alters the phase of the signal the coefficient ? is large, the system is unstable with nearly all possible a, as seenfrom feedback
stability

diagram

in Fig.

7.40.

Chapter7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

239

(a)

(b)
by Mathieu's

(c)
equation

Fig.7.40 Ince-Strutt
An

Fig. 7.41
diagram
resonators

(a) Feedback system, and (b) and (c)

described

electrical

circuit

equivalent

to

the

feedback

system

is shown

in

the

diagram

in

Fig. 7.41(b), and an

term energy,

equivalent

mechanical

system,
frequency

in Fig.
of

7.41(c). The

time-variable

resonator. This pumps the the resonator. For example, on is preserved, the voltage is reduced while the charge when the resonator capacitance to the is increases the capacitor increases and the stored energy (the energy proportional can be changed and the energy pumped frequency square of the voltage). The resonance of mass of the swinging resonator into the pendulum body up (c) by moving the center and down. LTV links depends on the phase The phaseshift for the passing signal in periodical while of the incident signal. Therefore, conditions, the worst possible stability analyzing This all possible case needs to be consideredamong signal. phases of the incident of the the link shift. in the However, results in some uncertainty uncertainty range phase when available feedback. the reduces transfer function Therefore, potentially loop the When LTI plants, it is generally appropriate to use LTI compensators. controlling in the 5 or in in digital described like are LTV Chapter systems systems compensators of a certain in search for a maximum where the compensator parametersare varied is reduced. feedback performance index, the available can be chosen to be LTV a controller about an LTV plant, To increasethe feedback less the loop transfer function is in such a manner that dependenton time (i.e., when the
periodically changes on average over the the
length

the resonance
of the

cycle,

in

or

out of

plant

gain

increases,

the compensator
variations

gain

In adaptive rate of
in the

systems (see Chapter signals

and

9),

decreases accordingly). are the compensators

LTV,
than
the

but

typically,

the

compensator

in time is
the

chosen much
dynamics
the

lower

the rate
dynamics

of changes
that

the

critical link

part of the
feedback

system

(i.e.,

limit
are

the value of the

LTV

and affect

substantially
analysis

stability

margins).

In this

case, the
links

for the

purpose of stability
from

can

be considered

LTI. Such
links

called

quasi-static.

For small signal deviations

the

current

LTV links. We
stability.

will

use

this

approximation

value, nonlinear in Chapter 12 for the

can

be seen

as

analysis

of process

240 7.13. Problems

Chapter7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

1
2

Why

is

it convenient
analogy?

to preserve power

while

choosing

the

type

of electro-

electromechanical

How many independent (a) a ball joint,

variables are at

(b) a pin,
(c)

positioning system, planes (e.g., one plate sliding arbitrarily of two electrical circuits, (e) a two-wire junction circuits, (f) a three-wire junction of two electrical of two electrical circuits. junction (g) a four-wire

an x-y

(d) sliding

on the

surface of another plate),

3
4

What

are

the

equivalents
thermal

of Ohm's

law

for

translational

and rotational

mechanical

systems? For

systems? for mechanical

What are the equivalents of Kirchhoff 's laws and for heat transfer systems? analogies)
Draw

systems (consider two

the

electrical
and

shafts to
6
Plot

Fig.

7.42(a),

analog circuit for the rotational system in Fig. /&, and for the thermal system
responses

the

translational mechanical system with torsional stiffnesses of 7.42(b) in Fig. 7.42(c).

in

the

frequency the the

or equations Derive the function equations Lagrange using or use SPICE. to an equivalent electrical circuit, and use MATLAB, corresponding (d) Same as (c)for the case Ji = 10, Ji = 24, J3 = 2, to = 0.01, Aj. = 0.02.
(e) TJP
for

(a) Va/Ftor (b) Vi)F\\ox (c) SVt for fe = 0.03.

system system

the

system

of transfer functions: in Fig. 7.42(a) for the case Mi = 100, to = 2, A4 = 5; in Fig. 7.42(a) for the case Mi = 50, to = 0.2, A4 = 50; in Fig. for the case Ji = 20, Jz = 3, Js = 12, to 7.42(b)

= 0.1,

the

system

in Fig. 7.42(c)

for

the

case

flT

= 2.72,

C=

100.

1 **.

M,

V, 2

(a)

(b)

(c)
systems

Fig. 7.42
7 8
Draw

Examples

of dynamic

an

equivalent

electrical
G.2)-G.5),

circuit for
show that

cooling
if

a power = 0,

IC with
fe,

a heat

sink. Zl = ~, U =
/ as

Using

equations

4.

then / =

and

when

E..

In

Fig.

7.9,

the loading

curve is expressed as / = (?-

U)/Rs-

Express

function

of

a.
plant

10 The

is

actuator output
MATLAB

a rigid plot

mobility

to

What is the

plant

is 0.01. The friction coefficient body, M=50kg. The viscous Use is (a) 1 (rn/sec)/N; (b) 5(m/sec)/N;(c) 10(m/sec)/N. the frequency response of the actuator together with the plant. transfer function uncertainty at 10 Hz? function

11

The

plant

transfer

is the

ratio

of the

output velocity to the

force appliedto

Chapter
rigid

7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation
output

241
is (a)

actuator with
12

UseMATLAB (b) 5(m/sec)/N; (c) 10(m/sec)/N.

the

body,

1/(siW), 20

kg < M

< 50

kg. The actuator

mobility

to plot
uncertainty?

the frequency

response of the
with

1(rn/sec)/N;

plant.

What is the
a

response
kg

The

actuator is driving coefficient fc=1. The

rigid

body, 20
output

< M

UseMATLAB (c) 10(m/sec)/N.

to the input
uncertainty.

actuator
for

mobility

to

plant. Make a

of the actuator,
conclusion

cases

about

plot the of the the effect of

(bM(rn/sec)/N; frequency response of the plant velocity

maximum and
the minimum

< 50 kg, via a spring is (a) 1 (rn/sec)/N;

stiffness

mass

of the
plant

actuator

impedance

on the

13

Apply Blackman's Fig. 7.12.

formula

to

the

calculation

of the actuator

output

mobility

in

14 Calculatethe input and output impedances of the circuits is 10,000, its input the amplifier's voltage gain coefficient
output impedance
initially,

diagrammed impedance

in Fig. is
circuit,

7.43;

and its \302\260\302\260,

disregard
this

simply add

low. For circuit (d), while very the impedance R3, calculate resistance to the obtained result.

is

calculating

the

of the

simplified

input resistance, and then

(a)

(b)

(c)
of feedback

(d)

Fig. 7.43
15

Examples

amplifiers
the main Fig. 7.44.

Determine the
the
plant)

impedance Find the

loop about The driver's output is small for voltage drivers and large for current drivers. output mobility (at the load) for cases (c) and (d).
output

mobility

of

the

feedback

of the motor (without in systems shown

feedback

16 The
in

output

impedance

of the

feedback

amplifier

shown

in

matched
these

to the
resistors
in

50 Q.load. Find the resistors R\\, Fk, and R$ such that are not to be excessive and at the same time the
the

be Fig. 7.16 must losses signal

attenuation

of

the

circuitry

direction

of the

feedback

path

is

not

too

large (make an

engineering judgment).
17

The velocity sensor is 3V/N (the outputs

combinedto
output
actuator
mobility

provide of

is 1 V/(m/sec), the force sensor gain coefficient sensors The sensor are in volts). outputs are feedback about the actuator. What is the large compound the actuator? What are the outputs of the sensors when the
gain

coefficient

of

both

output

is (a)

clamped, (b) unloaded?

242
u

Chapter

7. Linear

Links and

System Simulation
u
Motor

Shaft

A
Motor

>->

Rigid

plant

^ Shaft Rigid plant

<P

n.
i i.

Gyro

Optical

angle

encoder

(a)
'Shaft
U Motor Load

(b)
-Shaft
Motor

Load

Tacho

meter
Load

al
Load

cell (C)

cell

(d)

Fig. 7.44 18 The

output

Examplesof

mechanical

feedback

systems

ratio is of a translational actuator is 40(m/sec)/N. The return mobility + the is a force sensor is employed (i.e., when when 100/(s 30) output only ratio is (a) 300/(s + 200), (b) 30/(s + 10),(c)8/(s+ 0.3), when clamped). The return no load is connected to the actuator). (i.e., when only a velocity sensor is employed Plot the Bode Find the the load is a 20 kg mass. function when loop transfer

diagram.

19

In

the

specifications
V/sec\021.\"

of

brushless
in Fig.

motor,
what

it

is

written: parameters
one

\"M

= 72ozxin/A,

ke = 0.5
they

Make

a good
flowchart

guess about

these

are, and
k.

how

correlate

with the

7.19 where

there is only

20

(a) A permanent fls = 15S2, the is S2f = velocity

The

impedance magnet motor has k = 0.2 N x m/A. The driver output the free run angular load mobility is fli. = 0.8 (rad/sec)/(Nxrrt), 100 rad/sec. What is the voltage of the source? The break torque? Rs =

is

torque? (b) Same for

for (c)Same

k= 0.1 Nxm/A,
k = 0.24
N

x m/A,

25 n, flL Rs = 6 Q.,R\\_

= 1.8 = 0.6 fls

(d)Sarne
S2f

for
rad/sec.

k= 0.5 Nxm/A,

(rad/sec)/(Nxm), Q, = 200 rad/sec. = 400 rad/sec. (rad/sec)/(Nxm), Qf = 2.5n, = a 0.4 (rad/sec)/{Nxm),

= 850

21
22

Derivethe expressionG.17) for

Draw

the

output
magnet

mobility of a
electrical

motor.

a flowchart of
of

a
emf

permanent

10Nm per 1 A
the load mobility negligible.

the

current
and output

in

the

winding,
mobility

the

Calculate the back

the

output

motor that produces torque of resistance 10Q. being of the motor when the source
winding current

impedance (i.e.,the

impedance

is 0.12

(rad/sec)/(Nm),

driver) is 3Q and the and the mechanical losses in

of the

is 2

the

motor

A, are

23

Draw

load

a flowchart of cascade for the following data: has

connection of a

driver,

a motor,

a gear, and an

inertial

(a) The driver

the

voltage

gain coefficient 5

and

the

output

impedance

0.5 ?1.

Chapter7. Linear The motor

winding

Links

and

System

Simulation

243

is 2S2 and the motor constant is 0.6 Nm. The motor Nm2. The gear amplifies the motor torque four times, to i.e., the gear ratio, the load angle to the motor angle (or, the load angular velocity the motor angular is 1:4. The losses in the gear and bearings make B = velocity), 0.04 Nm/(rad/sec). The load's moment of inertia is 0.4 Nm2, i.e., the load mobility is 2.51s (rad/sec)/(Nm).
resistance

rotor's moment of

inertia

is 0.5

has (b) The driver The motor winding

gain coefficient 30 and the output impedance 5Q. is 30 Q and the motor is 0.15 Nm. The constant motor rotor's moment of inertia is 0.15Nm2. The gear amplifies the motor torque ten times, i.e., the gear ratio, the load angle to the motor angle (or, the load angular is 1:10. The losses in the gear and bearings to the motor angular velocity velocity), make B = 0.08Nm/(rad/sec). The load's is 0.05 Nm2, i.e., the moment of inertia
the

voltage

resistance

load mobility

is 20/s

(rad/sec)/(Nrn).

24 (a) Design a control for a motor similar in Fig. to that shown 7.26 where system is 4, the plant resistance function is 55/s, the transfer k=0.3, the motor winding sensor is 12 bit encoder, the torque variation model path is 0.1sin49, the cogging model path is 0.05 sin 49, and the crossover frequency is 12 Hz. (The values are in Use a current driver. Use SIMULINK. m, kg, sec, rad, N, Ohm.) Design the compensator and plot Bode and Nyquist diagrams with the function linmod. (Make the design using a PID controller and the prototype with Bode step given in Chapter in position time commands 4.) Plot the output history in response to step- and ramp for initial part of the responses and for estimation of the scales, using different the ramp command. Study the effects of Coulomb accuracy of the velocity during and the motor torque variations on the accuracy and viscousfriction, the cogging, of the output and position velocity. k = 0.2, the sensor is a 16bit encoder, the torque variation (b) Do the same when is sin the 0.06 89, path cogging path is 0.02 sin 80, the crossover is 20 Hz, and the driver is a current source. k = 0.9, the sensor is a 10bit encoder, the torque variation (c) Do the same when sin the is 0.04 160, path cogging path is 0.05 sin 169, the crossover is 6 Hz, and the driver is a voltage source.

25
26

What

of a
What

between the driving is in common linear system: the poles, or the zeros,
are

point

impedance

and the

transfer

functions

or both?

the
Can

properties
the

of the
when the following

driving

system?
negative?

derivative

of the

What

happens
of

losses are small

functions can
with

of a passive lossless point impedance modulus of the impedance on frequency be

but

not zero?
impedance

27 Indicate
(a)(s2+2)(s2

which

the
the

be

an

of

a lossless

two-pole, and

+ 4KS2 + 5)s]; (b) (s2+ 2)(sf+ 3)/[(s2 + 40)/[(s2 + 3)(s2 + Sis]; (c) (s2 + 2)(s2 (d) (s2+ 4)(S* + 40)s/[(s2 + 2)(s2 + 20)]; (e) (s2+ 4)(s+
the
path

response plot frequency + 4)/[(s2+3)(s2+5)s];

MATLAB:

40)s/[(s

+ 2){i

+ 20)]. ratio at the How much?

28

Will

feedback

signal-to-sensor-noise is disconnected? and

system
parallel.

output

change

when

the

29 (a) A
the

capacitor

an inductor

are connectedin

What

is the

equivalent

of

return ratio?

244 (b) Same question

30
In

Chapter7. Linear

Links

and

System

Simulation

the parallel connection of a about (c) Same question about the parallel connection of a
the

capacitorand
resistor

a resistor;

and

an

inductor.
is the

system

composed

of two
function

parallel

the closed-loop transfer

for the

paths in Fig. 7.39(a), system Fig. 7.39(b)?

what

analogy

to

31

What

is the

condition
How

poles in parallel? Ohm's law?

equivalent to large feedback, in the to explain the effect without using

connection feedback

of two

theory,

twousing = 1.

32

Redo

the

equations
selected

and block
problems
in

diagrams in

Figs.

7.38

and 7.39

for

the

case

of B

Answers to

1 Since power losses variables at one port

are small, we can directly motors relate mechanical electrical and the two-port variables at the opposite port, to the output impedance of the preceding output impedance is nearly proportional and its input impedance is nearly to the input impedance of the link, proportional
good to
following

link.

(a) Three
diagram

angles (three degrees of

is

freedom)

and three

torques
must

7 The

shown

in Fig. 7.45.
capacitances
of

The collectortemperature
one the

be

below

certain
temperature,

specified temperature. When

thermal power

is

they
during

need

to be taken into account The nonlinear bursts.

resistance of radiation

case when calculating

the average collector calculating and heat sink can be neglectedbut

source

the heat
SPICE

sink

by the

is depicted by a nonlinear power required mathematical expression.

the collector temperature and convection cooling of that can be specified in

collector

case

heat

sink

r-AAAr-rAAAn\342\200\224i

radiation

c
Fig. 14

T^

T l\\

convection

7.45

Electrical equivalent to

heat sink
Z= ffe/10,000.
can

(a) The input

zeros

impedance is: Z>

and

= 10,000, = R2, 7\"@) = 0, 7(\302\253)

this

27 (a) The
impedance.

poles

alternate, therefore

function

be a

driving

point

Chapter

8
I

INTRODUCTION

TO ALTERNATIVE
DESIGN

METHODS

OF CONTROLLER

and compares them with the methods This chapter surveys several important design Bode approach presented in the previous classical chapters. The methods discussed in law control this use linear time-invariable compensators and produce linear chapter index. These alternative methods may which is optimal according to some performance of them are readily and software be encountered in industry, packages for many of the basic ideas. here is cursory, with brief developments available. The treatment

8.1 QFT
The

term

Quantitative
contributor

feedback
to

theory

(QFT) has been coined

to

by

Isaac

Horowitz, theory

the major

already been reflected which considers Bode

for, QFT. QFT relies on domains, uses prefilters and frequency simplified relationships the desired to closed-loop loop compensation responses, considers sensor noise provide and provides sufficient Most of issuesand actuator nonlinearities, stability margins. these issueshave already been addressed in the previous chapters of this book. The QFT theorists aim to extendthe Bode methods to handle performance issuesmore precisely, and they augment them with somewhat different problem additional formalizations, and extensions time-variable and to cover MIMO cases, linear statements, plants, between

theory. (Some of his contributions in this book.) QFT is a frequency-domain the basis to be a part of, and methods
the

control
design

have

methodology

the

and

time

nonlinear problems.

For simplicity we consider the QFT design of a single-loop The tracking system. an acceptable set of input-output transfer functions which design begins by determining This set is defined by upperand lowersatisfy the tracking performance requirements. bounding frequency responses. The idea is to design loop compensation and a prefilter so that the input-output transfer remains function for between these bounding responses all possible plant variations. (Disturbance parameter rejection requirements can be handled the loop compensation and a prefilter can be implemented Since similarly.) with the focuses on the variations of the closed-loop gain negligible uncertainty, design due to plant parameter variations. The QFT specification for the design of the loop takes the at form: each of a certain set, the compensation following frequency C0j in the closed-loop gain variation should not exceed a^ dB for all possible plants defined the of the The tolerances are the ax uncertainty ranges by plant parameters. gains C0j. spanned by the upper- and lower-bounding responses at the frequencies To the specification, it is first necessary to calculate the plant transfer satisfy function for all possible parameter values at each of the frequencies C0i. With the allowable the transfer function maps to an area on the parameter variations, plant to be P-shaped and the same at all frequencies in the example L-plane, which happens shown in Fig. 8.1. The shape is characteristic of the effects of parameter variations on the plant transfer function is referred to as the plant and actuator is (The template.
included
by in

the

shifting

the on

location

transfer at each frequency is defined function to a location. With the template in a particular plant template proper the Nichols chart, the gain curves indicate whether the in IMI variations

plant.)

The compensator

245

246 satisfy

Chapter the QFT

8.

Alternative

Methods

design requirement. If not, the template is shifted until the difference the minimum and maximum gain is exactly a,. In the example shown in variation is 6 dB. Supposethat the tolerance is a\\ = ldB. From Fig. 8.1, the original gain the lines on the Nicholschart it is evident how the template must be shifted. There is a continuum of such shifted templates which the design requirement, and the edges satisfy or cornersof the shifted templates with minimum closed-loop gain form the minimum
between

performance

boundary Bico,)as shown

in Fig.

8.1.

10\302\260 20\302\260 30\302\260 40\302\260 50\302\260 60\302\260 70\302\260 80\302\260 90\302\260

Fig.

8.1

Plant templates on the

minimum

Nichols

chart

forming

the

performance

boundary

B(coi)

For each
boundaries Fig.

of the

frequencies

Ofy

at which
the

the system
L-plane,

S(cOj) must

be plotted on

as

shown

requirements are specified,the by the dashed lines in

8.2.

L-plane

gain

180\302\260

phase

Fig. 8.2
An

Boundaries on the L-plane

L-plane

additional

high-frequency
With

bound is included to
in place,
the

guarantee

system

stability

and robustness.

the

boundaries

next

step

is to

search for a

Chapter

8. Alternative

Methods
the

247

rational

compensator

transfer
minimum

function

such

that

loop

gain at each

of the

frequencies
the

a>i will

be just

over the

performance

boundary.

At frequencies near

zero-

and higher, the compensator gain is shaped to follow the stability boundary. The design is performed by trial and error or by using specialized software. Finally, a is which corrects to achieve the the desired prefilter synthesized response input-output is negligible.) the prefilter's uncertainty contribution (Remember, response. It can be shown that a solution to the QFT the always exists, although problem feedback the bandwidth be best resulting may unacceptably large. Generally, design is while the taken as that which has the smallest feedback bandwidth minimum satisfying
dB crossing

performance and stability

The
\342\200\242 The

boundaries. departs

QFT design
Bode

philosophy

from

the Bode

approach in

the

following

areas:

while satisfying the (feedback) approach performance constraints on the high-frequency due to plant features and loop asymptote the and noise. inverse variations, QFT parameter high-frequency pursues problem of providing the minimum the feedback minimizing acceptable performance while is just rather bandwidth. The QFT-designedsystem is not the best possible, but

is to maximize the

and disturbance rejection response reason: the cost approach for the following between differential controller and the very best available is The controllers differ with the cost of the system. compared generally insignificant resistors and capacitors or a few lines of code, and perhaps a few by several only of work by the control engineer (if he uses the Bode days approach). Improving the on other components of the control law might also relieve some of the requirements This may in the entire system better and cheaper to manufacture. device, making of next affect made the the of the turn decisions about generation development to reduce the It makes little sense to lower the just system. system performance identifies the constraints on the feedback bandwidth. The Bode approach and determining later the bandwidth rather than minimizing bandwidth upfront, it is still too high. there is little whether the difference, (Whatever philosophical well trained in QFT can resolve these trade-offsand design doubt that engineers good enough to
satisfy

the

closed-loop

specifications.We

prefer

Bode a substandard
the

high-performance
\342\200\242 The

controllers.)
nominal

QFT

worst-case

the performance design is focused on satisfying the and plant parameters, neglects optimizing not

for the specifications performance.

design

This may or may

\342\200\242 With

the

multiple
than

advantage. templates to be calculatedand

design.
to

be an

plotted,

QFT

is far more

complex
stable

Bode

QFT and

methods have been developed unstable, time-invariable and

handle

time-variable,

the design of MIMO systems linear and nonlinear plants.

with

8.2
Another

Root locus and

category
of

methods poleplacement
the

plane

the

roots

The multiplier

method root-locus uses plots of the and to design of the loop gain coefficient
exists root

of controller design methods focuseson function. of the closed-loop transfer

root
additional

location

in the
the

complex
constant

loci

to choose
loop the

compensation. open-loop

elaborate set of rules function. Today, the

for constructing the root loci locus analysis is usually performed

from

An transfer

by computer.

248
Example

Chapter 8. Alternative
1.

Methods

Consider
lead

a control
poles

system

with

plant
30).

P(s)

= 100/s

actuator

100/(j +
With

100) and
the loop
T

compensator

just those of
origin

open, the

C(s) = 10(j of the system

+ 3)/(s+
are
the

= CAP,
this

i.e., a
and

and real the purpose of

poles at -30
analysis, coefficient

double pole at
-lOOrad/sec.

-80

For

suppose k in

that there is
which

a
is

variable
gradually

gain

the loop

increased

coefficient

from 0 to is increased, the poles

their

1.

As

the

gain

move

from their positions.

the

-120
-

open-loop positions to Fig. 8.3 showsthe root

closed-loop

-40

loci for continued

nominal

The loci can

gain

be

our example. by increasing

closed-loop

\302\246 -80

coefficient

past the

value

of 1. In the

example,
into

when

k reaches

3.56,

some
gain

poles cross over

difficult

stability margin is
to

= lldB. The therefore 201ogC.56)

from
the
the

the right

half-plane. The
root

for

Root loci Fig. 8.3 a feedback system

of the
gain

robustness

system is
margin
are
margin

still

determine
the

loci.
and

The
even

guard-point
from

stability

is
not.

apparent, but It might be

indicator counterexample

phase

stability

margin
this

the guard-point
the

phase

guessedthat

distance

of the
is where

roots

jw-axis

would
practical
very

be a
close

good
the

of is

but robustness, system an active RC notch-filter,

the

not

always the case. A the root locus passes

counterto

jco-axis
fact,

but

system

is quite

robust

It is also not
it is zero

evident from the root locus whether the system is well designed. In not. It would be instantly seen from the Bode diagram that the pole and the in the compensator are in wrong and the phase and gain guard-point places,

stability
The

margins are not

compensator

balanced.

design proceeds by trial and error, searching for compensation and a suitable loop gain which brings the closed-loop poles into desirable locations on the system is examined for a locations? the s-plane. What are desirable Usually pole is of the closedor which that the \"dominant,\" meaning step-response pole pole pair this these poles. the a with or resembles of system just pole loop system step response sufficient into areas on the with The is to move dominant the s-plane design goal poles the transient be with sufficient distance from the origin for to and fast, response too close to the to excessive not (The overshooting. joo-axis) prevent damping (i.e., is not factored other system poles into the design.) Meanwhile, possibility of a prefilter
must

be

monitored
the

for stability.
makes

When
system label

is

discussed

the precise location of the an a priori decision about as is referred to sometimes although this pole-placement, poles, of MIMO often reserved for state-variable feedbackcontrol systems as will be below. A common choiceis to place the closed-loop poles in a Butterworth designer

the method

filter configuration.
allow the is that it does not of the root-locus design method inadequacy is the best available. In how close the to to addition, judge system performance designer no convenient rulesexist for designing problem good high-order compensators. Another disturbance is the complete lack of visibility into rejection. Finally, low-frequency is difficult from to determine in the nonlinear mode of operation system performance the root loci. (As we shall see in Chapters 9 -11, the Bode and Nyquist diagrams enable of these Because the to deal effectively with common nonlinearities.) designer
A

major

Chapter8. Alternative
deficiencies,
The

Methods

249

is not recommended for control system design. the root locusmethod locus method can be valuable for the analysis of the effects of certain on and on the variations stability, nonminimum-phase lag in the link parameter several links Sections 3.13 of and 4.5). Also, (see parallel minimum-phase composed root locus plots make very impressive presentations for high-order systems that have methods. been already designed well using other root

8.3
From

State-space
the

methods
control

and full-state feedback

the

classical

perspective,
transforms.

linear Of

control

transfer
by

functions, i.e., Laplace one or several linear differential

The

course

system the system

is a block diagram can also be represented

differential

of

equations.

system
by

equations

into a set of first-order of equations can be transformed intermediate variables where necessary. The introducing

following

state

space
x = =

system description is standard:

Ax +
Cx,

B(u + r),

(8.1)
(8.2)
is the input or control A is The square matrix of the system without the dynamics and and plant). B is the control-input matrix,

of state-variables vector (column) and y is the vector, r is the reference, output referred to as the system matrix. It describes

where x is a

(or states),
vector.

feedback

(i.e.,
be

C is the

It may

output matrix.
to think about helpful A would be nxn,
how

dynamics

of

the

actuator

a SISO
n

system

would

fit

into

this format.

The

order of the combined system actuator/plant transfer function. The control-input B would be a column matrix matrix of length n the scalar which distributes control input among the state derivatives. The output matrix C would be a row matrix of length n which reassembles the scalar (which is a output the representation function of time) from the states. Note that is not unique, but depends on the choice of states.It is customary to try to choose states that to some correspond
matrix

where

is

the

physical variable of the An advantage of

input

system.
the

notation is that it is easily generalizedto multistate-space the matrix dimensions. For example, a twosystems by changing B that is nx2 and an output matrix input three-output system would have a control-input matrix C that is 3 x n. The feedbackloopsare closed when the second component in (8.1) is added to the state vector. In state-space formulation the control u is a linear combination of the

multi-output

states:
m

= -Kx, gain

(8.3)
matrix.

where K is the

The closed-loop

system is then

described

by the

equations

x=
y

(A

BK)x

+ Br,

(8.4)
(8.5)
to

Cx.

To be more
can allow
the

general,and
to

conform

to the convention
directly

adopted

by

MATLAB,
matrix

we
D

control

affect

the

output

by

introducing

the

and

250
rewriting
y

Chapter 8. Alternative
(8.5) as
=

Methods

Cx +

Du.
of the

(8.6)
feedback

The state-space blockdiagram

system is

shown

in Fig.

8.4.

Fig. 8.4

block State-space

diagram

of a The

feedback system
open-loop

The open-loopsystem x = Ax
y

corresponds

to u

= 0 in

(8.1).

system becomes

(8.7)

= Cx.
the

(8.8)
open-loop

Example 1. Supposethat P(s) =

(and

plant is

the

pure

double

integrator

1
(8.9)

that

the actuator

transfer

function

is

unity).

The open-loop

system

could

be

represented
y

as follows:
x,,

(8.10)

x,=x2,

(8.11)

x2=u.

(8.12)
is the

Hereu
= 2,

vector consistsof a position-like and a velocity-like state x = [xi and A, B, C, and D are as follows: 0 1

input and

is

the

output,

both scalars

(functions

of x2f.

time).

The state

Per our

notation,

0 0

B=
is
we

C=
important

Z)

(8.13)

The nomenclature MATLAB. Suppose that into MATLAB. example

since

systems

are
A,

had

manually

entered
command

the

B, C,

The

following

would

in represented this way and D matrices for our then produce the open-loop

frequency responseplot:

bode(a,b,c,d,l)

Chapter

8. Alternative

Methods
know

251
that
the

The last
response case has

argument

is
output

letting
(all

of the

the MATLAB function in the general outputs

one

we're

case)

to

first

to output). This may seem like a lot of overhead of a calculate the frequency the matrices are response double-integrator. Fortunately, other For instance, the usually created by programs. block-diagram-oriented SIMULINK has a function which creates the appropriate A, B, C, and D linmod, only one
input

interested in the input (the system in

and

matrices for further

[abed]
After

analysis:

= linmod('model_name')
the

gains

kx

and

k2 are commands

obtainedusing
the

MATLAB

chosen, the closed-loop to manipulate the

frequency
system

appropriate

connections

in the

SIMULINK blockdiagram

response can be or by making matrices, and rerunning linmod.

The state-space closed-loopdesign problem is to choose the control matrix K to the desired closed-looptransient with the (We response, might already disagree an of such since the desired is not approach obtaining closed-loop response practicality the only nor the main purpose of closed-loop control in practical systems.) for choosing K, some implications Before we discuss the possible of the strategies An implicit assumption is that the states x are be noted. notation should state-space somehow availableto be plugged into (8.4) and fed back to the input of the system. For this is often referred to as full-state feedback.In a typical control reason (8.4) of sensed system, the order of the actuator/plant combination exceeds the number must be estimated states outputs, making full-state feedback unrealistic. The missing the available ones; this is discussedin the next section. Another feature of the using is that it does not allow compensators state-feedback framework whose order exceeds In our example above, (8.4)restricts the compensator the order of the actuator/plant. = + A is to function to consist of a single unrealizable zero: work-around k\\ k2s. C(s) to include some as is the state vector of the dynamics, compensator typically expand version of the PID. done to add integral control in the state-space is inherent A with the to the more insidious state-space approach problem the linear matrix rather than a of a set of differential representation system by equations functions. This draws the designer's attention from the block diagram of transfer away elements of the control system, along with their limitations and imperfections, physical and focuses on matrix algebra. instead with The state-variable can be to various degrees mixed conventional approach
obtain block diagram

design methods.
block attitude

Example2. The
position x (or the
body

diagram

in Fig.
many

8.5 has been employed

The

for

control
rigid-

of

angle)
the

in

space

plants with small is typically limited by actuator

parameter uncertainty.
sensor
the

systems, especially feedback bandwidth

plant

those
in

having

these

systems

quantization
actuator
and

noise. The
force
the

is

considered

rigid, the
control), integrator.

acceleration is proportional to
transfer
function

A is

a constant,

(or torque, for attitude plant P is seen as a double

the

252

Chapter

8.

Alternative

Methods

*\302\246 k.

HZ
\302\246\"\302\246com # i , I 1 j , I 1 I 1 I 1 I

XE 1

_ Ag

\\

*-_
K

r--|
!

I jV

m
encoder

, i ' x
]

I
I

plant estimator

Fig.

8.5

Block diagram of a position acceleration loops (a) and

control
its

SISO

with system equivalents

and

position,
(b) and

velocity,

and

(c)
obtained

by

The positioncommand xcom, and the velocity are forwarded with differentiation, appropriate
and

acceleration

commands

gain variable

coefficients estimates
Lv,

to, respectively, *e, etc. from m.p., and

the

position,velocity,
A

acceleration

summing
the

points.
plant

plant

estimator

(filter)
sensor.

generates
The

the readings are related to the The Bode C.13). responses integral phase lag responses gain by of Lp and smaller than that of La. The filter bandwidth of U, is wider than the bandwidth cutoff must be sufficiently low to extensively attenuate high-frequency frequencies sensor noise components, but not too low since, first, the filter distorts the output signal the filter phase lag reduces the available and the disturbance feedback second, and,

noisy

of

the

transfer

functions Lp,

and

La are

rejection.

The errors in
plant

position,

variable

estimates

and acceleration are formed velocity, from the signals arriving to the summing

by

subtraction

of the

reduced output

by the three feedback loops. It of the compensator C\\ is 0. When

the

is seenthat

when

the

points. The errors are position error is 0, the

output

0. When

acceleration

error

the velocity error is also 0, the is is also 0, the signal at the actuator input

of C-i is

0. This

control

scheme can be perceived

Comments
\342\200\242 The

as multivariable.

on Example 2:
feedback loops one loop at

are coupled. Still, the design can be made by iterative lowa time, since, first, the compensators are typically the differ in bandwidth: and, second, the three loops substantially the of the velocity that bandwidth of the position loop, and loop is wider than bandwidth of the acceleration loop is still wider. \342\200\242 that When the plant is flexible, the compensators' than order must be much higher in the the of the PD compensators shown block diagram, but order higher this design. compensators are not easy to fit within \342\200\242 The in the feedforward paths in practice as lead differentiators are implemented
three adjustments, order (PD),
links differentiator actuator \342\200\242 The the

whose

limit

approximate the responses frequency the required over frequency band. The the useful bandwidth of the feedforward,

response
effects

of

the

ideal
in the

of

saturation

with source actuator (using a driver high output impedance) simplifies On the other hand, a velocity source (a motor driven analysis. by a driver with the low output accuracy, system especially when the plant impedance) may improve is flexible with Coulomb friction.

torque

Chapter

8. Alternative

Methods

253
links

The controller
windup

can

be augmented
transient

with inclusion
response

of

nonlinear

to reduce

the

and

to

improve the actuator

for large-level

commands.
one

This system is multivariable

rigid

only

and

the

is

Sincethe a force source.

such a be
system

formally

since it has

only

sensor,

position, can

rate,

the plant is and acceleration

have unique and simple interrelations, SISOsystem. described as a single-loop

The
in

be equivalently into
follows

and better
the diagram the diagram

complex
Fig.

8.6(a)

diagram in and further

Fig.
into

8.5 can
the

equivalently

transformed

diagram

in Fig.

8.6(b)

which

in Fig. 2.1 (the loop transfer function about the plant is the same in these diagrams, the sensor function without the feedback, i.e., with and the input-output transfer The diagram in Fig. 8.6(b) includes only two transfer function S = 0, is the same). are defined by the designer: the linear links whose transfer functions independent and feedforward feedback the path. compensator in Fig. 8.5 cannot be superior of the system shown Therefore, performance with a or a feedforward path. to a conventional system prefilter well-designed

(b)

Fig. 8.6
8.4

Single-loop

equivalents

(a) and

(b)

of

the

block

diagram

shown

in

Fig.

8.5

LQRandLQG
of

The generalplan description of the

quantifies

the

so called
system

modern control
literally,

theory is
scalar

to

take

the state-space
which

control

set

up

some

K which
functional

and features of the closed-loop system, is optimal for this index. One such approach is to minimize / of the state and control history for the system's step response:

the desirable

index performance then find the gain

matrix

quadratic

J =
where

!(xTQx +
\302\253=o

uTRu)

dt

= min

(8.14)

the matrices Q and R are weighting matrices. It is assumed that the desired state is x = 0, but the initial condition is non-zero, so the matrix the state Q penalizes R penalizes error in a mean-square the control effort, sense. Similarly, the matrix i.e.,

254 limits

Chapter

8.

Alternative

Methods

The

the control signals' magnitude. minimizes gain matrix K which

resulting

equation.The
the

controller

/ can be found is known as the linear

by

solving

a matrix regulator,

Riccati
and

quadratic

methodology
Although

is referred
software

to as
matrix

LQR.

available to solve the matrix Riccati equation and thus to design a control K, it is not advisable to attempt of the control system using the LQR methodology alone. This is becausethe features the performance are not captured in the LQR framework. There system which constrain has been no mention of actuator disturbance saturation, rejection, or robustness to plant is to judiciously The only reasonable possibility choose the variations. parameter to determine the matrices and run the software R, Q weighting LQR \"optimal\" gain matrix K, and then examine the resulting control system using classical frequencydomain analysis. This generally entails several iterations. is crippling. A The inability in the LQR framework to address nonlinearities common design strategy is to increase matrix R until the largest the control penalty wise since does not result in saturation of the actuator. This seems expected transient can result in windup for an LQR design. The actuator saturation or even instability since to achieve the specified implications for system design are disastrous, the actuator will be oversized to maintain linearity. performance, If the LQR framework As mentioned previously, full-state feedback is not practical. be continually is to be used for practical the missing states must estimated problems, from the available measurements. that the available measurements are linear Suppose combinations of the state variables. If the measurements are perfect,and the plant model is perfect, the remaining states can usually be reconstructed by repeated differentiation. In fact, the entire with To make the future of the state can be predicted certainty. be has to estimation the non-trivial, augmented by process state-space formulation in sensing and modeling. An analytically tractable approach is to errors introducing assume that the measurements are corrupted by white noise, and that the actual plant The in the white noise input. noise differs from the plant model by an additional w. The noise added to to as the sensor noise and denoted measurements is referred and denoted v. Note that w and v the model is referred to as the process noise, plant the are generally vectors. Let the measurements be z, so that description system becomes
is readily
determine

the

optimal

gain

Bu+Gw
z

(8.15)
(8.16)
noise

Hx +
the

v,
plant

where G is matrix.

distribution
is to

matrix

and

is the

measurement

The state estimatexE

be propagated

as

xE=AxE+Bu+KE(z-HxE),
where

(8.17)
the can

Kb

is the

estimator

w and v, the optimal processes error in x& This estimator square

gain matrix. Given estimator gain

is referred

second-order be found

moments of the which minimizes the

white mean

to as

LQG. When
combined

the linear-quadratic

Gaussian, or
controller,
between
the

with an LQR estimates are used in conjunction as is referred to an regulator. LQR/LQG approach was to resolve the trade-off intended LQR/LQG regulator theory
these

the

Chapter 8. Alternative
sensor noise and
the the

Methods

255

disturbance

rejection.
not

robustness when

issue,

it does

provide

the

Since this method by itself does not address best solutions to most practicalproblems.

However,

well (say, with 1% accuracy) and the feedback pretty bandwidth is limited by the sensor noise, LQG provides a loop response which is well in area of the crossover the band. be This can later modified shaped frequency response with classical methods for better disturbance rejection at lower frequencies. The addition of the loop transfer (LTR) method to the LQG allows recovery the plant

is known

the addressing loop responses

system robustness.The
of
the

LTR

method

recalculates
time

the
domain

frequency

domain

system space, method, and allows adjusting the responses to provide the desired process of such design is however not simple, and the quadratic for stability analysis on the basis of the closed loop response.

designed

in state

with

stability

the LQG margins. The

appropriate

norm is

not

8.5

/7o\302\260, ^-synthesis,

and

linear

matrix

inequalities

The state-spaceapproach to control system design and the state-space performance indicesare difficult to use during the conceptual G. Zames, who initiated the Hx design.
in model that the processes of approximation building and obtaining is do not commute [45], i.e., input-output box) formulations (black and state-space the framework for uncertain (practical) system preferred modeling, models should came into picture only as internal models at the level of computation and at the level of implementation of control systems. The of control system designhave advanced to been already aspects computational the when degree they cease to be critical for the design of most practical systems.

method,
state-space

often

said

model

However,

building and

the

system model

and

designing the

optimal input-output
structure

a challenge,
physical

are easier

to accomplish with
via

still compensators formulations.

the
structuring

presents

In other words, control system

blocks

engineersshould
ports, instead

systems
the

as sets
systems

of

interconnected

of
the

of linear matrices.Mathematically, into the sets of local mean separating the system variables the and, (at the blocks' ports) variables, global typically, is much less then the number of the local variables.
mathematically in sets

formulations input-output for the blocks) and (internal

number

of

the

global

variables

For the
aspects

input-output

formulations,
than

more convenient

the

time-domain

characterization frequency-domain ones. As was exemplified

are
in

in

many

Chapter

with the two-ports, linear black boxes can be described by the matrices of their transfer functions and impedances (mobilities), and the entire system, as a conglomerateof and nonlinear multiports interconnected via their ports. linear domain method. It solves in of the classical frequency design Hx is an extension solved with Bode approach: are one the two problems that sequentially operation

feedback bandwidth with related of the available shaping of the loop and distribution and higher, over the frequency region of crossoverfrequency 4. as was described in Chapter over the functional of the available feedback bandwidth, to multivariable control such that it is directly The method is formulated applicable
maximization

response

systems.

The Woo
norm is an

norm

is the limit of the

extension

on the magnitude Chebyshev norm widely

control

of a

vector

in

the

Hilbert

space. This

synthesis. The

H^ feedback

design

method

in frequency-domain network applies this norm to the closed-loop

used

256
frequency

Chapter8. Alternative
With

Methods

sources to the system output. responses from the disturbance are first Hx method, frequency responses of the disturbance rejection functions. The weight functions define at which frequencies specified with weight disturbance rejectionshould be higher than that at other frequencies, and by how much. The weight functions should be calculated from the known disturbance spectral densities. For the functional feedback the same as bandwidth, the norm on F is nearly

the norm on T.

Since it
with

is not

easy to properly

shape the
may

crossover

area

can been achieved with ^.-synthesis which combines the Hm in an iterative The method introduces into design \\i-analysis u-analysis procedure. the loop special links that imitate the plant uncertainty. It is required that with these links added, the nominal should be still stable and perform well. system is the method of linear control system design.It optimizes The //, design method the system without attention to the system global stability. performance paying special of this, the Hx design often results in Nyquist-stable are not Because systems which becomes stable and can burst into oscillation after the actuator overloaded. absolutely are either making several iterations The solutions to this stability problem by relaxing the weight functions such that disturbance and the rejection requirements modifying do when the stable which is to be of absolutely type, easy resulting loop response will be is nonlinear controllers that better, designed system single-loop, or, by using should be controller methods also studied in Chapters 9-13. The nonlinear design state in the nonlinear to further performance employed improve or optimize the system overload of operation when certain commands or disturbances the actuators. and many other linear control and stability The //\342\200\236 control analysis problems can be The LMI is the algebraic formulated in terms of linear matrix inequalities (LMIs). that is set matrices of a of a linear of combination symmetric given problem finding in areas as such diverse find outside of LMIs definite. control, positive applications
and

HM method, conservative solution

the

method //\342\200\236

lead to an overly

of the loop Bode diagram conservative system. A less

combinatorial
recognized
efficient
that

optimization,

estimation,

and

statistics.
it

Although
only

it

has

long

been

LMIs

are

important

in control,
interior

was

with the advent that their

popularity

of

the

algorithms

increased

(based in the last few years.

on

the

point

methods)

has

Chapter

ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS
adaptive control
is to use an the available feedback. One remedy the of the compensator, the transfer functions about the plant. and the feedback prefilter, path on the basis of accessibleinformation can used for the adaptation, the adaptive controllers On the basis of the information uses sensor readings of environmental into three types. The first type be divided on time, etc.) and plant parameter dependencies pressure, (temperature, parameters the dependencies factors law. to correct the control these environmental (Obviously to the command or a priori.) The second uses the plant must be known response to disturbances to correctthe control law. The third type uses the control loop response law. specially generated pilot signals to correct the control of adaptation the schemes substantially The first and the third types improve The at a much slower rate than the control control when the plant processes. changes If be useful when the command profile is well known in advance. second method can this is not the case, the second type result in a system with may rapidly-varying a formidable problem. whose stability analysis represents parameters is easier to identify in the frequency It is shown that the plant bands where the feedback in the main loop is not large. This identification provides most of the available in the system performance. benefits is provided for adaptive for flexible plants, for A brief description systems and noise reduction, and disturbance for dithering rejection systems. Examples of
Large

plant

uncertainty
law

reduces

which

changes

adaptive filters
9.1
Plant

are

described.

Benefits
parameter
by

of adaptation
uncertainly

to the plant parameter variations

feedback. The
gives plant uncertainty

reduced
estimation

a plant

impairs the available identification procedure which

can
function

be

the

as

P'.

controller adaptation, i.e., adjustments

prefilter
by

The improved knowledge

of
and

of
the

the

plant transfer should then be

used for
and

to reduce
adaptation

the

output

error.

The rate

feedback compensator, of the adaptation dynamics

by

path,

are defined

some

law.
output

The feedback system

plant

error

is contributed to

disturbance error

sources

parameter

uncertainty.

Increasing

the feedback reducesboth

and by the and components,

by using

as explained in Chapter appropriate prefilter.

2, the

second component canbe additionally

reduced

an

is two-fold: the (P'<=P) Correspondingly, the benefit of good plant identification. feedback can be increasedby appropriate to the compensator C, and the modifications can be made closer to the ideal. When plant parameter variations are large, prefilter the system performance. the plant is identified first are called indirect. the plant in Example 1. Assume gain varies by 20 dB in a loop designedas shown is limited resonances, by sensor noise and/or plant Fig. 9.1. The feedback bandwidth maximum available feedback bandwidth is the one /b </bmax- The loop response with when the the and the plant plant gain is largest. When gain drops, the feedback disturbance rejection reduce and the of the output to plant sensitivity parameter

adaptation

can

significantly

improve

Adaptation

schemes

where

257

258
variations

Chapter9. Adaptive
increase.
gain

Systems

compensator
the

loop

To alleviate the problem, and the gain can be monitored plant for the loop gain to remain gain coefficient continuously adjusted equal to of the case of the maximum plant gain. This is an example of indirect

adaptation.

20 dB

Fig. 9.1
Example
to increase

Loopgain

responses

with maximum

and

minimum

plant

gain

2. Assume the the feedback in

loop the

in the functional

stable previous example is designedas Nyquist band. When the plant the decreases, gain

system can become unstable.

Therefore, only
stability.

the to

compensator gain modified not but also just to preserve rejection,

plant gain needs to be monitored maintain the desired level of

and disturbance

the

3. In the plant, a real pole position can go down from Example by a factor of four initial position at 2/b. The phase lag increases correspondingly and the system can in the burst into oscillation. To counteract this pole motion, a zero can be introduced function transfer after the close to the and, identification, compensator kept pole plant positionto cancel its effect. The accuracy of the pole position identification need not be 5% of the pole magnitude, the resulting very high: if the zero-to-pole distanceis within will be less 0.5 dB. than uncertainty loop gain the

Example 4. In
plant

the

previous

example,

flexible

contemplated
identification

mode

with high
of

Q is
the

not a real polebut

In

a complex

uncertain.

this
a

case,

if the

pole related to a same remedy is

compensation

plant

pole

with

needs

might

be difficult

Q times more accurate to accomplish.

to be
algorithms

than

zero-the compensator in the previous example

plant
which

Indirect
tune

adaptive

do
the

not use

plant

identification

explicitly,

but merely

the

compensator

to improve
there

closed-loop

performance.

For tuning

the most

popular PID controllers,

adjustment

many adaptive algorithms. performance is most often used: the time-response parameters are measured and P-, /-, and are adjusted correspondingly. The algorithms D-coefficients of the controllers typically are smooth. The typical for such adaptive work well as long as the plant's responses goal control is improving the to the commands in the system where the plant responses and the higher-frequency disturbance are not parameters improving varying slowly, the to variations. or tolerance fast system parameter rejection plant
Time-domain

exist

Chapter 9.2
Plant

9.

Adaptive

Systems

259

Static

and dynamic
presents

adaptation

no problems and can the be performed rapidly when function on the is environmental variables well-known dependence plant variables and the environmental are measured accurately. Such an adaptive control in The is and is shown 9.2. and then the identified, system Fig. plant compensator functions are Such a is transfer sometimescalled adjusted. gain prefilter process An of such a system has been given in Section 7.4.2. Commonly, example the environment than varies much more slowly the main control loop dynamics, i.e., the
identification

of the

transfer

scheduling.
loop dynamics

adaptation prefilter

is quasi-static.
can
the

Therefore,during

the

system

analysis,

the main feedback

adaptation,

be assumed loop

and

main

of the process to be independent links can be considered time-invariant.

of

and

the

Knowledge

of how

plant

depends

on environment
Plant
\302\253-

Adaptation

/-

drivers

identification

Environment

Plant
disturbances

h
regulation
effects

Fig.9.2
The rate of the and by the rate of
plant the

Prefilter

and

compensator

identification information

critical when
rate
and

also

the plant parameters by the system stability

is limited by The processing. - is vary rapidly

conditions.

of noise the

rate of adaptation
limited

by

and disturbances, - which can be plant identification

Increasing

the speed
with

of the

adaptation

makes

LTV systems
of such
requires

rapidly-varying (as

parameters.

disagreeablefeatures
increasing

we have

seen

in

an

the adaptation dynamic and leads to These systems, generally, have several in Section 3.12). Stability analysis example
and
the

systems presents a
stability
the

formidable

problem,

ensuring
feedback)

loop. This is why

slower

than

the

laws are commonly designedas quasi-static, adaptation in the main control loop. In this case, the main processes
system.

margins (and reducing

the system stability in the main control

i.e.,

much

loop can be

designedas an
9.3

LTI

Plant

transfer
three

function identification
methods

Fig.9.3
used with
plant

illustrates

for the

plant

transfer

function

identification

that are

indirect

adaptation:
environmental

1. Using
transfer

sensors of
function
the

variables

and

the known
that

dependencies of the
normal

on these variables.
and output signals

2. Using
operation

input

of the
sent

plant

of the control

system as the
be

result and

of commands

are generated during and disturbances.

for

3. Using pilot signals generated

The pilot signal amplitude should error in the system's output.

sufficiently

to the plant small so

identification
to introduce

as not

purposes. substantial

260

Chapter 9. Adaptive
Plant

Systems

Adaptation

law and

identification

drivers

and signal

pilot

Environment

processing

signal

disturbances

Fig. 9.3
The are

Adaptive its

feedback measured signals

system input and

with plant

identification

plant

corrupted Plant

is identified from with the disturbance

and output signals. sensor noise. This limits

The measurements
the

accuracy

and

speed of the
error

adaptation.

of large feedback where the is ill-conditioned over the bandwidth the pilot signals must are small and therefore be very small. and makes the and on the sensors' sensitivity This increases the requirements accuracy, the feedback are the where is identification Also, large relatively frequencies complicated. of the control slow. Further reduction identification low which makes the plant process can be achieved more economically error components at these frequencies by using in Chapters 10 and 11. as nonlinear dynamic compensation, explained is well-conditioned over the of plant identification In contrast, the problem small of feedback and feedback, i.e., from fi,/4 up to ranges negative frequency positive maximization. The plant bandwidth This bandwidth is for feedback 4fb. important benefits and is relatively easy to over this frequency range provides tangible identification since at these frequencies the pilot signal amplitudes can be larger and the implement can be much faster. measurements

identification

frequency

components

9.4
Plant

Flexible and n.p. plants

identification

might

especially

improve
torque

the

control

when

the plant is
velocity

flexible and
sensor

uncertain.

For

example,

when

the

actuator

and the
the

angular

are

is that of a collocated in a structural plant transfer function system with flexibility, At higher do not exceed 180\". variations the and phase passive two-pole impedance, as shown in the to of due shaft, Fig. 9.4, actuator-to-plant flexibility frequencies, however, in the plant transfer two poles in a row follow and the control ceases to be collocated
function.

Plant

identification

allows
unwanted

making a compensator whosetransfer

plant

function

has

zeros to

compensate for the

poles.

dB
TiexiDie snan
Plant's Actuator

inertia

1
-4-

Sensor

(a)
Fig.

(b)

9.4

(a) Plant

with

flexibility

and

(b)

the

uncompensated

loop response

Chapter 9. Adaptive
For this application, using needs to be plant response
modes. frequency
identified

Systems

261

domain
only

identification

is also
in

since economical
the

the

at higher

frequencies,

vicinity

of the
and

structural

N.p. translation
spacecraft,

lag caused (due to

for

by the

parallel thruster's

paths

of the
position

signal

propagation,
propellant

such as that
slosh

of

rotation

and the
the

in

the tank

of a

example)

can be

removed from
identification.
higher

appropriate sensors for the plant the best way to measure it is at

feedback loop by the addition of The n.p. lag increases with frequency, and the bandwidth of positive i.e., within frequencies,
main
and
frequency

feedback.
We

conclude
and

that
most negative.

for the

flexible plants
over the

n.p. plants,
band

the

plant

complicated

beneficial

where

is less identification the feedback is either

positive or small
9.5
The

Disturbance
disturbance

and noise

rejection

the can be improved by using adaptive loops within rejection allows as diagrammed in Fig. 9.5. The disturbance identification modifying the loop gain response under the limitation of to match the disturbance spectral density, Bode integrals C.7), C.12). The disturbances can also be compensated in a feedforward manner.

compensator,

Adaptation

Disturbance

identification

disturbances

drivers

and signal

processing

Adaptive

compensator/actuator

Fig. 9.5

Loop responseadaptation

for disturbance

rejection

with narrow pass comb-filter, i.e., a filter Example 1. Using an adaptive multiple of a periodic of substantial feedback at the harmonics bands, allows the provision disturbance as shown in Fig. 9.6, instead of broad-band feedback with the response shown in both of the responses by the dashed line, the feedback being limited by the Bofle integrals. Such a filter tunes by tracking the disturbance /a using a PLL, a frequency
frequency-lock

loop

(FLL),

or some

other

adaptive

algorithm. dB

dB

f,

log. sc.

f,

log. sc.

Fig. 9.6

Loop gain

Bode

diagram

with adaptive

equalizer

Fig. 9.7 Loop gain Bode for systems with different

diagrams
bandwidths

262
Example
control

Chapter 9. Adaptive
2. Diagram which uses
by

Systems

system

bandwidth
spacecraft

is limited
photocamera

A) in Fig. 9.7 was found optimal for a spacecraftattitude reaction wheels in the tracking regime, when the feedback the of diagram was also used for a gyro noise. (This kind

was limited by control where the feedback bandwidth temperature noise of the temperature sensor.) Diagram B), on the other hand, is closer to the for the regimes of re-targeting of the attitude the feedback control, when optimal bandwidth needs to be wider for the and the gyro noise is of small Therefore, importance. best performance, the of the loop response can be changed from A) to B) by an shape
the

quantizing

adaptation

process.
A

Example 3.
sensors the

spacecraft

attitude

control

system
are

using

star

tracker

and gyro

attitude

is shown stars

in Fig.

9.8. The measurements

corrupted

by the

noise represented by

particular

the signal from the star tracker Ns, Nq. At any moment, depends on the are in view, that happen to be in its field of view. When several bright stars are easily recognized and when compared with the star map in the computer memory, they the signal-to-noise ratio of the tracker becomes excellent, but when the camera turns in a is noisy control direction where no bright stars and the attitude exist, the tracker output the in the should more on the In the latter the bandwidth of filter case, depend gyro. feedback path from the star tracker must be reduced. A Kalman filter (a widely used the mean this task algorithm minimizing adaptation continuously. square error) performs
sources

Star tracker
Kalman

filter

Gyro

Fig. 9.8
9.6
Without

Adaptive

control

system

with a

Kalman

filter

in the

feedback

path

Pilot
pilot

signals

and

dithering

systems
relies on
which the

responses

identification signals, passive to noise, distortions, and commands,

the

feedback

system's

are

all

far

from
of

signals for

plant

identification.
and

with plant identification is a there trade-off When are used, specially generated pilot signals. always pilot signals of the between the accuracy of the plant identification which increases with the level and the at the the error themselves introduce system's output. pilot signals, pilot signals When the plant must be faster. This requires changes rapidly, the adaptation increasedrate of information transmission by the pilot signals, and the pilot signals must
less
with

slower, less accurate,

Consequently, reliable compared

passive
active

identification

optimal test the plant is

have largeramplitudes

and/or

broader

spectrum.
the

When only the constant multiplier of and this change is slow, a sinusoidal pilot suffices region and very small amplitude amplitude pilot
generated signal

can

in

the

system

is changing, coefficient of the plant in the with crossover the frequency signal to identify the plant The smallaccurately. on the command. be superimposed Or, the pilot signal can be oscillation of small itself by self-oscillation. High-frequency gain

Chapter9. Adaptive
amplitude

Systems

263

is called

dither.

dithering

system

block diagram

is shown

in Fig.

9.9.

4_

Fig. 9.9
The Nyquist and

Dithering

control

system
shown

Bode diagrams dB
L-plane

for

the system

are

in Fig.

9.10.

dB
*\"*\"*\\

dithering

dithering

system
-180\302\260

system

phase
conventional

\\V,
system
frequency

'\302\246 too-

sc.

conventional

system

at

which phase is 0 margin

(a)

(b)
and diagrams

Fig. 9.10 Dithering (a) Nyquist The

zero.
provide
dithering

conventional control systems, and (b) Bode diagrams

frequency

system

oscillates

at the

where

the phase
gain

In a

conventional system,

at this

frequency

the loop

must

be

is stability margin - 8 to -10 dB to

sufficient

frequency
provision

gain stability margin. In the dithering is OdB which allows an increase in the loop 3 times additional of, approximately, rejection frequency

system,
gain

of

the loop gain at this 8 to 10 dB, i.e.,a the the disturbances within
by these

functional

range.

in order for the feedback loop needs to be adaptively adjusted For this the dither is selected by a to small. oscillation remain purpose, amplitude filter, and compared with filter, amplified, rectified, smoothed by a low-pass band-pass is dither and the reference, the error, The difference between the measured a reference. in the forward and continuously regulates a variable attenuator amplified and slowly the main loop gain so that the varies loop. The attenuator path of the main feedback reference. The dither level as small as the becomes dither Q compensator loop of the law resulting in the desired time-response adaptation implements the desired

The

gain

in

the

of the

adaptation.

This
receivers

described

system has certain similarities with in Section 1.10

the

automatic

level control

system for AM

264
(In some systems,the actuator nonlinear link.

Chapter

9. Adaptive

Systems

dither

signal but

These

systems

detector nor a variable

of
the adaptation,

attenuator,

larger

error

introduced

the loop gain by partially saturating the are simpler since they have neither a dither their performance is inferior, with smaller range and reduced by the dither, power available from
reduces

actuator

to drive

the plant.)

9.7 Adaptive filters

Adaptive

controllers

use

linear

some adaptation algorithm. can be used. Two additional

As the

are links, also called linear filters, which filters, symmetricalregulators describedin are given below. implementation examples

varied
Chapter

by
7

Example 1. A transversal delay links x and variable gain

desired

filter
links,

compensator
the

is

shown

in Fig.

9.11. It consists
weights,

of

frequency

response of the

adaptive

weights filter can

w{. With appropriate

any

be obtained.

output

Fig.

9.11

Transversal

adaptive

filter

as

a compensator
(defining

The
adaptation

weights

are

adjusted
can

by an adaptation
performance

algorithm

the dynamics

of

the

loops)

on the
works

basis of the
well
sharper

error

produced

by the

performance
are relatively

estimator.Sucha system
This

be classified

as a self-learning system.
required

system

when

the

frequency
with

responses
resonance

smooth. Responses with

require
using

bends

and responses

modes

would

too

many

sections

in the transversal filters.

amplitude (multipliers)

filters can be made with Example 2. Adaptive example in Fig. 9.12. The first balanced pair of modulators

modulators, with

frequencies quadrature transfers the input signal from baseband to higher modulators quadrature signal is filtered by filters C(s), and the second pair of balanced The balanced quadrature modulators are used here to returns the signal to the baseband. The input-output cancel most of the parasitic intermodulation products. frequency carriers. can be varied by changing C(s) and using multi-frequency responses useful for rejection of periodic non-sinusoidal These adaptive filters are particularly

as for carriers in where the

disturbances.

Chapter

9. Adaptive

Systems

265

COS CO?-

sin

(of

Fig.

9.12

Adaptive

filter

with

modulators

Chapter
I

10

PROVISION
The

OF GLOBAL STABILITY
path

actuator,

feedback
limit-cycles,

and
The
Nonlinear

plant

nonlinearities

are

reviewed.

Concepts
stability,

are

developed of
stability,
system

stability

of linearized Popov
dynamics

absolute
10.1
In

analysis
stability

and absolute stability. and design.

without

systems, conditional criterion is discussed and

global
control

appliedto

penalizing

the available

feedback, are introduced.

compensators

(NDCs), which ensure

Nonlinearities
nondynamic

of the
current

actuator, feedback path,

value

and plant

link, the
the

current
input-output

value of
It

input

variable

of the output variable depends only on the values. and not on its previous The link has no

memory.
saturation, relay-are
represent output

is fully

characterized

characteristics
hard shown

and in

function. Several examples of the by the input-output links-hard and of nonlinear nondynamic smooth and three-position dead zone, dead zone and saturation, smooth and (d) respectively.These nonlinear links Fig. 10.1(a),(b),(c),
typical

properties

of

actuators.

output

output
01 input

output
0

, input
-e.

-ed.

ed input

input

(a)

(b)

(c)
of nonlinear

(d)
links:
zone,
dead

Fig. 10.1

Characteristics

(a) soft and hard saturation, (c) dead zone and saturation,
link

nondynamic

(b) soft

and

hard

(d) three-position

relay

A
nonlinear

nonlinear

operator
input

small and

can be placed in the feedback path to implement an inverse as in 10.2. When the feedback is large, the error e is shown x(y) Fig. + e approximately equals the signal fed back, y(x).
y(x)

Fig. 10.2
Example

Inverse

operator

Fig. 10.3

Logarithmic

amplifier

feedback

error is
266

a semiconductor 1. Putting an exponential link (using pn junction) in the in Fig. 10.3 produces a logarithmic link. If the path of an op-amp as shown = - i. The of iia is about 104, and the current small, the /,\342\200\236
input

range

range

Chapter
output

10.
the

Provision

of Global

Stability

267
a factor

voltage

u is

4. Therefore,

feedback

path

of

2500, i.e., minimum.

68dB, when
i,B

the

input

signal

gain coefficient increases by increases from the maximum

to

the

For
small.

the

error

- i to
when

be

small

relative

to i,n,
the

than, say, 40 dB even

Therefore,

the y limit

is small and
the feedback

feedback
iia is

the feedback
conditions

reaches 108dB when

the feedback must not be smaller path coefficient is relatively

the largest.

(i.e.,

when the loop gain is largest Bode assuming the loop slope is diagram bandwidth becomes 6.8 octaves smaller for the smallest -lOdB/oct, the feedback iia. To counteract this detrimental effect and to keep the functional bandwidth feedback wide enough when with time, a nonlinear with the characteristic link iia varies that in to the feedback can installed in inverse be the forward approximately path path which will increase the loop gain and the feedback bandwidth for low-level signals.
stability bandwidth for

The

the

largest

i;n).

Therefore,

turbulent

Two examples of plant liquid flow that

that
the

nondynamic were

nonlinearities

are

the heat
are

radiation

and

mentioned

in Section

3.1. These

the

static

nonlinearities

can
link's

be
inputwith

characterized by
output

function.

In
the

a
input

link

kinematic

nonlinearities,
and

the
the

relation between output

depends

variables (forces, torques) on the output position. For

force-to-torque driven the

example,the
a robotic
shown arm

ratio

in

elbow angle

motor dependson
in Fig.

by a elbow

rotational angle as

Dynamic nonlinearities
those depends previous

10.4 (a) and

(b).

(a) Fig. 10.4 (a) Robotic

(b)
arm

are

where

the output nonlinearly on the current and the variable. of the input values
in

and

(b) its force-to-torque ratio as the function of the elbow angle

They

will be studied

Section

10.7 and

Chapters 11,12, and

13.

10.2 Types of self-oscillation

oscillation x(t) is periodic.The phase (x, x'), plane in Fig. 10.5. The trajectories on the derivative, is shown signal When the oscillation is sinusoidal, the of the process. reflect the time history plane like the of different in a is a oscillation second-order circle, amplitudes trajectory The unmarket trajectories relate the conservative system depicted in Fig. 10.5(a). of the but not about the about the shape of the oscillation information frequency oscillation. with system with some damping. Starting Fig. 10.5(b)depictsa stable second-order with time and the the decreases initial condition, signal amplitude trajectories any approach the origin, i.e., x and x' approach0 when time increases indefinitely. In other words, the origin is the static attractor for the trajectories.
The

most

frequently
the

encountered
time

where x'(t) is

268

Chapter

10.

Provision

of Global

Stability

x'

x'

: x

(a)
Fig. 10.5
(a) nondissipative

(b)

(c) for at the

(d)

(b) dissipative second order

(c)
(d)
limit

second-order system,

Trajectories on the phase plane,

system having a static oscillator of a sinusoidal signal, a triangular

attractor

origin,

cycle

for an

limit cycle
in

for an oscillator of

signal

Self-oscillation
but

physical

non-conservative

nonlinear
This

systems is initially
of periodic

aperiodic

often

called limit cycle. In Fig. 10.5(c), a nonlinear

asymptotically
cycle systems,

approaches periodicity.
sinusoidal

type

system

with

circularlimit
In
which
Fig.
many

oscillation is a limit cycle is shown. This

describes x(f)
in

oscillation.

are
by

shown

10.6(a),

is rich in high harmonics, as, for example, in the oscillations 10.6. When, for example, the signal is triangular as in the limit cycle takes a rectangular as in Fig. 10.5(d), with the rate x' shape
Fig. jumps.

changing

instant

ILL
time

time time

time

V
(a)

(b)

(c)
oscillations

(d)
harmonic content

Fig. 10.6
A

Periodic

with high

each surrounded with its system cycles, might possess several limit conditions within the basin of attraction in the phase space. Initial limit lead to different initial conditions attraction lead to this limit cycle. Different and initial lead to some conditions might stability. cycles, is stand-alone limit cycle and the basin of attraction of a feedbackloop which The as such to facilitate and nonlinear linear unstable can be modified with compensators an in with other the feedback A13.13). loops(see example stabilizing system does not arise in control systems of moderate Aperiodic oscillation usually it in Because of this, we will not consider near the border of globalstability. complexity in feedback this book, although oscillations do some engineering happen aperiodic
nonlinear
own

basin

of

systems such as in

improperly

designed

microwave

VCOs.

control Phase plane can be utilized for the design of low-order systems. For relay lines example, when the variable x needs to be constrained by a < x < a, the switching on the phase-plane define the conditions for the relay to switch, x = a and x = -a drawn on the phase plane. and the x time-history is derived from the trajectories

Chapter

10.

Provision

of

Global

Stability

269

10.3

Stability
Local

analysis of nonlinear systems

is applicable to nonlinear of that proved stability

10.3.1
The

linearization
stability Lyapunov

First Lyapunov Method for with differentiable characteristics. can be determined on the equilibrium
increments,

analysis

systems
the

system small

basis

of the

for system parameters linearized

i.e., locally. electrical arc, neon lamp, or the with an external dc bias voltage on u as The differential dc resistanceduldi 10.7(a). depends Fig. branch between the 10.7(b). The resistance is negative on the falling
nonlinear

Example 1. Considera
output source
shown two

two-pole

(an

of an u
in

op-amp as shown in
Fig.

with

in-phase

current

feedback)

bifurcation

points.

bifurcation ;

points

nonlinear

falling

two-pole

S branch

(a)
Fig.
with

(b)

10.7

Nonlinear

two-pole device
dependence

(a)
(b)
of

S-type

current-on-voltage

According to
two-pole

the

First

Lyapunov

Method,

the locally

linearizedimpedance

the

m-1

Z(u,s) =
the polynomial coefficients functions of u, can be used to determine the system is unstable when the contour impedance which stability. The system is locally Z(u, s) has a zero in the right half-plane of s. Assume it is known from experiments that the falling branch such a device outside is passive, and therefore the coefficients ao,b0, am and bD are positive. Assume that it is also known that on the falling branch the device is stable if connected to a current
with local
source,

i.e., Z(s)

has no poles in
dc

the

right

half-plane.

The

differential

resistance

of the

two-pole is

' } _\302\253,(\302\253)
bo(u)

As the bias point moves along the resistance and, therefore,

the characteristic

in

Fig.

10.7(b)

coefficienta0,

pass

through

into the falling zero at the bifurcation

branch, point

270

Chapter
both

10.

Provision

of Global

Stability

and
circuit

become

negative
hand,

on the
am and

falling

branch.
by

On the

other

ba are determined

the

high-frequency

and capacitances), and remain positive branch. the numerator of Z must have a0 negative, root. Therefore, when the is shorted (connected to a voltage two-pole contour impedance has a zero in the right half-plane of s, and the system will use this result in Section 12.3.
(by stray inductances With am positive and

behavior on the
source),

of
falling

the

a positive is unstable.

real
the

We

The
stability

First

Lyapunov

Method

justifies

using
nonlinear

the

Nyquist

and

analysis

to determine

whether a
solution

system

is stable
where

the

signal
the

deviations
locally-applied

from a

the

are small.

For a

system

be big,
sufficient.

Nyquist
Nyquist-stable

and Bode

stability

conditions

are

methods of locally, i.e., while the deviations can but not necessary
Bode
first

In particular,

on, but after 10.3.2

can being overloaded,

is commonly system become unstable.

stable

when

switched

Global stability
that

when the time increases, remain within an finite and then, are and lower called boundaries zero, approach envelope upper asymptotically is called vanishing. The system asymptotically globally stable (AGS) if its are vanishing after excitation. Time-exponents \302\261ae'kt,k>\\ are responses any vanishing used for the boundaries. commonly envelope Asymptotic stability with such boundaries is called exponential stability. all possible initial conditions, as opposed An AGS system remains stable following a conditionally is conditions to stable which stable following some initial system, but in which some other initial conditions Well-designed control instability. trigger a must be be AGS. to test whether However, directly system is AGSone would systems is not feasible. to try an infinite number of different vanishing signals which required criteria. This necessitates devising convenient practicalglobal stability One such criterion is the Second Method. Lyapunov It uses the so-called which is a scalar function Lyapunov of the system function coordinates, is equal to zero at the and nonzero) outside (i.e., origin, is positive definite positive of the origin as illustrated in Fig. 10.8 for the case of two coordinate variables, and has negative time derivative. The V continuously function decreases with time and approaches the origin. As the result, each variable approaches zero and -jo.8 Lyapunov pjg, the system is AGS. function example The Lyapunov function is often constructedas a sum of a and an integral of a nonlinear static form of the variables function quadratic system is the an function appropriate Lyapunov reflecting system nonlinearity. Finding simple when the system is low-order and the stability margins are wide.Unfortunately, finding the function for a practical nonlinear with a high-performance controller is, system

Signals

are

initially

whose

typically,

difficult.

10.4

Absolute

stability

Many practical
(actuator)

feedback systems

consist

of a

linear

link

-T(s)

and

a nonlinear
nonlinear

link

that

can be well

approximated by

a memoriless

(i.e., nondynamic)

Chapter link

10. Provision

of Global Stability

271

vie),

as shown

in

Fig.

10.9.

e
T

Fig.10.9

Feedback

system
link

with a

nonlinear

Fig.

10.10
nonlinear

of the Characteristic link in Fig. 10.9

it

This system is said

characteristic

to

be

absolutely

stable

(AS) if

is

AGS

with

any

v(e) constrained

by
A0.1)

0<

v(e)/e< 1
in Fig.
the

as illustrated

10.10. Hard and

soft

saturation,

dead zone, and

A0.1).

the

three-level

relay

belong to
10.5

class

of nonlinear

characteristics defined by

Popov
Analogy

criterion
to passive V.

10.5.1
to
the
the

two-poles'

connection
the

The criteriondue to
absolute

M. Popov

is based on
that has

Parseval's

theorem
obtained

stability

criterion

been

previously

and is equivalent by A. I. Lurie with

Method. The Popov criterion can be readily applied to the Lyapunov of their and is in developing defined instrumental responses, systems frequency by plots controllers with improved performance. can be understood through the mathematical The Popov criterion analogy between the and of the feedback connection electrical to Section 2.10). (refer system two-poles which in response to current Considera nonlinear inductor i creates magnetic flux
Second
q\302\247(i), where

coefficient
shown

has
the

some positive as 4p(i)H > 1 in Fig. 3(a). Since the flux the same sign as the current,
q is
and qi\302\247(\\)l2

dt

energy

stored

in the with

inductor

also a nonlinear

is positive. Consider
resistor

the

dependence of voltageon current - i. The u = \302\247(i) power dissipated in the resistor ui = /(<K0- 0 is
positive

(a)

(b)
<)>(/) and

for all

/.

this the

Let us connectthis inductor, and a passive linear two-polewith resistor,

contour

Fig. 10.11 (a) Function

(b) an AGS

circuit

dissipate

i.e. the
time

Z(s) (that is positive real) in impedance The resistor and the 10.11(b). Z(s)* draw and Fig. two-pole Since this energy cannot become negative, the energy stored in the inductor. be overdrawn from the magnetic cannot field, the current i decays with energy

shown

in

and approaches

0. The system is AGS.

272
The voltage
the u

Chapter

10.

Provision

of

Global

Stability
to the

in the

circuit in Fig.

10.11(b) is, according

equations

related to

upper

branch,

dt

Using Laplace transforms U = L$(i) -I

U = L = A

u and + qs)

/=L
L<t>(i)

i, the

voltage

+qs L0(i)
the

- /.

The current,according to

Ohm's

equation

for the

the

lower

branch,

is

Z(s) These equations

i=--L-u.

describe

the block

diagram (a) in

Fig.

10.12.

HZ

qs +

1/[1-2(s)]

(a)
mil

(b)

As

1/A + qs)
-t

-1 (c)

(d)

Fig. 10.12 AGS equivalent

Since

feedback

systems

the link -1 can be viewed as the feedback the -1/Z(.s), path for the link can in the direction the be to that of converted (b). Next, reversing diagram signal in (c) where the function v is the inverse of <|>. Notice propagation generates the diagram in (c) is equivalently redrawn that such v satisfy condition A0.1). The diagram with conventional clockwise signal transmission in (d). as The feedback system shown in Fig. 10.12(d) is described by the same equations is AGS. linear links in and therefore The return ratio of the the circuit 10.11 passive Fig. of the loop is

T(s) = [Z(j)T(s)
the

1]/A

+ qs).

A0.3)

v and the linear link of a nonlinear link Therefore, a feedback system consisting is AGS if T(s) is representable in the form A0.3) with any p.r. 2{s). In other words, is AS if there exists a positive system q such that the expression

Z{s)= {\\+qs)T{s)+\\
is positive

A0.4)

real (p.r.).
frequencies

This means that

-1.

T(s)

should

have no

poles

in

the

right

half-plane,

and

at

all

A0.5)

Chapter 10. Provision The Popov

of Global

Stability if the

273

absolute

stability

criterion

follows:
A0.5)

loop and
system

system is stable openat all

there

exists

a positive

q such

that

is satisfied

frequencies,the

is AS.

a system To check whether satisfies the Popov criterion, one might the Nyquist plot + for can be such that the a found A qs)T(s).If positive diagram q Nyquist diagram for the system is AS. A + qs)T(s) stays to the right of the vertical line \342\200\2241, The Popov criterion but not necessary for AS) is more is sufficient (which restrictivethan the Nyquist criterion (which is necessary but not sufficient for AS). Instead of the Nyquist equivalent Bode diagrams canbe used. diagram,
Example

1.

Consider

frequencies and has a high-frequency this system varies from 0 to -150\302\260as

transfer
angle

a system

with

a loop

cut-off

with

gain response which -lOdB/oct slope.

is

flat

at lower
in the

The phase shift

shown

in Fig.

11.13(a). By multiplying

loop

function
is

-60\302\260. The

part of this function condition A0.5) is satisfied. stability

nearly real

Popov we obtain +90\302\260,

by

the

factor 1 + qs with q, so that the Popov large the function A + qs)T\\s) with the angle from
is positive

factor's
to +90\302\260

at all frequencies,

and

the

absolute

dB

degr

dB

f,

log sc

\\

--90

/, log sc

--180 (a) (b)

system

Fig.10.13 Loop
for which

for (a) an AS system and (b) for a responses AS cannot be proved with the Popov criterion
with

roll-off slope of Fig. 10.14(b). The limits. for the Therefore, phase shift of the Popov factor A + jqta) is within the 0 to 90\302\260 the shift of the in in is on the the brackets roll-off, A0.5) expression frequencies phase This system therefore falls into within the 150\302\260 to 240\302\260 and A0.5) is not satisfied. limits, and the gap between the Nyquist the Popov criteria, the T-plane and no judgment can be passed on whether system is AS.

lOdB/octand

Example

2. Considera band-passsystem
with

the

associated

phase

shift

of

as 150\302\260

a low-frequency shown in

Example 3. In a Nyquist-stable
be real
in
and

system,

T must

less

Fig.
than

11.14.
affect

does not
less criterion.

-1,

Nyquist-stable

some frequency as shown At this frequency, since T is real, q T is since the left side of A0.5), and the inequality is not satisfied. Hence, the Popov systems do not satisfy
than

-1 at

Fig.

10.14

Nyquist-stable

system

274
10.5.2

Chapter10.Provision
Different forms of
the

of Global

Stability

Popov part

criterion
function.

Condition A0.5)
equivalent
qs

uses the
change

real

of a

The

condition

form which

makes use of
whether

Bode

diagrams,
criterion:

which is

can be changed into more convenient. Adding

is purely

an

to 7is)
this

does
follows

not

Z(s) is

positive real since qjoa

such that A

imaginary.

From

the second

form of the

the system

is AGS if a

real positive

q exists

+qs)T(s) + 1 + qs

is p.r,,

i.e.,

isp.z.

A0.6)

i.e.,at all frequencies

larg[(l

+jq<a)F(jGi)]\\
be

< nil.
established

A0.7)
by plotting
whether the

Therefore AGS can

using

Bode

relations, deciding A0.7) (R&T, plane Nyqulst Popov criterion uses the modified is vertically compressed at drawn on this plane, the Nyquist coImT). When diagram lowerfrequencies and expanded at higher frequencies. Condition A0.5) can be rewritten as ReT(/o>) - q<olmT(jGi) > -1 or
the phase-gain
third

for diagram is satisfied.

and, A + jq(o)F(j(o)

The

form

of the

coIm T(j@)< q~l

With

[Re <
\"

T(j<o) + 1].
\"

A0.8)
=,\"

the

\"

sign

replaced the

by point

A0.8)

Fig.

10.15. It
Therefore,

passes through
inequality
the the

(-1,0)

represents with slope \\lq.

the

the Popov
is AS if
in Fig.

line

shown

in

A0.8)

is satisfied and

system

a Popov line
10.15 is

can

be

drawn entirely to For example,

left

of the Nyquist characterized system

diagram on the
by the plot

modified
shown

plane.

AS.

modified

Nyquist

modified

plane

If 1 '1

Nyquist

plane

Fig. 10.15
on modified

Popov

line

Fig. 10.16
can

On

Nyquist plane

be passed is not possible,

of this diagram a judgment the basis that a limit cycle with fundamental U can be made about but no judgment whether the system is AS.

The plot shown in Fig. is This unstable. system plot

It has
drawn

10.16 neither
only

guarantees

been proven that no periodic to the left of all the points

components

the system is stable nor that the the absence of certain types of oscillation. can take place if a Popov line can be self-oscillation that relate to the of the modified Nyquist diagram

indicates that

Fourier

of

the oscillation. For

in

instance, periodic
in Fig.
more

oscillation

with

fundamental/i

cannot
criterion
circuits

exist

the

system

represented
using

10.16.
circuits than that in
and

Fig. 10.12,

The Popov e.g.

can

be extended
several

complex

including

various

nonlinear two-poles

several

Chapter

10. Provision

of

Global

Stability

275

passive two-poles. It was proven, in particular, function A +j'g%)/A +j(Oq2)replacing the Popov

that factor

the criterion A + qs).

is valid

with

the

10.6 Applications of Popovcriterion

10.6.1

Low-pass

system

with

maximum

feedback
criterion or Bode and Bode criteria of most practical

The Popov criterion is not a tool in everyday use like the Nyquist diagrams. Its major application is to prove that the Nyquist established for linear systems also guarantee absolute stability nonlinear those with maximized feedback. systems, including The low-pass with Bode optimal cut-off is AS. This can system
the Popov
larg

second factor.

form of With arg(l

the \\lqx

Popov
\302\253 1

criterion and

and employing

+ q\\s)/(l

be established with + q&) instead of the expressed

\\lq2 =

4o)c, the

inequality

A0.7),

as

F +

+ j(8qx)l(\\
Fig.

+j(Oq2)i

< n/2,

is satisfied,

as seenin

10.17.

dB rad

-n

-argF

-\302\246n/2

s^_^_argA

+/oagr1VA

f,

log sc

Fig. 10.17 10.6.2. Band-pass Consider

Application

of Popov

criterion to
feedback

Bode optimal

low-pass

cut-off

system

with

maximum

maximized over a large with the feedback a band-pass system relative with in cut-off the band, high-frequency region and phase stability margin yn frequency and in as in It is seen that the low-frequency shown (b). Fig. 10.18(a) y\\K roll-up region, = = 0 and y, the combination of y 0.5 satisfiescondition i.e., arg(l +jqca)T varies A0.7),
only

from

-rc/2

to iz/2, if stability
value

\\lq

is

chosen

close
the
in

to

the

mean

square

frequency

of
yt S

the

passband.

Therefore,

can be
= 1/6 y\\

proved with
does well
little

Popov

criterion
design. to the

only

when

1/2.

However,

the

of

practical

large to
requires

satisfy

the

criterion

imposes
loop

impairment

Making ji excessively available feedback but

an extension
narrow-band

of

the

gain

to lower
system, phase

frequencies.
the
criterion Popov sufficient stability margins, jil80\302\260 and jl80\302\260, exceed
the

In the
requires
90\302\260. Satisfying

band-pass
and

that the
with

roll-up
using

cut-off

stability
margin

this

compared

dramatically requirement the typical stability

reduces

maximum

available

feedback
optimal

of

y/6

in the

band-pass

276

Chapter

10. Provision

of

Global

Stability

dB
7-plane

rad

20log[A+/fflqO\"]

20logA+/oagK

6dB/oct^/
n

/\\n

\"\\arg[A+/(

^/y
\"^

\\
-12dB/od

n/2

\"V^

\\

f, log

sc

\"Ss

-nil
(a)

6dB/oct

(b)

Fig. 10.18

Band-pass system

analysis

with Popov

criterion
the

the relative cut-off. The smaller of because the criterion, Popov

bandwidth,
deficient

the smaller
filtering

feedback
the

limited
Popov

by the
factor

properties of

A +jqca).

For
As

narrow-band

band-pass

systems,

the Popov criterion is

both

mentioned, AGS this

sufficefor
although

phase of a

stability

margins of it/6

at

higher

and lower
relative

excessively restrictive. frequencies

bandwidth

has

link, regardless of the system with a saturation not yet been proven theoretically.
with

10.7 Absolutely stablesystems

compensation

nonlinear

dynamic

10.7.1 Nonlinear dynamic

Larger

compensator

feedback is available in Nyquist-stable the compensators are linear.Still, they can

Such systems are systems. nonlinear be made AS by using

be

not

AS

when

dynamic
nonlinear

compensators
links.

(NDCs). The NDC can

shown in Fig. the same nonlinear
link are

built

of linear
link 1

and

non-dynamic

In of
the

the

system

10.19, the
function

nonlinear

- v(e) in
a dead
it

the link

local of the

feedback

NDC

uses

Typically, v(e)is a saturation

in the block command is 0.
links
diagram

so that linear.

1For

v(e)
v(e)

as the
represents

nonlinear

the AS analysis,

actuator. zone. The rest of the can be assumed the

link

measured We denote by Tp the return ratio for the plant by 1 (and the link 1 - v, by 0). Then, when v(e) is saturation, as T?IP. When is expressed function for small level signals G. return ratio in the NDCs local loopbecomes the

when the
the
the

v is

compensator level is signal

replaced transfer

very large,

Actuator

Plant

Fig. 10.19 Feedback system with nonlinear and link 1 - v in the feedback path

link v
of the

in

the

actuator

NDC

Chapter 10. Provision

of Global

Stability

277

10.7.2 Reductionto equivalent

The
v(e),

system

signal v. For the sake into the one shown in of stability analysis, the system can be modified equivalently one link v. The linear links within the dashed nonlinear Fig. 10.20 which contains only of its transfer function as linear link. We denote the negative envelope form a composite be the must return If satisfies the TE (equivalent ratio). TE Popov criterion, system
input

diagram shown with the same

in

Fig.

10.19
signal

depicts
e and,

a system that has therefore, the same

two output

identical

nonlinear

links

globally stable.

Fig. 10.20
shown

Equivalently

transformed

system

containing
in

a single
10.20

nonlinear

link

v
as

To find the expression in Fig. 10.21.

for

TE, the

diagram

Fig.

is further

redrawn

Fig. 10.21
From
the output
this

Calculation

of

TE using

two parallel paths and a rule,

is
the

looptangent
transfer

to both

paths
from

diagram,
the

of

nonlinear

using Mason's link to its input

negative

of the

function

A0.9)
Given _ T TE and

TP, the

NDC

linear

link transfer

function

is

\342\200\224T

i+rE
From

A0.10)
the plant

A0.10),

feedback is

rE).
states Eq. A0.11)

(io.il)
feedback is
feedback
in the

that

the plant

product

NDC
areas

for large-level signals of substantial positive

and the

in the G and

feedback

the

local feedback in the system. Therefore,the equivalent should not overlap or else T%, loops
of the

278
the positive
plant

Chapter10.Provision feedbackin
the

of Global

Stability

will be excessive and the phase stability margin in the in each loop is substantial, the small. If positive feedback crossover than the of Tv(jo)) must be either much smaller or much larger frequency crossover frequency ofG(j<o). We can see the advantage as follows: in a conventional of a system with an NDC
plant

loop, correspondingly,

system,

T? must

satisfy

the

Popov criterion.

criterion,
weaker

but

in

system

with an NDC,

the

only

requirements

are that Tf

satisfies the
be

Nyquist

criterion,

and

that

TE,

defined
leads

by
to

A0.9), satisfies the Popov better performance as will

Exploiting in the next

this extra design

flexibility

section. is no need to maximize to the full extent the disturbance rejection there Commonly, while the stability specified keeping stability margins, or maximizing margins while In these there still remains cases, providing specified disturbance rejection response. somefreedom in choosing the responses for G and TE. This freedom qan be utilized for the provision of desired transient for large level signals. For a large-level responses
shown
signal, a unity

the dead

zone in the feedback path of and the system becomesa tracking link,

the

NDC system

can be with

replaced approximately
transfer

by

the loop

function

A0.12)
G + l

and
guard

saturation

in

the

actuator.

Such a

system

has

response

without
this,

an overshoot if
Bode

the

point
must

phase
be

stability
rather

margin

is 90\302\260 or so.

To achieve
will

the

A0.12)
crossover

shallow

frequency.

Examples
derived

wide over a rather with such responses

frequency
be

interval
demonstrated

for including the in the next

diagram

section.

The equations
system

for

the block
the

diagram
for

in

Fig.

shown

in Fig.
in

10.22 where
feedback

actuator
but

exhibits the fc-times

10.19 are also valid for the as the the same nonlinearity

function

v(e)

the

NDC

path

larger signal.

Fig. 10.22 Scalingdown 10.7.3 Design examples

With

the

nonlinear

link

in

the

NDC by

a factor of k

lower-order

compensation,

the disturbance
remain

application decrease.Still, they we will

use

substantial,

systems

compensation

with low-order links as making AS the system

the

cases, improving
and

transient homing

responses system

and the benefits of NDC and in the following Examples 1-3 such benefits of nonlinear to illustrate dynamic in some with rather steep Bode diagram, and, to large commands.

rejection

Example 1. In the
the

diagrammed
The
and

plant P is a single integrator. (a lead-with-integration compensator)

NDC
the

in Fig. 10.23, v(e) is a saturation, forward path transfer function TVIP ratio for return small-level signals plant

Tpare

Chapter 10. Provision

Tp__

of Global

Stability

279

2(.s

+ 0.5)

s(s + 2)
+ 0.5)

2E \342\200\236

Fig. 10.23
The asymptotic lead compensation. with nyqlog function np = [2

Block

diagram

of a

system

with

an

NDC
for

Bode diagram The logarithmic

from

for

TP shown

Nyquist

diagram

in Fig. 10.24(a) is typical for Tp is plotted in

in

simple 10.24(b)

Fig.

Bodestep
2

toolbox described
0];

Appendix

A14:

1]; dp = [1

nyqlog(l,np,dp)
Nyquist fV

diagram,

x marks

w = wb, + marks octaves

dB

40

60

50

Up
\\

30
\\P

m 40
-12 dB/oct

20 10
.125

130
CO

o. zo

\\

-6 dB/oct 0

\\
\\ Ve

; h

Onj
.25

'

-10

.s^.^-s/iogsc
(a)

/
dB/oct

^\\\\-12

-240
loop

-210
phase

-180
shift

-150

-120

-90

in degrees

(b)
diagrams

Bode Fig. 10.24 (a)Asymptotic In the linear mode of operation

and (b)

L-planeplots for

Example phase

1 (A)

margins
The

is

37\302\260 and

general

Consider

two choices of low-order

will

small signals), the guard-point (for transient response has 43% overshoot. rules for selecting TE and G have been formulated the closed-loop
TE and

stability 10.7.2.

in

Section

G.
TE:

(A) We

start

the design

by a

guessed responsefor

s(s +

2)
a

As
shallower
with

shown

such

is discussed

10.24 his response mergeswith TP at higher frequencies but has lesser phase lag. The system at lower frequenciesand, correspondingly, slope in this system are stable;process a TE is AS (and even the processes stability a TE, from A0.10), such in the next chapter). With
in Fig.

280
The asymptotic

Chapter

10.

Provision

of

Global

Stability

for these in Fig. TE and G are shown are in with the L-plane Nyquist diagrams plotted Fig. 10.24(b) following includes the previously shown line for plotting Tp):
diagrams

Bode

10.24(a).

The script (which

np = [2

ne
ng

1];
de

dp

[12
2

2;

1;

gtext('TP');
The

dg =

[12

[1

0 0]; nyqlog(l,np,dp); hold on 0]; nyqlogA,ne,de); hold on

0];

gtext('TE');
link

nyqlog@.5,ng,dg);
in the

gtext('G') %placelabels
feedback
path

zoom off
NDC is

with

mouse

transfer

function of the
s +

of the

GP_

2
2)'
function

T?

+2s + (s + Q5)(s2
2(,y +
S

The large-amplitude

loop transfer
2

A0.12)

0.5)

i2

s5+4s4
The
response

6s3+5s2+2s'

of a
expected

large-amplitude Bessel filter;

to be

closed-loop response (not

therefore,

shown

closed-loop

transient

are not

is dissimilar to the here) responses to large commands

acceptable.
the NDC

(B) If, while

G and T%making

retaining

forward

path

link,

we interchange

the

functions

for

them

1
rE=\342\200\224^

and

s(s
the

+2s

+ 2)
are still
function

s(s + 2)
satisfied since G
link
in and

equations

A0.9)-A0.11)

TE enter

these equations
the

symmetrically. The transfer

GP

of the

the

feedback

path of

NDC

rp

2s + i 10.24) are
not
smaller

The for this TE (i.e., for G in Fig. stability margins for the system to remain AS (although version (A), but sufficient function is The large-signal loop transfer A0.12)

than

in

process-stable).

Tp

2E + 0.5)

This

and the related closed-loop response are plotted response is shown in Fig. 10.25(b); it has The closed-loop step-response Fig. 10.25(a). the overshoot in the nonlinear that overshoot. These linear system responsesindicates will commands be small or non-existent. to in regimes response large
frequency

in no

Chapter 10. Provision

of Global

Stability

281

10'
Frequency

10\"

10'
Time

10
(sees) (b) large Example
\342\200\242

(rad/sec)

(a)
Fig.

10.25

for responses (a) Open-loop and closed-loop to large step commands in response (b) transient

signals
1

and

the system transient Indeed, responses and shown in Fig. 10.26 demonstrate that

to step
NDC

commands obtained
the responses.

with

SIMULINK

improves

1.5 1

1.5 1

1.5
1

0.5 0

10
(a)

0.5 0 y
20 10

0.5

0
20

10
(c)

20

(b)

1.5 1

1.5 1
1

0.5

0.5

10

20

0.5 y 0/

0
10

\"\302\246s^

20

-0.5

10

20

(d)

(e)

(f)

1, case (A): Fig. 10.26 Transient responseto unity step command in Example with threshold of saturation and dead zone set to, respectively, (a),(b),(c) - systems where threshold is set to 0.1; 0.2; 0.5; (d) system without NDC; (e) windup in the system 0.2, and the NDC feedback path disconnected; (f) actuator output for (a) In the

(a),(b),(c)

linear mode of operation the responses are shown

thresholds.
the

(d), for

the overshoot the

is large,

approximately

45%.

In

different
threshold,

saturation

The

the smaller

percentage windup

Fig. 10.26(e) shows the

systems larger the ratio of overshoot. which occurs response

with the unity command and step of the command to the saturation
when

the

feedback

path in

282

Chapter 10. Provision

of Global

Stability

the NDC is disconnectedand the actuator overloaded by a relatively disturbance large or command. The effects of the NDCs on the transient for large-level signals response will also be considered in Chapter 13. shows that the actuator output is constant some time range and over Fig. 10.26(f) then to zero. This of the actuator output indicates good utilization rapidly drops nearly

power capability.
The

system

exhibits

performance
overshoot

absolute value
overshoots

of

the

is

which is desirable for many limited to a small value.

not

homing

systems:
(percentwise)

the

Large

occur

in the

but responses to small disturbances,

in the

responses to large

disturbances.
The

performance

can be

further improved with

block
path

higher-order
in

compensation.
Fig.
return

Example
function

of the

2. The system NDC forward

+ 1.2s+

and

diagram the plant

is shown

10.27.
ratio

The
are

transfer

small-signal

Tp

2s2

0.1
feri i

2s2+1

.2S+0.1

s3-

-> 1/S-l

2s2 +1.25+0.1

\\G)
\342\200\224

s4+2s3
i.e.,

GP/TP

4-

2E+0.5H+0.1)

-10#27

Block

d'a9ram

of a

system

with

an

NDC

s3(s+2)
As seen on
the

asymptotic

Bode

frequencies
The system

than

that

is Type 3. The is Nyquist-stable.

in Example
Nyquist

diagram in Fig. 10.28(a), I7>l is larger at lower 1 and therefore providesbetter disturbance rejection. is for shown in TP diagram Fig. 10.28(b), the system

-18dB/oct
50

Nyquist

70 60 50

diagram,

x marks

w=wb,

+ marks

octaves

. Tp

in Example 1

\\

\\

40

\\

30 20

-12dB/oct

ffi 40 \342\200\242o

V
\\

V
k

\\

\\
10
\\

\\ ,

.0625

.125

.25

t,

log SO !70

I
-240
loop

/
-150 -120

-10
(a)

-210
phase

-180

shift in degrees

(b)
Bode

Fig.

10.28

(a) Asymptotic

diagram

and (b)

L-planeplots for

Example

Chapter

10.

Provision

of Global

Stability
low-order.

283

Let us considerthree
(A) With

choices

of TE and

G, keeping them

the same

+:
as

in case

A of

Example 1, G is found
.

from

A0.10)

as

1.25 + 0.1 G = \342\200\224^\342\200\224^

The

asymptotic
NDC

Bode diagrams for

in Fig.

L-plane plots are shown

2=1 sincethe
GP

local

in Fig. 10.28(a). The TE and G are shown For large-level signals,the system is Type 3 is loop is Type 2. The NDC feedback path transfer function
the

10.28(b).

@.6s+0.05H+2)

T?
The large,

(s2 + 2s +
system

2H

+ 05)(s

+ 0.1)

'

is globally

stable
as a shown

but

it does

not

qualify

large-amplitude
(B) With
the

signals (not
functions

and the stability margins in the equivalent system are to good homing system becausethe transient responses here) are far from the best possible.

TE(s) and

G(s) interchanged, i.e.,

52O2+25

+ 2)
becomes

the NDC
GP

feedbackpath
2

,\"
+

T? The
type

5E + 2JE
of

0.5H

+ 0.1)

2E +

0.5H + 0.1)
still

2s2

+ 1.2s

+ 0.1'

for large magnitude

the system for large-level signals is (not shown here) step commands

3 - 1\342\200\242= 2. The
deserve
function

transient

responses
adjusted

improvement.
is further

(C) The numerator of the NDC feedback path transfer to improve the transient by trial and error, in order response command.With NDC feedback path transfer function
GP

to a

large-amplitude step

1.65 +

0.16

1.25+ 0.1'
2

G0.16

GPT?
Tp

1.65 +
~

0.16
2
*

+1.65+

T?

252

+1.25+

0.1

53+252

G +

s(s

+ 252 +1.65+ 0.16)

1.045

_i_ 1

54 +

253+ 252
43

+1.25

+ 0.1

OAs2

+ 0.1

43

+0.165

284 The

Chapter 10. Provision

of Global

Stability

Fig.

in are shown Bode large signal open-loop and closed-loop diagrams With such diagrams, the transient shown in Fig. 10.29(b) has no response in Fig. 10.30 becomes overshoot, and the nonlinear system transient response shown in Fig. 10.31, where the crossover for T% is shown satisfactory. The Nyquist diagram = 0.65. The a>b system is AS. frequency

10.29(a).

20

TO

0 0.8

O-20

-40 10'

\302\246\302\2470.6

o I
-90

-requency(rad/sec)
<0.4

\\ 0.2

-180

10'

10\"

101

5
Time

10
(sees)

15

20

Frequency (rad/sec) (a)

(b)
and

Fig. 10.29

(a) Bodediagrams

(b) transient

response

for

Tp/(G+1

)[1+TP/{G+1)

Nyquist diagram, 70i\342\200\224

x marks

w = wb, + marks octaves

60 50
1.5

m 40 0.5

|30

|
10
response in

20

20

*\302\253>

Fig. 10.30 Transient

of the Example

large step commands obtainedwith

nonlinear system to
2, case

-10

(C),

'0 -240
loop

-210 -180-150-120 -90

phase
Nyquist shift

SIMULINK.

in degrees

Fig. 10.31

diagram

for

Te
the system
the

Example 3. In
with a
To

Examples1 and
plant.

2,

the plant the

is 1/*. Let us next

consider

double-integrator
retain

the plant
transfer

loop

return

ratio

same as

before, let us
and to
retain

multiply

NDC

forward

path feedback in the NDC, let us path by 1/*, The system with the Ms2 is therefore AS. the modified NDC same and and has the G and TE, plant the However, since the NDC reduces type for large signal amplitudes by system's of poles of G at dc, the output transient responses to large-magnitude the number step transient must be assured in commands undershoot. When good large-signal responses the for nonlinear T& should be made steeper. Acceptable system, the Bode diagram

functions

1 and in Examples the feedback multiply

2 by *,

the

same

internal

Chapter

10. Provision

of Global

Stability

285

performance

can be obtained

with

+0.1s

GP

1.5s3 +
Better

0.002 l.5s2 + 0.15.$+

the dead
(although

transient

responses
than

can be
actuator's

achieved
threshold

by

making
saturation

zone

in

the

NDC
the

somewhat
system

smaller

the

of
not

in this

case

analysis

large signalswill
functions.
responses.
given

with Popov criterion is no which might or decrease,

1, 2, three

more valid,
might

and

the disturbance

rejection for
transfer
the

be of

importance).
low-order

The presented Examples

The
following

and

3 use
be

explicit algebraic
4 or

examples from

use graphical
calculated

representation

for

gain

The related 4, or

phase responsescan
the

using either graphical

methods

in Chapter

programs

Appendices for G
lOdB

14. After
rational

this,

the responses

for G and for the

Example /b =

compensator

Tp/P can be
the

approximated by
and

functions.
cut-off

4. Fig.

10.32shows
stability

diagrams

+ 1 as Bodeoptimal
of

with

8Hz,

30\302\260 of

resulting

in 40dB
functional

over the
attained

feedback
The

amplitude stability margin 10dB of feedback over the bandwidth [0,1]. Tg is chosen with only The more than 90\302\260. and having the phase stability bandwidth, margin in the II of the 40 dB available 50 dB exceeds \\TP+ single-loop AS
phase is Nyquist-stable

margin,

system.

system

and AS.
dB

80

dB

40

20 0

.5 1

-20

Fig.10.32 Bode
for the At lower

AS system of Example 4
the

diagrams

Fig. 10.33 Bode

for the can

diagrams 6

AS system of Example

dashed
found

frequencies lines. The rational

responses function

approximation

be reshaped, for example as shown for the obtained responses

by

the

can be

as described

in Chapter

6.
in Section phase of an
of the low-pass 10*6, a band-passtransform smaller that 90\302\260 does not satisfy the stability margin The band-pass transform NDC resolves this problem.

Example 5. As indicated cut-offwith a criterion. Popov Application

Bode optimal

of the

Bode

diagrams

shown in Fig.

10.32 producesan
in

AS

band-pass

system

with

50 dB

of feedback.

Example 6.
optimal

The

Bode

plot

for TE displayed
and
the

Fig.

10.33 stability

is chosen

as

the

Bode

cut-off
the

with 40

dB of feedback
without

30\302\260 phase

margin. The available

feedbackin

AS system

NDC

is 40dB.

286

Chapter 10. Provision

of Global

Stability

A Nyquist-stable local loop in the NDC is chosen to reduce the loop crossover the area of positive not to fall upon feedback frequency in order for the area of positive is 80 dB in the feedbackin the TB loop. The Nyquist-stable feedback operational plant an NDC frequency range, much larger than 40 dB allowable in the AS system without
These

In Examples 4-6, no responses, if desired,

nonlinear
that

attention

was

paid

to the
with

can be improved
feedback

closed-loop

transient

responses.

the command

feedforward technique

or with additional We can conclude

Another

loops.
dynamic

approach
will

compensation

be

improve performance of AS systems. to designing nonlinear feedback systems with discussed in the next chapter.
NDCs

10.8 Problems

(a)

Make

cable

an amplifier equalizing in dB is proportional attenuation

the
cable;

attenuation

to the

passive

converter; (c) make

two-pott

imitating

the

(b)

voltage-to-frequency

converter.

of a span of a coaxialcable(the a square root of the frequency) using from a D/A make an A/D converter converter from a frequency-to-voltage

2
3

What is the characteristic of a feedback system with a high-gain input-output forward path and a feedbackpath where (a) saturation (b) dead zone is placed?

Figure

out the

spectral density
x and

plots

(Fourier

transforms) the
limit

for the signals

cycles

in

Fig.

10.6.

Find the

point-to-point

correspondence

between

in Fig.

10.5 and the

time responses for

5
Draw triangular

x'.

phase

signal is

limit cycle curves for (a) a triangular plane with different front and back slopes.

symmetrical signal; (b) a

What

of an amplifier characteristic of the output feedback, if the amplifier gain coefficient is 20, the feedback is divider consists of two 10 k?2 resistors, and the power supply voltage What external load resistance makes the circuit stable?

the

current-to-voltage

with

in-

phase

voltage

voltage
\302\26110 V?

(a)

Is the system with saturation AS if + 10)(s + 200)s]; T(s) = 100(s + 3)(s + 6)/[(s + 200)s]; (b) T\\s) = 100(s + 2)(s + 16)/[(s + 20)(s = + 1 + + + (c) 1\\s) 300(s 200)sj; )(s 5)/[(s 100)(s (d) T(s) = 300s(s+ T)(s + 5)(s + 5000)/[(s + 100)(s + 120)(s+ 130)]. Bode diagrams or use computer generated Bodediagrams, (Draw asymptotic apply the Popov criterion.)
Are

and

8
9

the

by a
A

dead zone link?

is AS.

systems

from the
By a
it

previous problem
three-position
stable

AS

when

the saturation

link

is replaced

relay?
judgment

system

Is

globally

(yes, no, or no
a

can

nonlinear

link v(e) is

equations: v- il2\\
the

(g) e = 5v,
I v\\ < 1,

(a) v =

link non-dynamic e?/2;(b) = i/V2; (c) v = e3/2; (d) e (h) v= 5&, (I) e = v + 0.25v* 0) e

replaced

by

= v3^; = v+

described
(e) v25; (k)

if the be passed) the following by

v =

range

no solution

outside this

e - il2\\ (f) e = e = W(v-1) over

range.

Chapter 10

10. Provision of Global Stability by connecting

in

287

Draw the unity

link

and

characteristic of the nonlinear link obtained the negative of a three-position relay link.

parallel

11

an AS system with an NDC, with fb= 1 kHz, using the design prototype or SPICE simulations. Plot the 1, Fig. 10.24(a). Make MATLAB Example time to step-function input of small and large amplitudes. responses
Design
AS system with an NDC, with fb = 140 Hz, using the design prototype or SPICE simulations. Plot the 2, Fig. 10.24(b). Make MATLAB Example time to step-function input of small and large amplitudes. responses the
when driver

in
output

12 Designan

in
output

13

Using

block
the is

NDC, of the

diagram shown in Fig. 10.22, scale threshold is 20 V, plant saturation 2 V.

down the
and

saturation

link

for the

the

maximum

output signal

14 What is the meaning of the word \"asymptotic\" AS, AGS. Can an asymptotic Bode diagram diagram,

in the
be

used

terms: asymptotic Bode in determining AS?

15 Research project:
with the a Nyquist-stable system for a plant specified by the instructor, Design with saturation in the actuator. bandwidth specified by the instructor, feedback to the signal Apply a large-amplitude vanishing Verify the design with SIMULINK. and observe the self-oscillation. input, following system's \342\200\242 100 in the loop after the compensator. a link with gain coefficient Introduce \342\200\242 Introduce local feedback about this link that makes the main loop response AS-type. Introduce a dead zone into the local feedback path. \342\200\242 this system to a single-loop Transform system. Modify the linear links if equivalent^ the Popov criterion. for the system to satisfy necessary
\342\200\242 \342\200\242

Study
linear

the
links

\342\200\242

Compare

rejection

(b) PIDresponse.

to commands of different shapes to improve the responses. the disturbance rejection of the designed an NDC and with of an AS system without
responses
if necessary

and

amplitudes.
the

Modify the
disturbance

system with
(a)

Bode

step

response

or

16

Research

project:

Do

system in the

with a

three-position
the

the design similar to that of the in the actuator and an relay

previous

problem
nonlinear

for

a link

appropriate

compensator.
same
link

17 Research project: Do
characteristic of the

as
in

in

Problem

nonlinear

the

e =

-V-0.25V3 and an appropriatenonlinear

of feedback NDCs

13 for the system actuator described by the link in the compensator.

with

the

equation

18 Research area: Design complementing nonlinear

19
20

nonlinear loops. with multiple

in

prefliters

and

feedforward

paths

Research area:

Designof

nonlinear

links.

All links in the system links v. Which of the

diagrammed
following

Fig.

conditions (c)

criterion:

(a) U = Ls; (b) U = Ls;

Ls =

10.34 are linear except allows stability analysis

(d)

the
with

two

identical the

U\\

U =

U (e) U = 2.7L,

Popov

288

Chapter

10.

Provision

of Global

Stability

*\302\251\342\200\224>$-*

[->
ih

(H-

Mh

Fig.10.34 Feedback
Answers

system

to selected
sketches

problems
spectral
density

The

of the

for the

oscillations

are

shown

in Fig.

10.35.

Illu......

frequency

(a)
Fig.

frequency (b)
10.35
is

frequency (c)
for

frequency
(d)

Spectral
depicted

density plots

oscillation

shapes

in Fig. 10.6

6 The
Fig.

in and the characteristic is shown linear mode of operation can be calculated with Blackman's formula as R = fl0F(\302\273) = A - 10J0k?2 = -8kQ. When the voltage is saturated, and the output exceeds VCC which is 10 V, the amplifier resistance is Ro = 20 k?i (we assume the remains amplifier impedance output it is saturated). The system is infinite in the linear mode of operation and while the feedback. stable when the load impedance is 0 sincethis disconnects certainly real zero. The negative impedanceon the falling branch contains a positive
circuit

in Fig. 10.36(a),
impedance

10.36(b).

The

output

in the

-10

(a)

(b)
with in-phase current-to-voltage

Fig. 10.36 (a)Amplifier

(b) its
output

voltage feedback and characteristic

q

7 (a) The system is AS, as can be proved with or any of the other equivalent conditions.

= 0.1,

using

MATLAB

to verify

A0.7)

20

The

answer

same and the

is (c)

since

in

this

case

outputs

are,

therefore,
nonlinear

stability analysis,

one of the

nonlinear the input to both identical the same. Therefore, for the link can be removed.

links is the
purpose of

Chapter

11

DESCRIBING FUNCTIONS
Stability

to well-designed control

when applied accuracy having low-pass filter properties. is simple and convenient. In this chapter, function (DF) stability Describing analysis DFs are derived for most common nonlinear links: saturation, dead zone, three-position formulas are derived and used in the design relay, and hysteresis. Simpleapproximate
analysis

based

on harmonic

balance providessufficient

feedback

loops

of

nonlinear

controllers.

link is described. A bang-bang controller with a hysteresis are introduced. The responses characterize \\so-f and iso-E the responses of DF on the signal amplitude and frequency. dependence Nonlinear dynamic compensators are the links that provide phase advance for A loop is analyzed which includes an NDC and an additional large-level signals. nonlinear link (actuator). Stability margins for such systems are defined. of one An NDC can be built nonlinear and several linear links. are Conditions discussed for maximizing the advance for large-level signals. NDCs are phase described nonlinear channels and with nonlinear local feedback paths. with parallel It is known that SISO and MIMO Nyquist-stable provide systems larger feedback thus the disturbance is conditional when rejection. However, their stability enhancing the only nonlinear links in the systems are the saturation. NDCs eliminate actuators' in such limit transient for large cycles systems. NDCs also improve responses of process For command amplitudes and reduce the effects all these instability. for purposes, NDCs can be built in the same configurations as the NDCs designed
nor complex - an analog NDC stability. NDCs are neither expensive be made with an op-amp can and 5 to 10 passiveelements,resistors and A capacitors. to program. for lowering the system So, there is little excuse digital NDC is trivial performanceby using only linear controllers. Nonlinear interaction between local and common loopsis reviewed, and the reader is warned about practical cases where such interaction can lead to a limit cycle. The effects of harmonics and intermodulation on the system and stability accuracy are discussed. The chapter ends by describing the procedure for testing whether the system is AGS.
provision

of global

11.1 Harmonic balance

11.1.1
feedback

Harmonic

balance

analysis

The condition for

is unity transmission about the (limit periodic self-oscillation cycle) the after about the same to any i.e., loop, passing loop, signal must return chosen cross Since be in Fourier section. can form, initially periodic signals presented each harmonic of the return signal is the same in amplitude and phase as the harmonic of the feedback loop. This condition of the signal at the beginning is called harmonic

balance.

Since
cannot be
presence

the

harmonics

interact
cannot

in the
consider

nonlinear

links,

the
in

used here.We
the

superposition
isolation

principle
the others.

a single harmonic
equality

from

For each of

harmonics,

the transfer function's

to

1 should this

of

all

other

harmonics.
balance

Although

generally
when

procedure
the

cumbersome,harmonic

analysis

is simplified

be verified in the could be Fourier series can be

289

290
justifiably
truncated

Chapter

11.

Describing

Functions
this

to a

few terms. example.

system
and

To establishwhether
diagrammed real poles.

a typical
of

is possible,

let us consider

feedback

system

Example
with

1. The feedback
an integrator

in Fig.

11.1 contains a common

type

The compensator has a real gain plant k (the compensator is not optimally coefficient The loop phase lag reachesn designed). at A when the 0.5 Hz. self-oscillation takes frequency place loop gain coefficient exceeds 1 at this frequency, which happens when k>ll. The self-oscillation initially link in the loop, the signal stabilizes until, due to the saturation grows exponentially with some specific amplitude and shape.
two

(a)

(b)
diagram
output

(c)
shapes
link

Fig. 11.1 (a) Block

of self-oscillation
The

of a
and

at (b) the

feedback loop and the

(c) the
input

of the

saturation
link

shapes

of the signal
particular

v(f) at
values

the

Fig. ll.l(b)
self-oscillation

for three

of output of k. When

the
the

saturation

are

illustrated

in
the

gain

is barely

sufficient for
to

to occur,

With v(t) is sinusoidal.

larger

k, the

in signal e(t) is clipped

the

saturation

loop
only

gain

link and v{f) becomes nearly When k is trapezoidal. coefficient 20 or more, v{t) becomes nearly Fl-shaped. of the
saturation

large enough

make

the

Because
odd

harmonics.

approaches

v{t) is symmetrical and, therefore, contains symmetry, THe amplitudes of the harmonics increase when the shape of v(f) In for is this case, the Fourier series v(otf) rectangular.
+

(at v(a>t) = D/rc)[sin

(l/3)sin

sin 5<or+ (l/7)sin 7cof

time, as seen in Fig. 1 l.l(c), the signal e(t) at the input to the nonlinear This happens because v(i) is nearly doubly integrated by the loop linear links. As the result, and second derivatives are continuous. e(t) and its first Another is that higher harmonics of v(t) are effectively filtered out by the explanation linear links. In fact, e{t)doesnot differ much from the low-pass properties of the loop's sinusoid. Because of this, the cross section at the input to the nonlinear link is, the one simplifying the stability generally, analysis.
At

the same

link

looks

smooth.

11.1.2
During

Harmonic balance accuracy

self-oscillation,

the

signal
of

e(t)

at

the

input

to the
nonlinear

nonlinear

link

is not

sinusoidal. The interference

fundamental

its harmonics

in the

element

contributes

exactly to the

V of v(f).
V

of e(f) on
typical

to

be small and

nonlinear

harmonics the effects of the higher we generally expect of feedback control systems' features because of the following linear links:

However,

(a) The nonlinear

e(t) have

link

characteristic
on V.

negligible effect

This

v(e) is such assertion is

that fair

small-amplitude for

harmonics

of

common

types of control

Chapter 11. Describing

system nonlinear

Functions

291

links.
of a properties the conjecture
filter

(b) This statement

The relatively

T(i(O)

possesses is called

attenuating
filter.

the

return

signal harmonics.

of a

filter

smooth

is typically satisfied conjecture response and small n.p.s. If

for

a periodic

a system, arg

then, due to

Bode phase-gain

control systems well-designed self-oscillation appears in condition of the the average steepnessof
the

with

such

relations,

the phase

oscillation

T(j(o) =

diagram
harmonic

-n occurs at some frequency is -12dB/oct. Therefore, the

is
the

where
third

Bode

attenuated
fundamental
in

by

121og23

= 20dB
of
dB

relative to
the
third

loop.

Since

the

by the linear links v(f) itself, Fl-shaped

\\
\\

the

i i \342\200\22419 dB \342\200\224

harmonic

we

conclude

third harmonic is 30 dB (i.e.,30 times) lower than the fundamental. The higher in harmonics v(t) are even smaller, and they are attenuated even more by the loop linear links as indicated
in

dB below the fundamental, that in e(f), the amplitude of the

is 10

-12d

B/oct\\
, ,

\\

28 dB 34 dB

\342\200\224

\\

f,

log-

sc.

3fo5f

J
higher links

Fig.

11.2.

With looking
the whether

conditions at
the
the

(a)

and

(b)

satisfied,

Fig. 11.2
harmonics

Filtering

fundamental

only

and neglecting

by loop

linear

harmonics

system

the slope of the oscillation is met then harmonic analysis must harmonics of the signal e(t).
11.2

a good estimate for is stable, and for the value of the stability margins. is not steep and the of the loop links gain response due to nonminimum phase lag or due to phase lag
gives
involve

When,
phase in

however,
of links, several

condition also

nonlinear

not

only

the

fundamental

but

Describing
stability

function
analysis

Using harmonic
simultaneously in

by several

the

U.K.,

and

in

1948,

for nonlinear control systems was suggestedalmost scientists - in 1947 by L. Goldfarb in Russia and by A. Tustin by R. Kochenburger in the USA (who introduced the term
Germany
V

\"describing
sinusoidal

function\")
the

and several other scientists(in

fundamental's
the

The ratio of
signal

complex
link

applied to

input

amplitude is known as the

to

and France). the amplitude

E of

the

describing function (DF):

H(EJ<o)=V/E
a complex the describing function can be different attenuation number, describing the signal are of the function defined describing imaginary parts
In

A1.1)
at different

general,

frequencies,
shift.

and
real

it

is

and phase
by

The

and

Fourier

formulas

as

Re H = \342\200\224 Jv
%E

1 2*
o

sinaw d(ot

A1-2)

and

Im H

1 2* %E o

Jv

dtot cosom

A1.3)

292
When
its

Chapter11.Describing
the characteristic of is zero. When, further,
to
the

Functions

nonlinear the

link

output

harmonics

is symmetrical, the dc componentof at the input to the nonlinear links are

a feedback

negligiblecompared
is, approximately,

the fundamental,

the oscillation condition in

system

T(j(O)H(E,j(o)=l

A1.4)
A1.5)

or
CO).

(When account.)

the characteristic
illustrates

is asymmetric, the
two

dc

signal

component

needs to be

taken

into

Fig. 11.3
DF H(E)

ways

to do

and inverse
through

dashed lines.

The oscillation
Fig.

DF l/H(E)at
conditions the

a specific

trajectory passes inverse DF line in

critical

The trajectories formed by the E are shown by frequency and varying become satisfied when the DF A1.4,11.5) when the point in Fig. 11.3(a), or, equivalently,
stability

analysis.

11.3(b)

intersects

the

Nyquist

plot.

/.-plane
y

{.-plane

(a) Fig. 11.3

When Using

(b)
(a)

DF and

(b) inverse DF

DF appears to be with not depend on frequency, analysis inverse for is typical the DF is different at different which easier. However, frequencies the with and nonlinear nonlinear systems dynamic compensation, systems multiloop DF method is more convenient. direct linear link with link by an equivalent the nonlinear DF analysis replaces
H

does

when

transmission

function

HO\302\251)- Tne and

difference integral

is that H relationships

depends on E, and
do
not

generally,

the

superposition

principle
in a

Bode

apply.

The

integrals

can

be appliedonly
11.3

modified

form, as shown

in Appendix

4.

Describing

functions for symmetrical piece-linear

characteristics

11.3.1

Exact

expressions

Characteristics

of hard

saturation,

of dead in Fig.

three-position zone is eA.

relay are shown

zone, of saturation 11.4. The saturation

with threshold

a dead

is es,

zone, and

and the

of dead

Functions Chapter 11. Describing

293

V
\302\246e. o

es

(a)
Fig.

(b)
11.4
saturation

(c)
of (a) saturation,
zone, and
(b) dead

(d)

Characteristics
with

zone,

(c)

dead

(d) three-position relay

the inputs The characteristics in Fig. 11.4 are symmetrical. Therefore, when to the the outputs are symmetrical, are sinusoidal, do not dc contain i.e., components. is not shifted in time relative to the input. The the links' DFs are real (the Hence, output DFs have no phase shift). These DFsdo not depend on frequency. Let us derive the DF for a dead-zone link. The input and the output for the signals e is positive, dead-zone link are shown in Fig. 11.5. When the output is 0 as long as E <
links eA,

i.e.,

when

the
output

angle
is sinew

<of

< arcsin(ed/?).
e&IE

Therefore,

the

angle n arcsin(ed/?).

up

to the

input

output

Since the

output
input, the

is
the

not

shifted

in and

time the

relative imaginary

to the

part of
integrand

phase of the DF DF are 0. (In other A1.3)

words,

since the
A1.3) with

in

is an odd
the

function,

becomes only
function

0.) Therefore,

DF can be found
integrand

A1.2).
and

Because
the

is an

even

function

is symmetrical,

Fig. signals

11.5 Input and output of the dead-zone link

we can
and

take

multiply

the integral from the result by 4:

arcsin(e,j/?) to ji/2

H = \342\200\224 J
\342\200\224 %\\_

nil

sinatf-\342\200\224

GM-smcorcoscof
2

+ \342\200\224COSGW I E

eA

~iKl2

or

\342\200\236 4|\"ji =\342\200\224\\

n [2

arcsin\342\200\224+-i- cosl

eA

eA

IE

arcsin\342\200\224 -\342\200\224cos arcsin\342\200\224

i.e.,
71

This When

for the expression E < eA, the DF is

Any

dead zone DF is valid

for

0.

the signal

with the amplitude

a link

E > e&.
parallel

piece-linear

characteristic

can be obtained

by

connecting

k0 in

294
with

Chapter

11. Describing Functions

e&,, eAi,... certain parallel

several links with dead zones e6U shown in Fig. 11.6; here,a, b, c,... are obtained as the sum of the DFs of the

followed
paths,

constants.

by linear links The DF of the since the integral

Jtt, fc2. &3> - as total in

link can A1.2)

be
is a

linear

function.

*.
\342\200\224\\

e ft
\342\200\224\302\273

*3

(a)

(b)

Fig. 11.6

(a) Parallelconnection to implement piece-linear

saturation

of links

with dead
(b)

zones dead zone es for E > es is

characteristic
the

For example,
subtracted given

the

link

DF is

DF

for

the link with the 1 for

from by

1. Therefore,

the

saturation

DF

equals

E < es, and

rt

TtE\\

{E
actuator

A1.6)
(\"forward,\"
output

For a three-position relay

characteristic
Fig.
shown

in

Fig.

11.4(d),

the

v(f)

\"reverse\") \"stop,\" is two-polarity pulses,

with
shown

the
in

11.7.

-1

(a)
Fig.

(b)

11.7

Output signal of
of the

a three-position relay

for

(a)

E = 1.05 and
the describing

(b) E = 1.5
function is

The

amplitude

from pulses is 1. Therefore,

A1.2)

H=
or

\342\200\224

*'2
J sincotcfaw

4
TC

=\342\200\224cosarcsin\342\200\224

eA
,

EJ

Functions Chapter 11. Describing

295

TJ

%E

A1.7)

When

EU&

is large,

the second

component under

the

square

root can

be neglectedand
relay

H = D/ji)\302\253<i/?. Describing
in

functions

for saturation,

dead zone, and

three-position

are plotted

Fig.

11.8.

signal-to-threshold

10

15 20

ratio, dB

25 30

1
.5

-5

-10

-15
CD

TJ

.1

c?
CO

o>
u_

.05

.03 1

10
function

20 30
dead zone, and

Fig.11.8 Describing
When

characteristic
position

for saturation,
relay

three-

E is only slightly the pulses are short, the fundamental of larger than 1, then and oscillation cannot take is small, the loop gain for the fundamental is small, when DF is close is more likely to take place in practical systems place. The oscillation As seen in Fig. 11.8, the relay DF is maximum when E \302\273 to the maximum. 1.5. In this
v(f)

case,

the

pulses

are

rather

wide as
the

shown

in

Fig.

11.7(b),

the harmonics
accurate.

in

v(f)

are

therefore

relatively small, and

1. The function
stability

DF analysis of a

is

sufficiently with

loop

Example transfer

analysis

system

a three-position

relay

and

the

T =

50,000E + 500)

,s(s+20H+ 100J
in Fig.

and the inverse DF plot are shown in 11.9. The Nyquist diagram direct DF is in The at which The Fig. 11.9(b). Fig. 11.9(a). analysis presented frequency the return ratio phase lag is 180\302\260 is 5.1 Hz. The loop gain of the linear links at this is 5.4dB. From the diagram in Fig. 11.8, for the DF of-5.4dB, the signal-tofrequency of the inverse and the direct DF analyses threshold ratio is 2, i.e.,6dB.The conclusions are, certainly, the same: the system can oscillate with the signal amplitude about twice
is

shown

296
the threshold, and
the

Chapter

11.

Describing

Functions

frequency

of oscillation

is approximately 5.1 Hz.

dB

20

(.-plane

\342\200\236

^-*

15

10 y*^
-200\302\260 -5

^-~f
i '

diagram

tS-DF

'

-160\302\260 -140\302\260 -120\302\260

-140\302\260 -12 -160\302\260

(b)

Fig. 11.9

Nyquist

diagram

and

the (a)

a three-position
11.3.2

inverse and (b) direct DF plots for

relay

a system

with

Approximate

formulas
DF

Expression A1.6) for saturation

H =

is conveniently

approximated

by

or H

Dl%){ElesTl
'l
121(E/es)

- D/ti -

lH.27(?/esr*
A1.8)

\302\273

- 0.21(Eles)\"

with the error smaller than 0.1 dB. Calculations can be further simplified by omitting the second term in A1.7) which rapidly vanishes for large E. It contributes less than 2dB; 0.6 dB; 0.35dB correspondingly for E larger than, es; 1.5es; 2es. respectively, be replaced The link with the dead zone characteristic of Fig. 11.4(b) can by a saturation link. Hence, the DF for parallel connectionof a unity link and an inverting the dead zone link for E > ed is
H\302\253 1

- 1.27(E/edTl

\\-4 + 0.27(E/edy

A1.9)

A nonlinear shown with

link

with

characteristic

including
by

in Fig. 11.4(c). It the threshold es and

can be represented
an

parallel

both dead zone and saturation connection of a saturation

with

is link

inverting

saturation

link
\\-<1

the

threshold

eA. Then,

for

Eg [ed,es],H is as
1.27[?/(es-ed)f or

in A1.9),

and for
-0.27[(?/esr

E > e%
-

H A saturation

- {0.27/[l
a saturation

,-4
(edle&L]}(E/es)

linear
a rate

link

L,

threshold can be made by cascading link with frequency-dependent in Fig. 11.10. The threshold link, and a link \\IL as shown
s1 over L(s) approximates

a
is

esIL(/'co)l.

For example, if

the frequency

limiter. In a

similar

manner,

a link in

which

the

width

band of interest, this is of the dead zone is

can frequency-dependent

be

made.

VI

Fig. 11.10

Nonlinear

link

with frequency-dependent

threshold

Chapter 11. Describing

11.4

Functions

297

Hysteresis

(a) shows Fig. 11.11

the output/input characteristic of smooth saturation with hysteresis. The output vif) in Fig. 11.1 l(b) is found while the branch vi by using input e(t) is rising, and branch of the output relative to the input v2 while e{t) is decreasing. The time delay indicates that the DF must have a negative imaginary component.

\302\246E\\

(a)

Fig. 11.11

(a) Output/input
and
(b)

characteristic time-history

of smooth
input

saturation
the output

with

hysteresis

of the

and

The DF phase shift

is

= arcsinFrom

Imff

A1.10)

A1.3),

]mH

\342\200\224 f v

dsincot.

nE o
After

replacing vi(e),

dsinart and back

E

by E~lde(t)

and

taking

the integral

of

the

output

from

-E

to E using

to -E
l

using

v2(e),

we have

-E
I v2de

2 %el
H =

Jvi\302\253fe +\342\200\224t

I %E'-e

E (V,-v2)<fc

J \342\200\224j

-\342\200\224

A1.11)
and

where S stands for

VIE

the

into

the right = -arcsin

area within the hysteresis loop. By side of A1.10),we have

substituting

A1.11)

axgH

nEV
Fig.

A1.12)
V~

Example 1. In

11.11,

0.7E and

S =

0.3. Therefore,

= -arcsin-0.3
Example
in Fig.

\302\246\302\246 0.14rad.

2. The Schmitt

trigger

has

a rectangular
area

11.12(a). The characteristic for the backlash caused For the backlash, the by air gaps in gears. The for the backlash time-history signal amplitude. in Fig. 11.13. sinusoidal is shown

shown link

hysteresis characteristic, shown in Fig. 11.12(b) is typically of the hysteresis depends on the output when the input signal is

298

Chapter 11. Describing

v

Functions

e
time

^7
(a)

(b)
trigger

Fig. 11.12

Characteristics of (a) Schmitt

and (b) backlash
the

Fig. 11.13 Time response of the backlash link output

and the

Example 3.
signal

If

width

of the
the

backlash is 2,
as that
3.6\302\260.

e = input,

= 0.064 arcsin[2x20/D0071)] rad,

Because

amplitude is

nearly

same
i.e.,

of

20 sinoM, then the output and the phase lag is

eliminate important
man-machine operator's

the phase lag reduces the available efforts are always made feedback, or decrease backlash in gears and machinery. the backlash Reducing even for manually tools and equipment (like lathes) becauseof operated feedback and visual sensors and tactile loop via the operator's

to is
the the

brain

operator, or

else the

(compensator).
overshoots

The backlashnecessitatesslowing the in the feedback system become large

are

actions
or

of the system

the

becomes unstable.

Example 4. Hysteresis
which feedback

links

frequently
shown

the

saw-tooth
loop

signal

generator of
an

is composed

inverting

a non-inverting Schmitt trigger. dashed lines in Fig. 11.14(c) are by

and supply

The
u&

feedback oscillating loops of is 11.14 Fig. representative. The with transfer function -\\l{R^Cs) integrator of the shown thresholds Schmitt trigger input
in

used

in

= \302\261 [R\\/(Ri

+ R2)]

VCC, where VCC is

the

the

power

voltage.
[-u&,

The

integrator

output

is constrained

within

dead

beat

(or dead

band)

\302\253*].

(b)

u2

(c)

'A'

_ t
t

dead

[band

Fig. 11.14 at (b) the

(a) Saw-tooth signal generatorand

Schmitt-trigger

signal

histories
output

output

and

(c) the

integrator

Chapter

11. Describing

Functions

299

When the output voltage of the integrator at u^, the arrives from -VCC to VCC.After the switching, the integrator output constant rate VCCI(R?,C) until the next switching occurs. (V/sec)

trigger begins

switches with decreasing

output

The period

is therefore

T= 4(uth/VCC)i?3C
The
output

4JR1i?3C/(J?I

+ R2). They
with
gain

signals'

can be made different a diode, so that in

coefficient It is

of rising and falling are the same in Fig. 11.14(b). in to an additional resistor R4 in series 7?3 adding parallel one direction the resistance will be smaller and the integrator
rates
by

larger, thus

increasing the

rate.

11.14 that the linear link and the nonlinear link each lags the signal Fig. the signal comes back in phase after passing about the loop. It is also seen that the analysis of such a system the harmonics cannot be neglected, i.e., DF during be used: if the sawtooth analysis cannot at the input to the Schmitt is signal trigger the phase lag in the Schmitt replaced by its fundamental, trigger will be less than 90\302\260 and the condition of oscillation will be not satisfied.
in

seen
that

by

90\302\260 so

Example
shown

5.

An

on-off

(or
actuator

in Fig.

11.15(a).

The

bang-bang) oscillating is a two-position relay

an

temperature controller is
with

hysteresis

which

can

be implemented either
employing within

as

electromechanical

device
the

or electronically,
single

for
plant

example,
oscillates
transfer

a Schmitt the

trigger.

The temperature of

integrator

dead

supplied by

the

heater,

and radiation control accuracy but frequency cannot be chosento actuators consumes someenergy

band. The positive temperature rate on the power depends and the negative rate (the cooling rate) depends on the heat conditions. the dead band is, the higher The narrower is the the higher also is the oscillation The oscillation frequency.
be and/or

excessively wears

in the physical high since each switching out the contact mechanisms.

step _
command

I 1/s

(a)

(b)
controller

Fig. 11.15

temperature (a) Bang-bang

and

(b)

its output

time-response

control

the When the plant in this feedback system contains extra high-frequency poles, rales. For example, switching can be done law is often augmented by additional earlier not in the instant the output approaches the end of the dead band, but somewhat The an inertia. of such on-off in time or position,to counteract additional accuracy plant is to the wellfor inferior sufficient controller, although typically many applications, is drivers. When the width modulated actuator controllers (PWM) using pulse designed not does on and off with sufficiently high electrical, switching frequency present a the cannot be fast and is when and PWM common. However, switching using problem, losses causes noticeablepower losses, as when switching (or propellant gas thrusters on not develop instantly), bang-bang control does and off, since the thrust of such thrusters
may

be

preferred.

300
11.5

Functions Chapter 11. Describing

Nonlinear

links

yielding a function 11.16 by the

phase advance for large-amplitude

of

signals
As

mentioned

before,

DF is

E and @

(or f).

The DF iso-f lines (or

Nines)

are shown

in Fig.

dashed

lines. The

shown set of lines can be used for the stability by the solid lines. Either analysis. If no line passes over the critical the system is considered stable. For the iso-lines point, shown in Fig. 11.16, argDF increaseswith E. The system is stable because the loop a link that provides includes a certain phase advance for large-amplitude signals.We will call such links nonlinear The AS dynamic compensators (NDCs). analysis and design of the NDCshas been already introduced in Chapter 10. In this chapter we will employ DF methods.These methods allow certain NDCs which cannot designing be analyzed or designed with AS methodology.

iso-E lines (or E-lines)are

E=o

f,

log. sc.

(a)

(b) and

Fig. 11.16
From

(a) iso-f(solid)

lines

iso- E

(dashed) lines, (b) iso-EBodediagrams

iso-is lines, iso-E Bode diagrams can be drawn as shown in 14 can be used to plot the functions described in Appendix (MATLAB that these iso-is for some typical We should keep in mind, however, NDCs). diagrams The Bode relations can only be Bode diagrams do not uniquely define the phase shift. at all frequencies used when constant E causesthe DF of nonlinear links to be constant so that the DF can be equivalently replaced by a constant-gain linear link.
the
Fig.

11.16(b)

Example 1.
parallel

shows Fig. 11.17(a)

a simple with

proportional-integral

(PI) NDC

using

connection

of a linear

link

a nonlinear

link. Because
output

of the
E

saturation,

the

upper

channel

contributes

compensatoriso-EBodediagrams as E increases.An lag decreases

system with
such

relatively
are iso-is

less to
shown Bode

the

when

increases.

The

an NDC

is

shown

in Fig.
DFof

in Fig. 11.17(b). Consequently, the NDC diagram of the loop gain of a feedback 11.17(c). E increasing

f,

log, sc.

f,

log. sc.

(a)

(b)
with

(c)
iso- E

Fig. 11.17
loop

(a) NDC

parallel

channels,

and
can

its

(b)

iso-E

Bode diagrams;

phase

shift

be calculated

Bode diagrams and (c)the from these diagrams

Chapter11.Describing
This example

Functions

301
rather

shows that

an

effective

NDC can

be

implemented

that
in

using

iso-?

Before the

loop

of NDCs. diagrams is convenient for certain practicalclasses on the NDC design,we first consider the NDC performance concentrating which also includes another nonlinear link, the actuator.
Bode

simply,

and

11.6
A

Two nonlinear links in the feedback loop

system
the

feedback

including
actuator

an NDC
are

and

The NDC and

stability

separated

actuator by some linear link

a nonlinear the

is
L.

shown

For

in Fig. 11.18. the purpose of nonlinear applying

the

analysis

the

loop can

be cross-sectioned at
ratio
with

input

The loop return links as shown in the figure. to the NDC, either to the some test-signal input some of the actuator with E2. amplitude NDC L

DF
some

to either of the can be measured by

amplitude

Eh or to

input

->
Actuator

Fig. 11.18 Feedback links separated Although

loopwith
by

two

linear

nonlinear links 1, as

when \\T\\ = different, the iso-/ lines for Ex and E2 have a common point 11.19. This can be seen by considering = 1 is satisfied with the condition 171 some that L-plane = if the E1C and E2 = ?20 Then, specific values of E\\ loop is broken at the input to the NDC and ?1C is applied to the input of the loop, the value Exc returns to the cross-section, and the value ?2c appears at the to the actuator. the loop is broken Also, when input to the actuator and at the input E2c is appliedto the \\ of the to this crossthe value J E%q returns input loop, \\ section, and the value ?1C appears at the input of the f\\-\\ NDC. In both cases, the same signals appear at the L of both nonlinear links, and therefore, the loop inputs : I i DF is the same and the loop phase shift is the same. Hence, these two iso-? lines intersect when 171= 1. 11.19 Iso- f lines in

shown

in

Fig.

X2

The

nominal

guard-point

phase stability

margin,

Fig. system

a links

with two

nonlinear

therefore,

does not depend on the position of the can be seen with the gain this cross section. However,someconfusion stability margin: on the cross-section chosenfor examining the loop. stability margin depends seemingly is that at the input to the NDC, since in this case, uncertainty The proper cross section in the when plant gain reduces by adB, the plant affects ratio: directly gain loop return then the Nyquist diagram and the iso-/ lines simply sink down by a dB. Therefore, in the is satisfied. stability margin Fig. 11.19, just exactly two nonlinear links The accuracyof DF analysis suffers when the loop incorporates in this case the linear still low-pass links separating since them, although, commonly, selective as the linear link in the loop with a single nonlinear filters, are not as frequency in the loop is large and the Bode diagrams of the link. Nonetheless, when the feedback are are reasonably steep (they is Nyquist linear links quite steep when the system

302 the phase

Chapter

11. Describing Functions

This

\302\26120\302\260. uncertainty caused by the harmonics typically does not exceed can make the entire difference large: generally, such uncertainty between an unstable and a high performance system. However,using DF enables an of a of more than advance 120\302\260. easy design Therefore, simple NDC providing phase even with the \302\26120\302\260 the NDC gives the phase advance no less than 100\302\260 error, phase which is certainly better than no phase advance at all, and is adequate for most practical

stable),

range

seems

applications.

11.7
For

NDC
an

with

a single

nonlinear nondynamic link

links

NDC

with

DF

composed of several linear w, the normalized NDC transfer

and

a single

nonlinear non-dynamic

link

DF

depends

on w as

ratio

of

two

linear

functions, i.e.,
H(w)

bilinearly.
+

A1.13)
w

+ N of s.

where M and N are somefunctions When the signal amplitude from 0 to \302\260\302\260, H changes changes
arg(M/W).
must

be

w and Hiyv) changes. When w changes M/N to 1 and therefore aigH changes by To maximize the phase advance N and the NDC, -arg M produced by arg made as large as possible.This the bounded is, however, angle by continuity

changes,
from

considerations.

During the gradual change desired to be monotonic and

in the
smooth.

view, are those equal values of w, if

correspondingly,

in

modulus

in H are and in w, the transitions amplitude most critical values of w, from this point of to either IMI or IM, as shown in Fig. 11.20. For these

signal
The

the

N)

is %, the

correspondingly, w + N) of this H becomes point, neighborhood this excessively sensitive to w. To avoid neither with a tc/6 safety situation margin, M\\ nor \\arg N\\ should be allowed to exceed \\grg

of M (or, vector w + M (or, vanishes, and in the

angle

numer

or

denominator
Fig. 11.20

2%/3.This
enough
A.

requirement

limits

the NDC to

4ji/3, i.e.,

which 240\302\260,

the phase shift of is more than of A1.13)

at the

Vectors (w+
with

M)

and

(w+N)
in Fig.

minimum

moduli

for all practical purposes.

flowchart

implementation

is shown
of

11.21(a).
branch

(Notice

that

when

w js

beginning upper (b) exemplifies signal becomes negligible.) Fig. 11.21 a hjghrgain with the gain coefficient k and a dead zone, and M = 1/5, N = s. amplifier for large-amplitude the NDC reduces This signals. Fig. 11.21(c) phase delay by 180\302\260 = is M a saturation link with when the case used, s, N=l/s over the exemplifies in advance for large-amplitude a 180\302\260 of interest, resulting phase frequency range
branch

very large, the error signal

output

the

decreases and the the case where w is

signals.

Chapter11.Describing

Functions

303

1/N

-1/A/

(a)

1/s
I

S
i

1/sm
(b)

s
(c)

Fig. 11.21

NDCflowchart
full

(a)

and

block diagrams of
path, the 240\302\260,

(b), (c)
a
forward

To shift
path

the

phase
path only

over the
in

available
forward

range

with

w, a

parallel
shift

with the path or

change
only

and

NDC includes a feedback path.

when

When

the
iV

NDC includes
zero,

a parallel

a feedback

path, i.e.,
120\302\260

either

M or

is

the available

phase
iso-/

must

not exceed

- which

still suffices for

be

most applications.

In

addition the

to frequency

and iso-?
responses

responses, iso-w

Bode diagramscan

used.

These are
signal

at the input amplitude after replacing the nonlinear can be further responses nonlinear element, and the
Example
w

measured while maintaining constant the value of the to the nonlinear can be calculated element. Such a response with a constant The iso-/ and iso-? element linear element. the set of iso-w responses, DF calculated for the using element. signal amplitude at the nonlinear
shown in Fig. 11.21(b), k= 10. Calculate and plot values of kx(DF of the dead zone link): 0.1, 1, and

1. In

the

NDC

the iso10.

Bode

diagrams,

for three

The
in

SPICE
Fig.

is shown below, and simulation input file uses the in Fig. 11.23. 11.22. The iso-w Bode diagrams are shown **** ch9exl.cir for iso-w simulation of NDC **** n.22

schematic

diagram

Figs.

11.21(b),

*** input
G2

2
2

0
0

0 1
1
1MEG

integrator
1
summer

C2
***

R2 2 0

feedback
3 5 5

G3 3 0 7
R3

2 1

***

G5 R5

kDF path: 0 0 3 10
0

G5 = .1,

1, or 10

*** forward path, G4 4 0 3 0 1

inverting
the

C4 4
R4
***
G6 R6

1
1MEG

4 0

*** feedback

forward 6 0 4 6 0 1

5 1

summer,

output

is VDBF)

path

304
G7 7 0
C7

Chapter

11.

Describing

Functions

0 5
1
1MEG

R7 7 0
***

VIN RIN
.AC

1 0 1 0
DEC

AC 1MEG

20

.001

10

.PROBE
.END

Fig.

11.22 increase

SPICE model

for

iso-

w response input

With
the

the

increase

of w,

plot

gradually

changes

i.e., from

with that

the of

a double

in the signal at the integrator to a constant 0.

to the
gain

NDC,

response.

Correspondingly,

the phase lag decreases from

n to

Fig. 11.23
When
block

Iso-w

Bode

diagrams
the

the system is linear

constant and

and

summer is nearly
is an
integrator,

at all also,

gain is large, the where loop frequencies the feedback decreases with
the loop

signal

amplitude

after the
input

gain is large,
frequency.

since the

11.8

NDC

with

parallel
the

channels
parallel

Simpleexamplesof NDCswith
the /-channel

paths

are the

PID controllerwith
in

saturation

in

(or

in

low-frequency

channel,

as described

Chapter

6) and

the PI

controllershown

in Fig.

11.17.
with
are

in Fig. 11.24(a) The feedback system includes an actuator NDC with two parallel channels. Nonlinear non-dynamic links link with channels. The first channel starts with a saturation

placed

saturation and an here in both

unity threshold, and the When the signal is low, the loop transfer amplitude the input signal amplitude is less is 7oi = C\\AP. channel is off when function The second becomes overloaded. In this case than takes over when the first channel 1, and a saturation link as shown with 7o2 = CylP. The NDC can be equivalently implemented in Fig. 11.24(b).
second,

with

unity

dead

zone.

Functions Chapter 11. Describing

305

(b)

Fig. 11.24 and (b) an

(a) Feedbacksystem
equivalent

with

two nonlinear

elements
element

in

the

NDC,

diagram block

with a

single

nonlinear

in the
shown in

NDC
in Fig.

Three more equivalent The versions with saturation

typically

for diagrams shown in links

the same NDC are Fig. 11.24(b)

and

11.25.

Fig.

11.25 (a)

are

easier

to implement.

e(t)

(b)

(c)
NDC configurations

Fig. 11.25 Three

The analysis
calculating
exemplified and

more

iterative

design

of the
by

compensator can
plotting

be

performed

by

and plotting iso-Zs in Fig. 11.26.

Bode plots, or

/-lines

on the

7-plane as

A)

B)

--1.5

C)

D)

E)'

log. sc.

Fig. 11.26

Intervals

on

E-axis

and on the

iso-fline for channels

a system

with two parallel

306
An iso-/line for

Chapter

11.

Describing

Functions

TQ2H2(E)

A1.14)
piece
in

is displayed
A1.7)

in Fig.

11.26. We
the

can examineit
of E

and

A1.8)
first second

for

intervals

shown

the

by piece left of the

using simplified formulas figure.

On the
The

interval, interval,

E<\\ where

and T=

r0!.

short. Over this interval, ?\342\202\254[1,1.5], is comparatively from 1 to 0.8, and //2 increases from 0 to 0.25 as can be verified with the is curvilinear, and its exact shape is not plots in Fig. 11.7. This segment of the iso-/line for the stability important analysis. On the third interval where Ee [1.5, es]the expression reduces to A1.J3)
H\\ reduces

T= 7<,il.27/E + Tm- \\.21TWJE=

This the

T01 +

Tm(l

- 1.27/E)
of

A1.15)
line aimed at the end of the iso-/ line can be
short, and

piece

of the

iso-/line presents
vicinity

a segment

a straight
boundary,

vector

Tw.. In

the

of

the

stability

margin

approximated by
On
deserve
the

the

side

of the Ee E>\\

fourth

interval

parallelogram shown [es, 1.5eJ. This section

and

in Fig.

11.26.

is curvilinear,

does not

detailed

analysis.
interval

On
T=

the

fifth

.5es

1.27T0l/E

+ 127Tm/E=

+ TQ2)/E l.27(TQ1
and

A1.16)
the

so that

the iso-/ line

is straight
at this

directed

we can
margins.

concludethat

frequency,

toward the origin. From limit cycling is avoidedwith

plot

Fig.

11.24

sufficient

stability

Example

1. Fig. 11.27 shows

the

L-plane
with

Nyquist
the

diagram

and

iso-/lines

measured

in an experimental system has no limit cycles. system

designed
f

method

presented

in this

section. The

dB

-60

\302\246\302\246

^^095

MHz

ma \302\246I\" i

. r

\\ 1 .
1

\342\200\242

-270\302\260

90\302\260

Fig.

11.27

Nyquist diagram and

iso-f lines for

an

experimental

system

11.9
In

NDC made
practical

with local feedback

DFs modulus
is the

many

links the

same as
We

that

for

saturation,

is nonzero and with the signal level. changes saturation links.A typical case is presented in
nonlinear

will

call

Fig.

11.28(a).
while

but the phase such links dynamic in the The phase shift signal
not

dynamic of the DF and, therefore, the magnitude saturation threshold is exceeded.

link

varies

with

the signal
\\H\\

level,

the

output

amplitude
after

of the

composite

link, do

vary

the

Chapter

11.

Describing

Functions

307

V Nonlinear

y
link

dynamic

e
(a)

(b)

(c)
saturation

Fig. 11.28
Fig. large

Dynamic

11.28(b)

although
forward that

gives another decreasing with

function
decreases,
path

implementation frequency,

of dynamic and
the

saturation. Here,
the
the

\\K(j(O)\\

is
the

B is

real.

When

signal
describing

is small,
the

closed-loop

transfer

is -IIB.

When

signal

is large,

function phase

of the

becomes Still

lag is, the phase lag increaseswith the signal level. links K(/a>) and B. For another version is shown in Fig. 11.28(c) using similar As the signal amplitude gets small signal amplitudes, the link transfer function is K(j(o). much larger than the dead zone, the dead zone DF approaches feedback is 1, large The and is limited as if saturation. the introduced, by phase shift of the signal output the That link will then be determined by the feedback is, phase lag reduces with path. the signal level. This link is especially suitable for nonlinear dynamic compensation. from 0 When the linear link loop gain is high, and the dead zone link DF w changes shift changes to 1, the DF of the link changes from -\\IB to K, i.e., the phase by in Section 11.7, arg (KB), i.e., by the angle of the local loop phase shift. As indicated this value This value is sufficient for most applications. must be limited to 120\302\260.
of K(j(o).Th&t

the feedback

becomes negligible,and

Example1.Consider
in Fig.

11.29, with B
is

and the phase shift uniquely related and

Bode diagrams is the employed for the stability

the local feedback path as shown for B has constant -8 dB/oct, slope diagram = V and zone link DF w are 200. Since the dead and K -120\302\260), this relation does not depend on frequency, the full set of iso-V either one can be same as the full set of iso-w diagrams, and an

NDC

with dead

zone in

s4\302\256 (i.e.,

the Bode

analysis.

200
mm^ \342\200\242\342\200\224 e 1

Fig. The

11.29

Example

of an NDCwith

dead

zone

in the

feedback

path

lines

in Fig. 11.30(a), and the iso-V Bode diagrams for the NDC are shown in Fig. 11.30(b). The shown look as of the main loop on the L-plane might cycle.

iso-V

system

has no limit

308

Chapter
dB

11. Describing Functions dB

H=0

46

f,

log.

sc.

(a)

Fig. 11.30
with the

dead zone replacedby (b) iso-VNyquist diagrams

accelerometer

(a) Bodediagrams

of the

equivalent

NDC shown in Fig. 11.29 linear links, and for the main loop is shown
are
in

Example 2.

tunnel-effect

Fig.

11.31 (a).

mass and
the

the

soft

springs the
by

mass is suspendedon
electrostatic uses

etched

of silicon.

proof

mass

is regulated

and lower
mass

plates. The accelerometer

The
the
tunnel

position.
tip

current

flows

between the proof mass and the upper a tunnel effect sensor to measurethe proof between the proof mass and the sharp tunnel
forces

The proof The position of

effect
gradually using

when brought

distance

into the sensors,

capacitive

small. The proof mass is between them is sufficiently an additional feedback loop of the tunnel effect vicinity tip by not shown in the picture. The voltage on the lower plate equals

the voltage on the upper

plate plus some bias.It

proportional

can

voltage,

the

upper

plate

voltage is

to the

be shown that with proper measured acceleration.

bias

20,000,000 (s+4,900)(s+98,000)

120(s+855)(s+18,400) 200
S+200

tunnel
20,000,000

current

(a)
resonance

mode

suspension

\\

(c)

Fig. 11.31 (a) Silicon

accelerometer

block

and (c) SPICE plant

diagram,
model

(b) compensator,

Chapter To achieve
be

11. Describing

Functions

309

made

frequency

the desired accuracy,the feedback in the proof mass control 100 than dB at larger frequencies up to 5 Hz. The feedback is limited the /b by (structural resonances) of the proof dynamics
3 kHz.
current

loop must
crossover

mass

and

suspension system to less than

The tunnel
normal

value

tunnel

current
width

the gap

bigger
The

than

Globalstability

the exponent of the inverse of the tunnel sensor gap. The is 6 but when the gap is smaller, the gap approximately angstroms, is exponentially larger. Since in this case the derivative of the current to tunnel sensor gain coefficient) increases,the loop gain becomes (the nominal. an NDC, such a system Without would not be globally stable. is provided in the local feedbackpath. by an NDC with a dead-zone
is

of the

mechanical

over 500 Hz.The

SPICE

plant might
quality
plant

factor
with

of the
such

have someresonance modes resonances is not higher

a resonance is
shown

with

uncertain 20, i.e., 11.31(c).

frequencies

than
in

model

for the
SPICE

Fig.

26 dB. The The 1GQ

chosen

resistoris for the The compensator

be non-symmetrical

is shown (a Zener

of the tunnel effect sensoris diode) since the characteristic For low-level also does the not conduct, and non-symmetrical. signals the Zener compensator response is determined by the lower feedback path. Two seriesRC circuits the feedback path provide two leads sufficient phase stability shunting giving margins over the range 200 to 3000 Hz. The and the Nyquist Bode for signals of diagram plot in SPICE are shown small amplitudes in Fig. 11.32. simulated

algorithm to converge. in Fig. 11.31(b). The dead-zone

element

was

to

dB
L-plane

i 10

\\

degr >. -*\302\246 .\0277,

100

1k f, log. scale

(a)

Fig.11.32 Accelerometer
When

(a)

Bode

diagram
threshold,

and (b) Nyquist

the diode
the

diagram the

the signal

exceeds
is

the

Zener

opens

and

upper
Bode

feedback
diagram,

path,
by

which

an

frequencies

increases the phase stability margin at frequencies below200Hz, substantially and the transient response of the closed since the loop which is important improves of the tunnel sensor is about 15 effect very narrow, only angstroms. In acquisition range
experiments,

approximately

RC low-pass, 30 dB. This gain

reduces
reduction

compensator

gain

at lower

reduces

the slope

of the

the system locks rapidly conditions whatever the initial are. Two additional examples of a dead zone link are given incorporating

into

the

tracking
of

mode

and

remains

stable

applications

NDCs

with

local

feedback

in Appendix

13.

310
11.10
Let

Chapter 11. Describing

Negative
consider

Functions

hysteresis

and the NDCs.

link

Clegg Integrator
as
in

us

two alternatives to

Negative hysteresis is a reversed directions of the arrows hysteresis effect can be achieved
incident

with characteristics

Fig.

on the
by

branches of

the

characteristic.
at

11.12(a) The levels

but with negative of the

switching

as shown in Fig. 11.33. Sucha link introduces for signal phase lead up to 90\302\260 of certain link does the not with small However, signals amplitudes. pass signals and it is very sensitive to the signal and shape, and to the noise. amplitudes, amplitude more and able Negative hysteresis links are rarely used since NDCs are simpler, robust, to provide much larger phase lead.
output \\ input
\342\200\224

the output

specific

Fig. 11.33
A

Negative

hysteresis

shown in Fig. 11.34 consists of a a full-wave rectifier (i.e., absolute value with saturation M. link), a high-gain link realizing the sign operator, and a multiplier The instantaneous is determined of the output signal amplitude by the upper channel in Fig. 11.33(b). The sign of the output signal is defined by the sign shown vi(r) output of the lower channel output. is voat(t) = the composite link output Therefore, signal as seen in \\vi(t)\\ v2@ 11.34(c). sign Fig.
splitter,

of the generalization two different linear

Clegg

links

Lx

Integrator and Li,

1/ out

, out, fundamental

sign

v2

(a)

Fig.

11.34
when

(a) Clegg Us
and

Integrator

and

(b) its

signal histories
gain

In
without

particular,

L\\ =
this

la

= 1,

the

integrator

decreases
integrator,

introducing
When

the

90\302\260 phase

lag

of a conventional
the

linear
hope

with frequency in as seen

Fig. 11.34(b).
method

idea

was first introduced,

was

expressed
possible.

that

this

would

work well for

Bode limitations and the amplitude second harmonic

small-amplitude signals, thus allowing causality principle. This, however, is not

is

circumvention

of

A large-

harmonic's
fundamental.

interference

with
and

at the present the fundamental of H to

output

of

the

Clegg

Integrator.
lag

This
the
the

produces
the

large phase
of the input

for

This

high

sensitivity

shape

signal (also

Chapter

11. Describing prevent

Functions

311
practice.

disadvantageof negative
fact, the Clegg reader that such
Integrator

hysteresis) and

the circuit

from being used in

In

negative

hysteresis

are described
found

here only

to

inform

the

ideas

have already

been exploredand

not particularly

useful.

11.11
Saturation

Nonlinear interaction betweenthe localandthecommon

to the loop actuators. In addition ultimate stage of a linear amplifier is employed widely in electrical and characteristics more linear and stable in time, common

feedback loops
are located in the local and links common loop, a local loop is often employed its characteristic. Local feedback to linearize in the

electro-mechanical actuators to make their thus benefiting the main loop.

In

control

feedback
it

saturation, since
amplitude.

makes

systems, the optimal the loop gain constant

characteristic for
up

the

actuator

is hard

to the

when the feedback is limited by stability is saturation. When it is not, a predistortion memoriless nonlinear transfer characteristic link could be installed at the input to the actuator to make the total nonlinearity the actuator or a local feedbackabout could be introduced. saturation, The value of the local feedback varies with the signal level. Interference of local to understand. loop with the main loop is important about the actuator in the block diagram Consider an example of local feedback Fig. 11.35.
Hence,

maximum of the output conditions, the best actuator

the

the

in

Fig. 11.35
When
system

Local(actuator)
actuator

and

common

loops

with

saturation

the main

loop is disconnected
the

at

is stable

(when

loop

sections can be used for the stability loop closure has been described includesa nonlinear dynamic loop,
with

either of the cross sectionsA) or B), the is properly designed). Either of the cross

analysis (the Bode-Nyquist criterion for successive in Section 3.4). In both cases, the resulting loop in one case, with parallel in the other case, channels,

These

The nonlinear dynamic links can be analyzed as we did with NDCs. feedback. links may introduce phase lag in the main loop that can result in a limit cycle. For example, when hfii is s~m and B is real, the actuator's overload results in the reduction of the local feedbackand in the introduction of a 120\302\260 phase lag in the main To an an extra NDC with a lead can be introduced 120\302\260 oscillation, loop. prevent phase
local in the

loops, at either
common

of the
the

cross

Another

problem
signal the
the

impedance

depends on

sections A) or B). is variations in the output level since local current

its

impedance
or

of

the

driver.

This

voltage impedance
the

feedback
actuator

loops are

often employedin high or low, and

saturation.

driver
feedback

amplifier to make in these loops

output

is affected by

correspondingly or driver

312

Chapter
Example

11. Describing

Functions

actuators:

1. A typical example is using current drivers for magnetic windings of the voice coils, reaction wheels of spacecraft attitude control systems, flux for electrical power generators, solenoids, etc.,as shown in Fig. 11.36(a). The winding current of the driver is proportional to the driver's output input voltage due to large local current feedback; without this the driver amplifier would be a voltage feedback, to the coil current, the transfer amplifier. Since the output force (torque) is proportional function of the actuator is a real number and the phase lag is 0. (Back emf does not affect the output when the signal source impedance is high.) However,when the driver is overloaded and the gain in the local feedback loop vanishes, the driver's output becomes a voltage, and the actuator impedance drops, its output output force becomes an of this voltage. In other words, overload introduces an extra into integral integrator the main loop, and can trigger a limit cycle. To prevent this from happening, an extra link saturation can be placed at the input of the driver, as shown in Fig. 11.36(b), to limit the signal amplitude at the driver's input.

y
back

Driver

Current-to-force, or or to flux to torque,

transducer

emf

Current

sensing

resistor

(a)

(b)
feedback extra

Fig. 11.36 (a)Current

and (b) using
11.12
As

driver

for inductive
its

loads

saturation

link at

input

NDC
discussed for

in multiloop

was

actuators decoupled,

in each dimension i.e., the diagonal

systems Chapter 2, MIMO control

of the system terms are much
output,
larger

systems

most often have individual is to a large extent and the plant than the others. Still, the coupling

and might cause instability, especially resonances and due to the plant nonlinearity. Let us consider the two-input, two-output
exists

the

coupling

due to system
some

the

plant

structural

feedback
with of

shown

in

Fig.

11.37.

This system can be, for and y directions because neither to x nor to y.
substantially

example,

an x-y
the

positioner,

coupling
in

between
orthogonal

the x

of, say,
Although

a resonant mode
plant

the

payload
the

that is
main

gain coefficient
the

larger

than

the coupling
the

coefficient,
direction

this

example,

let us
that

consider
kc.
loop
the

main

is not In negligible. coupling gain coefficients to be 1, and the

direction
is still in the

coupling
consider

coefficients,
each

Assume redraw the

is stable
shown

and

robust

absence of
be

the effect
system

of

coupling

on the

y-loop. The effect will

in Fig.

coupling. Then,
to see if

easier

we

block

diagram as

11.38.

Functions Chapter 11. Describing

313

>0

Cy [-\302\273| Acty ^\302\273j

\302\253^-

kb\302\273

Fig.

11.37
The

Two-input,
results

two-output

system

Fig.
with

11.38

Equivalent block diagram function

coupling

in a

composite link

the transfer

in

parallel

When

close to
nonlinear

the plant transfer coefficient. the feedback in the x-loop is large, if the feedback is positive, the But kc2.
with
mode

the

composite

link

gain

of

become positive
uncertainty

at any

when the operation, frequency below

x-actuator
the

correspondingly is overloaded, This

gain coefficient is increases. In the

the feedback
additional

can

crossover.

must

in the y-loop. be increased with

in

To ensurethe
the

necessary

robustness,

factor introduces either the stability

margin

resulting

reduction
will

even for the required to the individual loops, certainly do no harm the the the individual quite opposite, they will loop performance!). When improve x-actuator becomes overloaded, the NDC introduces some phase lead in the x-loop; this eliminates positive feedbackin this loop and reduces the composite link gain. Hence, the with the NDC, can be reduced in and stability margins y-loop performance can be without robustness. improved sacrificing not

introduced front of each individual loop operation(but

actuator they

in performance, are if the NDCs

or

an

NDC

must

be

11.13

Harmonics
Harmonics

and intermodulation
the effects
error.
the

11.13.1
DF

us consider the
the

analysis

neglects
resulting

of harmonics

on

the output

fundamental amplitude. Let

case of the incident signal amplitude far important which are the dashed lines. The output indicated levels, exceeding v(f) by is clipped most of the time. The third harmonic in e(t) delays the 0-line crossing of e(t) of v(t). This results in an extra phase lag for the fundamental of v(t). The and, therefore, in control Harmonics with conventional lag could reach 12\302\260 loop gain response. systems than the third also contribute to this effect, contributions are higher although their be larger smaller. Therefore, phase stability for the iso-/ lines should by margins for the linear state of the phase stability margin than accepted approximately 15\302\260 Fig. 11.39 shows
saturation practically

operation,i.e.,for

the

Nyquist

diagram.

314

Chapter 11. Describing

Functions

fundamental

third harmonic (a)

(b)

Fig. 11.39
Accounting with resonant
pure

Effect

of the harmonics

third harmonic on the

in e(t)
the

fundamental

time while

delay

for

the

might be
loop

important

studying
with

systems
large

peaks and/or valleys on

the

Bode

diagram
without

and systems
the

delay
When

in which
the

loop

phase

lag can
loop

reach n

loop

Bode

diagram

being steep.
Bode

diagram

for

modes in the plant exemplified satisfactory at all frequencies except for those
with resonance
At

these frequencies,
change

the

effect

is not monotonic, as in feedback systems in Fig. 11.37, DF analysis is still quite whose third harmonic is relatively large. of the third harmonic must be calculated since it can
the

gain

produce a

or 40\302\260 in the phase shift for the fundamental up to 30\302\260 must be some extra margin provided by reducing Accordingly, phase stability in Fig. 11.40. in the region close to/0 as shown steepness of the Bode diagram of

/o. the

dB

dB

f,

log.

sc.
f0

3/L
\\ , f, log.

0
sc.

(a)

(b)
Open-loop reducing

Fig. 11.40
with

Bode the

a flexible

mode (a)

of a system diagram of the fundamental gain

and

the (b) increasing

gain

at the third
the

harmonic frequency
robustness

After

the

DF

analysis

and design,

system

must be

verified

with

computer

simulation.

11.13.2

Intermodulation
/j
only
\302\261 nf2.

two Fourier components with different frequencies, Application of a signal having in not link to a nonlinear results the the of output signal v(t) containing and/2, input with the harmonics of/t and/2, but also intermodulation frequencies mfi products

Chapter For

11. Describing
in

Functions

315

components

large-amplitude low-frequency is very typical for audio When the is the in information contained the signals. signal clipped, high-frequencies would be preserved if the components over the time of clipping is lost. The information are first separated lower-frequency and the higher-frequency components by a fork of and then combined at the output after filters, low-pass-high-pass amplification by separate amplifiers. In this case, nonlinear distortions of the low-frequency components will not affect the high-frequency intermodulation. i.e., will not produce components, in the speakers can be reduced by using separate (The intermodulation speakers for
shown

example,

the signal

Fig.

11.41

with

and

small-amplitude

high-frequency

components

higher

and

lower

frequencies.)

(a)

(b)
signal by a
by link

Fig. 11.41 (a)Clipping

For example,
having antenna

a multicomponent

with

saturation

(b)

pointing

can

be affected

wind

disturbances,
and

the latter

both

lower-frequency,

higher-amplitude

components

higher-frequency,

Similar kinds of disturbances occur in vibration isolation components. For large-amplitude, low-frequency vibrations not to cause the actuator, after two different actuators for two to stop rejecting high-frequency disturbances, clipping, bands of disturbances can be employed. separate While audio to hide the high-frequency noise of the recording, it is important of the signal are head and the amplifiers. When magnetic high-frequency components large, the noise is not noticeable, and the high-frequency gain should be large for better are small, the When the signal high-frequency components signal reproduction. reduce the noise that otherwise bandwidth should be reduced to would be amplifier
lower-amplitude

actuators.

clearlyheard.

This is performed by specially IC's. function designed The IC's In control systems, similar can occur. problems designedfor as can the control well. serve processing system purposes

audio

signal

11.14
The

Verification

of global stability

lead to periodic balance at some frequency does not always For such self-oscillation to persist, the process of selfdisturbances is stable, by definition, if vanishing process from in parameters of the oscillation (in the amplitude, for example) cause deviations a limit cycle the solution which exponentially in time. This condition signifies decay and is illustrated in Fig. 11.42(a). If the deviations from the periodic solution grow and the limit cycle as shown in Fig. 11. 42(b), the process is not stable exponentially,
condition

of harmonic

self-oscillation at this frequency. oscillation must be stable.The

does not

take

place.

316

Functions Chapter 11. Describing

T-plane

(a)
Fig.

(b)

11.42

(a)

Limit

cycle
solution

and

(b) unstable

Fig.

11.43

periodic
For

iso-/lines causingtwo

Nyquist diagram and

limit

cycles

example, in a system with saturation and the Nyquist diagram shown in three related to the cross the critical point. Fig. iso-/lines frequencies/i,/2) and/3 From these the limit cycles are associatedwith and fa, and the three, f\\ frequencies solution at frequency as follows. f2 is unstable. This can be shown Consider the limit with frequency/3. In this case, illustrated in Fig. 11.44(a), cycle the saturation DF reduces the loop gain such that the equivalent Nyquist diagram and passes through shrinks 1. An extra increase of the signal level reduces the the point The critical occurs outside DF, and the Nyquist diagram shrinks further. point -1 then of the Nyquist which of s. Then, the is the mapping of the left half-plane diagram to the frequency of oscillation has a negative real component, exponent corresponding the signal and the if the level the other hand, amplitude reduces. On signal gets smaller, DF increases, the Nyquist the critical inside the diagram point Nyquist expands, appears is the mapping of the right half-plane of s, and the signal starts rising. diagram which starts the Therefore, deviations of the signal amplitude from the equilibrium amplitude toward of the the of equilibrium. exponentialadjustment amplitude process
11.43, T-plane
T-plane

Res<0

Res>0

Res>0

(a)

Fig. 11.44 Nyquist

The analysis

diagram

when

the

(b) system oscillates with

frequency
frequency
f\\

frequency

(a)

k, (b)

for the limit cycle to oscillation corresponding

analysis

with
with

pointing

at instability
the

of

this

process.

Therefore,

similar results, but the to the conclusion, f2 leads opposite if the oscillation at frequency f2 is
gives

created, this
limit

signal

deflects will

practically,by
cycle

a jump),

from the solution (and very rapidly, i.e., exponentially and into the basin of attraction of some of the limit cycles, gets be further in next Process will studied the proceed. instability

chapter.

The simple test for pulse to large-amplitude

global stability
the

involves

application

of a

step-function most

or

command

input.

Such a test

discovers

of

the

hidden

Functions Chapter 11. Describing

317

limit

cycles,

but of

not

always suspected

all of

them.

must belong to the basin conditions cycle, the initial In should be chosen other the initial conditions words, cycle. close to the conditions that will exist during the limit cycle. Such a test uses bursts of in and of various frequencies, such as those illustrated oscillation, of large amplitude all limit and even this test not discover 11.45. might cycles, Fig. Although, theoretically, a limit cycle is triggered by only a where a counter-example system can be imagined is good enough for testing stability a set of bursts of oscillation special key-signal, using limit of attraction
the

To discoverthe

limit

of practicalcontrol

systems.

ft A f

a .....

Fig.

11.45

Signals

to excite limit

cycles

during

a global

stability

check

added
and

is gradually estimate the stability extra phase lag and/or extra gain margins, to the linear links of the loop until self-oscillation starts, and these extra phase and gain stability margins. values are considered to be the phase gain

To

11.15

Problems
loop

The

transfer 1000(s

function is
+ 600)/[s(s + 20)(s + 50)(s+ + + 400)(s + 500)/[s(s + 10)(s+ 40)(s
300)(s

(a) T= 200(s+
(b)

100)];
80)];

T=

+ 30)(s + 600)] 200,000(s + 100)(s + 400)/[s(s+ 10)(s + 15)(s + 20)(s + 1200)]; + 800)/[s(s (d) f= 1400(s + 600)(s + 272)(s + 550)/[s(s + 12)(S + 30)(s + 80)]; (e) F= 180(s T= 2500(s + 1000)(s + 1200)/[s(s + 30)(s + 80)(s + 180)]; (f) + 550)/[s(s + 30)(s + 32)(s + 3000)]. (g) T= 5,000,000(s+ 500)(s What is the frequency of oscillation (approximately), if there

(c) T=

is a

saturation

link

in the
If

loop?
there

conditionally

is a dead-zone link in the loop, is the system stable, unstable, stable? If it is conditionally stable, how to trigger self-oscillation?

or

What

is the

symmetrical

relative amplitude of the periodic signal?

3th,

5th,

and

7th harmonics

in

the

n-shaped

During

and

(b)
4

in a feedback control system of the Bode diagram is constant, 7th harmonics at the input to the saturation
oscillation

the

slope

where the loop phase how much smaller are link relative to the fundamental?

lag is
the

180\302\260

(a)

5th,

fundamental is very sensitive to the shape output's to the input signal, and use is as a counterexample function in all (incorrect) statement that describing analysis gives sufficient accuracy situations. Are the outputs of nonlinear links of common control very systems sensitive to the signal shape?
Invent
link

a nonlinear
harmonics)

whose

(i.e., to the

of the

DF

analysis

might

fail to

where stability margins

are

accurately estimate the frequency of oscillation small over broad frequency bands. Why

in systems is this

failure of

318
small

Chapter11.Describing
importance
the

Functions

for

control

system
saturation

designers?
when

Find

value

of DF

threshold
Fig.

is (a)

5dB (b) 15dB

a dead

for

the

(c)

25 dB

(d) 4 times

ratio of the signal

(e) 8 times,

amplitude

to

the
in

using

the

chart

11.8.

7 Find the

value of DF for

threshold is (a) Fig. 11.8.

5dB (b) 15dB (c)25 dB

zone when the ratio of the signal amplitude to the the chart in (d) 3 times (e) 5 times, using

Find the value the threshold in Fig. 11.8.

of DF for a three-level when the ratio of the signal amplitude to relay is (a) 5dB (bI5 dB (c) 25 dB (d) 5 times (e) 10times, the chart using

9 Do

Problems 6-8
amplitude

using

approximate

formulas

for describing
link

functions.
the threshold

10 The signal

at the
123

increases (a) from answers.)

input to

saturation

with

0.12345

(b) change? (Make an engineering judgment

to 1230;

from

314

to 628. How many times does the DF about what should be the accuracy of the

11 The
12
Write with

signal 123

(a) from
an

amplitude to 1230;

at the

input

to

a link

with many

0.12345 times

(b)

from

2.72

to 7.4.

How

dead zone increases does the DF change?

amplitudes

approximate more

for expression than the saturation

saturation saturation

DF which
threshold,

is valid

for input
link

sinusoidal signals

for the

with

(c) dead zone 0.4 and (d) dead zone 0.8and

(a) dead (b) dead

zone 0.2 and zone 0.3 and

threshold threshold

1.3; 2.3;

saturation saturation

threshold threshold

3.3; 5.
180\302\260 at

is and the phase 13 The linear looplinks' gain is (a) 25 dB; (b) 10dB;(c) 15dB, some What is the ratio of the signal amplitude to the threshold frequency. If the saturation link during self-oscillation? loop contains a dead-zone link, the ratio of the signal amplitude at the input to the link to the dead zone?

in the what

is

14

Plot

the

transfer

function

DF stability analysis + 300){s (a) I = 200(s

(b)

on the L-plane with

with

MATLAB

and

make inverse and direct

T =

(c) T=

+ 600)(s+ 15)(s + 20)(s+ 120)]; (d) 7= 140000(s 800)/[s(s+ (e) T = 1800(s + 272)(s + 700)/[s(s + 12)(s+ 35)(s+ 75)]; + 22)(s + 80)(s + 160)]; (f) T= 2500(s + 1200)(s + 1200)/[s(s + 650)(s + 550)/[s(s + 16)(s + 32)(s + 300)]. (g) F= 600000(s

+ 10)(s+ 35)(s + 80)]; 10000(s + 400)(s + 550)/[s(s + 400)/[s(s + 10)(s + 30)(s + 600)]; 20000(s+ 100)(s

for a system + 650)/[s(s

+ 20)(s + 45)(s + 90)];

saturation,

with threshold

1, for:

15 The
signal

area

of the

amplitude

hysteresis loop is and the amplitude

link

one half
of the

of the sinusoidal input of the product What is the output signal fundamental.
(a) transfer

phase lag of the

16

DF?

Find the current-voltage characteristic of (b) input. Discuss the stability conditions.
dead

the

Schmitt

trigger's

function

17 Calculate the

beat

zone

and the period of

oscillation

in

the

system

in

Chapter

11. Describing
the

Functions
= 100 kiQ

319
and Rz =

Fig.

11.14 and

where the

VCC = 12 V,

Schmitt
R3

200kfl,
18

integrator elements are

trigger resistors are Ri = 1 Mil and C= 10 nF. control

is

Calculate
the

the oscillation

the coolinglossesare200W,
the oscillation

pre-amplifier

gain is 1, the

period

in

the

on-off

dead beat zone

the

system

shown

in

Fig. 11.15
Btu/deg.

if

the 10\302\260C,

heater

and

payload

thermal capacitance is 2

power is 2kW,
Is

symmetrical?
corner
when

19 Calculate
To (c)0.05.

the

Fig. 11.17(b)

what

plot frequency (the frequency of the zero) in the is (a) 0.5; (b) DF of the saturation link at all frequencies of the signal amplitudes do these DFs values
the

in

0.1;
the

correspond?

20

In

the

nonlinear

signal-to-threshold

link in Fig. ratio in

the

11.17, what saturation

path

10 mHz is the phase shift at frequency link is (a) 1; (b) 10;(c)100?

of the

if

21
22

Will

in the forward the saturation affect the NDCs performance?

Plot

NDC

in

Fig.

11.25(c)

substantially

with

MATLAB

the iso-E
with

Bode gain
of 1 <
the

diagrams
with

and
the

phase
threshold
with

diagrams
of the
approximate

for

the

link in
link

Fig. 11.17(a) for the range to 2. Mark the plots equal for DF.

E< 100,
values

saturation

of E

calculated

formulas

23 Produce the iso-tv Bode plot

with

shown

in Fig.

11.23 and the related

phase responses
the

MATLAB

or SIMULINK.

24

In the NDC shown in the block diagram in Fig. 11.29, B = 20/(s iso-V Bode diagrams zone (for each polarity) is 1.5. Plot iso-wand and the approximate expressionfor the DF of the dead zone link.

+ 20), and
using

dead

MATLAB

25

(a) With

SIMULINK, plot
SPICE,

iso-

(b)

Using

plot iso- w

w Bode diagrams Bode diagrams for

for

the

NDC shown
in

in

Fig.

11.31 (a),

the

NDC shown

Fig.

11.31(b).

26 The

and a saturation link. composite link is a cascade connection of an integrator The local feedback about this link makes the link gain response flat. composite When the saturation link becomes overloaded what by a large amplitude signal, extra phase shift will be introduced in the main loop? Is this situation dangerous from the point of view of making the system not globally stable?

27

is flat and whose phase shift is zero over the band of gain response the feedback path an integrator. interest, is enlooped by local feedback, being When the link is overloaded extra shift will by a large-amplitude signal, what phase be introduced in the main Is this situation dangerous from the point of view of loop? the system not globally stable? making

A link, whose

28
29

Nyquist-stable

system
by

is made
computer ratio T= + 3000)]

globally

stable

must be

used to verify
return

simulations

initial by an NDC. What that the system is globally

conditions
stable?

+ 600)/[(s + 10)(s 20,000,000(s + 500)(s+ 550)(s stable in the linear mode of operation? Does the system have a limit cycle if there is a saturation link in the loop? At what from frequencies is the phase stability margin equal to zero (read these frequencies is the loop gain obtained with MATLAB)? What at these frequency responses What is the frequency of the limit cycle? What is the value of the frequencies?

Is the system with + 30)(s + 32)(s+

33)(s

320
saturation DF if
of the the
link

Chapter

11.

Describing

Functions

system
if

oscillates?

oscillates? system the signal at the input to the saturation link? to the system to discover the limit cycle?
the

nonlinear

What is the shape of the signal at the output What (approximately) is the shape of What kind of signal should be applied
with of the

30 Research project: Design a

channels.

Nyquist-stable

system

an

NDC
in

with

parallel

Compare

versions

with

different

sequences
system

links

the

channels. feedback.

31

Compare

Research project: Designa Nyquist-stable versions with different sequences

with an

NDC with

local

of the

links

in

the

local feedback

paths.

32 Research project: Design a Nyquist-stable globally-stable system approach and with the DF approach, and compare the performance.

with the AS

Answers to
1 (a)

selected

problems
shift

Since the phase

of
if

saturation
the

DF is

zero, oscillation will

is more

occur

at the

frequency where

argT= -tc,

loop gain loop

conditionally

happens at f = 4.2 Hz, while the the loop, the system is certainly The loop response can
simulation

at this frequency gain is 17 dB. If a dead

stable.
by

than OdB. This

is included

zone

link

in
by

be
use

obtained

simulation

with MATLAB,

or

with SPICE.
employing

a chain of voltage-controlled current sources. RL two-pole to obtain a function zero, at a with the zero to value, or. to implement a function pole, parallel RC two-pole with C=1 and R equal to the Inverse value of the pole. The file for the open-loop SPICE schematic diagram'is shown in Fig. 11.46; the input
SPICE,

When

Each

source should be L = 1 and R equal

loaded at

a series

frequency response calculation

is

Fig.

11.46

Schematic diagram

for

SPICE

open

loop simulation

*ch9ocl.cir
*T

for determining oscillation

gain,

condition
open

200(s+300)(s+600)/[s{s+20)(s+50)(s+100)],

G2

0 1 200

L2

G3

1 0
1

zero at 300

loop

zero at 600

L3
R3

G4

600 0 3

R4

0 0.05

pole at 20

C4

0 1

G5 R5

0 0 4 1 0 0 02
5

pole at
pole

50

G6
R6

C5
C6

at

100

01 6

1 1

G7

0 0

integrator

Chapter 11. Describing

R7 7 0 C7 7 0
VIN RIN .AC 1MEG ;

Functions

321

1
100

de-floating

resistor

1 1

0 AC 1 0 1MEG DEC 20 1

; source

loading resistor

.PROBE
.END

Use

a cursor whether

to

find

the

frequency
gain

-180\302\260. Check

With a dead zone in the loop, the system is conditionally the limit cycle stable, is zero. To excite the selfbeing at the frequency where the phase margin oscillation, a single pulse or a burst of oscillation at frequency 4.2 Hz should be a applied to the closed system input. (If it is desired to perform this simulation, and dead-zone link a summer should be added to the input file, and the loop should

the loop

vdb

at which the phase shift vpG) G) is positive at this frequency.

equals

be closed.)

6 (a)-3dB
7

(a)-9dB

(a)-4.5dB

Chapter
I

12

PROCESS INSTABILITY
In

asymptotically

process-stable

(APS) systems,
increment

any

infinitesimal

causes process only an infinitesimal and sufficient APS conditions require commonly practical

of the
margins

the

stability

increment to the input output process. The necessary to be much larger than those

used.
requirement

The APS

contradicts

feedback

maximization,
output

and the
process

majority

of

values only to be bounded. The acceptable certain boundaries on the Nyquist diagram, necessary and sufficient way by appropriate sizing of the stability boundaries. This is an of the frequency domain approach to nonlinear important advantage system design The bounds for process test are found for sinusoidal instability signals. The of between the amplitude of the input sinusoidal relationship signal and the amplitude the fundamental of the error is hysteretic. is gradually As the input amplitude increased, to the error amplitude increases smoothly then continues until the error jumps up and increase very slowly. If the input amplitude is then gradually the error and the reduced, at remain almost the same until the input amplitude is reduced to a certain value, output which point the error decreases (again, by a jump). This phenomenon is called jump and the thresholds of the resonance. on the T-plane specify the values Boundaries

control systems

are

not

APS

- the

effects of the

need instability of process can be reflected into instability for in a so they can be easily accounted

jumps.
when

in control systems with saturation by a jump, may originate The second subharmonic only system is varied continuously. and occurs in systems nonlinear elements with asymmetric characteristics, comprising of common values, the subharmonic originates smoothly. With margins stability subharmonics do not show up.
a parameter

The odd subharmonics

of the

12.1
The

Process instability
output

increment in the input if an infinitesimal in the Process increment output. instability growing in the output manifests itself in sudden bursts of oscillation or jumps signal. These to the output error and need to be limited. therefore phenomenacontribute A system the output is said to be process-Stable when processes are stable for all conceivableinputs. In accordance with the First Lyapunov Method, stability process of the linearized time-varied) implies stability locally system. (generally, In most cases, process instability is not a critical design issue. However, during feedback with, testing, and troubleshooting process instability and systems, experiments and subharmonic oscillation the associated nonlinear phenomena like jump-resonance the process instability conditions may occur and can be very confusing. For this reason, and need to be well understood. manifestations
process

is considered

unstable

triggers a

finite

or exponentially

12.2 Absolute stability of the outputprocess The in Fig. 12.1 (a) is said to be absolutely process-Stable system
process-stable

(APS) if
link

it

is

with

any

characteristic by

of

the nonlinear

memoriless

v(e)

whose

differential
322

gain coefficient is limited

Chapter
dv

12. Process

Instability

323

0<

\342\200\224

<1.

A2.1)
monotonic

de

For example,the
A2.1).

characteristic

illustrated

in Fig.

12.2 satisfiesthe

condition

1
(a) j

h 7Is)
e

(b)

Fig.

12.1
and

Feedback system
its equivalent

(a)

Fig.

12.2
nonlinear

Characteristic
link
differential

of the

(b)

with limited
gain

The system
ReT(/0))>-l

is APS ifat all frequencies

\342\200\242

A2.2) we

To prove

this shown

statement in Fig.

deviations
linear

to show that is stable. Here, the 12.3(a)

need
with

the

feedback link

nonlinear

system linearized v(e) is replaced

for
by

time-variable

link

the

gain coefficient

g(t) = ~.
In

dv

de
with

accordance

A2.1),

the coefficient g(f)e@,l), or

A2.3)

Vg(t)> 1.
The
in

the feedback system and the two-poles connection discussed electrical the in Fig. 12.3(b), shown circuits, (c). yields equivalent Since F(s) = T(s) + 1 is positive real, the two-pole in the lower part of the circuit in Fig. 12.3(c) is passive.The two-pole l/g(t)-l, although time-variable, is resistive and i.e., energy-dissipative. Hence, no self-oscillation can arise in this system. positive, the system in Fig. 12.1 is APS if it satisfies conditions Therefore, A2.1) and A2.2). (Notice that the analysis is valid even if the linear links in Fig. 12.3 are time-variable. criterion for LTV feedback systems.) Therefore, A2.2) stability gives a sufficient in some sense necessary for APS. If Condition is not only sufficient but A2.2) A2.2)is not satisfied, i.e., Re T< -1 at some frequency CO, then there can be found (a) function v(e) satisfying and (b) some periodical input with the some A2.1) signal fundamental CO, that together bring forth an unstable it can output process. Particularly, be shown when v(e) is saturation, and the input is a Il-shaped periodical that signal in the input with frequency renders a jump in the CO, gradual signal amplitude change
Section

analogy 3.10.2

between

output

signal amplitude

[9].

324

Chapter

12.

Process

Instability

(b)

(c)
real
gain

Fig. 12.3

Feedback

system

with time-variable

coefficient

and the schematic diagrams

(b),(c)described by

g(f) (a)

the

same

equations

The condition A2.2) restricts the position of the Nyquist diagram as shown in 12.4 and at This the not to exceed 90\302\260. limits the Fig. requires phase lag large loop gains reduces the available feedback. slope of the Bode diagram to -6dB/oct and thereby In practical systems not satisfying the APS condition, typically instability process does not contribute then much to the output error, and is only when the actuator saturated unusual is applied and a rather command to the input. On the other hand, excessive process The required feedback instability is not acceptable. T-plane between
certify

therefore system parametersshould these two extremes. the

lie somewhere

To

evaluate
the
the

and
should

systems,

appropriate

test-signals
for

-1; 1

be

selected

among
For
with the

those
large

typical

practical
inputs

system inputs. be periodical

in the following of merit.

the systems
jump-resonance

where

can

amplitudes, are employed

the relative
(described

V Fig. 12.4
Restriction

jump values of

section)

as

the

figure

of the the

Nyquist diagram by condition

APS

12.3

Jump-resonance
and

The amplitude
functions

the

shape of
the
at

the

output

periodical

signal
and whether

generally are
on
the

multivalued

of the

input periodical signal

output
by

parameters,
depend on
increasing in

depend

prehistory.
input

Particularly,

might

the input signal current value of the

decreasing

signal

was arrived

gradually
be

or

gradually

the

input in

signal amplitude.

Jump-resonance
Fig. 12.1(a) excitedby

can

observed input

the

nonlinear

feedback

system

sinusoidal

is

gradually

increased,

at a
in

t/sintof. While the certain amplitude U=U\" after

u =

infinitesimal
output

signal
in

(b) shown
increases

of the input, from the amplitude v(f) to change by a jump from the time-response (a) to of the fundamental 12.5. As the result, the amplitude Fig.

increase

signal amplitude U the saturation an level, U\" to U\" + 0, causes the

input
the of

time-response the output

by a

jump.
causes

down

Next, gradual reducing to a certain value V,

the

the amplitude a jump

response (d) when

U'-O.

input

amplitude

of the input starting at a value biggerthan U\" down from the time-response (c) to the timeis reduced by an infinitesimal to increment,

Chapter12.Process Instability
at

325

U= W

at U=U\"
time

at

U=

at

U=

U'-O

time

0
(b)

u
(c) signal
down

(d)
up
jump

Fig. 12.5
after the
jump

Shapesof
up

the

output

(b); before
the

the

jump

v(t) before the jump (c), and after the

by

(a) and
down

(d)
in in

Fig. Fig.

The conditions which 12.1(b),

12.1(a)

for

jumps
the

can

be found
same Using

initially

analyzing

the system
e(t)

implements (as can be easilyverified).

phase

relationships the DF

as the

feedback system

approach, we assumethat

~ E

sin (at.
When

the

addition
U =

of

the

2Esin(ytt/2)

i.e., arg T is -165\302\260, vector small, margin is rather say 15\302\260, channels the two parallel generates a collapse of outputs = in the region where VITI E. This is exemplified in Fig. 12.6.

stability

of

(b)

Fig.

12.6

of (a) dependence

Output signal

amplitude

for equivalent

U on

E, and

(b) vectors'addition

parallel channel system, at the collapse

redrawn

The dependence U(E) in Fig. 12.6 is single-valued. The inverse operator E(V) a falling branch over the in Fig. 12.7 is three-valued. This plot comprises interval of bifurcation marked dark. When U passes U\" (U',U\") between the points value afterwhile being gradually E from to the increased, Eb\" jumps before-the-jump the-jump value ?,\", and when U is reduced to U', then ? jumps down to EJ. The proof that the solution on the falling branch is unstable with a real positive pole the signal was given in Section Since the system is unstable, rises exponentially 10.3.1. the arrows in between the two stable solutions as shown by Fig. 12.7. -jumps In the system with saturation, only the jumps down can be large. From the curves in on the loop amplitude ?\342\200\236' depends Figs. 12.6 and 12.7 it is seen that the after-the-jump in and The are 12.8. These curves calculated phase. plotted Fig. gain dependencies allow one to specify the required stability margins from the values of the allowed jumps, from the observed and while to calculate the stability also, experimenting, margins

jumps.

326

Chapter

12.

Process

Instability

60

Fig. 12.7
of the

Three-valued

dependence
input

Fig. 12.8
values

error amplitude on the

signal

Lines of equal
down in with saturation

of jumps

amplitude

a system

Fig.

in feedback is such that the curve U(E) in systems when argT a minimum. This takes place within certain intervals. On frequency the in Fig. 12.9, the area is traced where the dependence plane E(U) has three (?/,/) solutions. At the lowest and the highest the limit case occurs of U' = U\" frequencies, = and 0 with zero-length dU/dE branch. The jumps can be caused falling by varying either U or /or both.
jumps

The
12.6

occur

possesses

frequency

frequency

Fig. 12.9

Amplitude-frequency

areas

Fig. 12.10

Jump-resonance

when

of three-valued

amplitude U

the frequency is being signal output

of the input changed

signal amplitude similar to that shown input signal amplitude is kept constant. Such first the of resonance tanks with nonlinear were observed responses during study in described cores. Because of the inductors analogy having ferromagnetic is described by the of an inductor and a capacitor Section 3.10.2, a parallel connection
in Fig.

Hysteretic frequency responsesof the 12.10 can be recorded the while

same
margin

the return ratio with equations as a feedbacksystem is small (although it is nonzero due to the inductor is prominent. saturation For feedback systems with dynamic [9] that the after-the-jump amplitude

1/(LC/). The phase stability

losses),

and therefore
with

the

jump-resonance

(including

those

NDCs),

it can

be

shown

E'=-

111
A2.4)

sup I Ml?>1

Chapter
The

12. Process

Instability

327

denominator
=

This
IMI

can be readily found the iso-/ line on the Nichols chart. by plotting is exemplified in Fig. 12.11. On the iso-/line, IMI of 3.5dB is maximum, i.e., 1.5, hence ?a' = 0.85.

0\302\260

i\302\260 90\302\260 20\302\260 30\302\260 40\302\260 50\302\260 60\302\260 70\302\26080\302\260

Fig.

12.11

The jump value

corresponds to the maximum

to

of I Ml on

the iso- f line.

Example 1. It is difficult amplifiers sincethese measurements on a two-pole with impedance

shown
by
in

measure
require

the loop

imitating

Fig.

observing

A6.3. Instead, phase stability the jump-resonance in the closed-loop

responses in RF and MW feedback the port of the open feedback loading loop the impedance of the disconnected port as at various frequencies can be found margins
configuration

and

using

the

plot

in

Fig. 12.8.
observed in the attitude control loop on the the attitude excited of solar control panels' Nitrogen have oscillation in the which structural mode. panels large-amplitude periodic high-2 The gyro bearing nonlinearity lead to jump-resonance in the gyro loop. This in turn lead amount of the to the panel attitude control thrusters consuming an abnormally large The rectified the in the control was loop. propellant. problem by reducing gain
has

Mariner 10 spacecraft.

Example 2. Jump-resonance

been

thrusters

12.4 Subharmonics

12.4.1
As
only

Odd

subharmonics
shown

will be
become

below,

the

subharmonics

in

low-pass

systems

with saturation

could

excited subharmonic frequency co/n is phase stability margin This rather small. of the Bode loop gain the Therefore, implies a steepcut-off diagram. to the nonlinear link consists of the lower frequency signal at the input mainly E sin (at + ?sbsin(G)f/n). components: whether odd subharmonic oscillation is possible with either small or Let us examine the saturation threshold is 1. of ? and ?Sb \342\200\242 We assume big amplitudes with both E and E& being so small that E + E& < 1, the subharmonics Evidently, since in this case the system are not observed behaves linearly. link is saturated If E > 1 and ?sb \302\253 1, part of the time the nonlinear by the signal. at the

if the

328
For small signal
linear
increments

Chapter

12.

Process

Instability

to its input, the link can be seen as an equivalent given a element the sampling with one, time-varying pulse frequency co. Considering the subharmonic as the input increment, the is the product of increment output and the Fourier expansion with the fundamental CO which JSsb sin(ciM/n) frequency characterizes the pulse element. In this product, the component with the frequency co/n can be generated of the Fourier series. Sincethis only due to the constant component is real, the nonlinear link does not introduce in the loop any phase shift for component the subharmonic.
the of the input are manipulated signal parameters slowly and subharmonics may only originate nonzero by a jump, with steadystate amplitude E (this is called hard oscillation). On the other hand, if E& \302\273 1 and E < E&, the input to the nonlinear link can be as shown in Fig. 12.12(a). This signal is clipped at the levels shown by dashed lines, and the output of the saturation link shown in v@ accepts the shape of trapezoidal pulses, These are shifted in some subharmonic the due to 12.12(b). Fig. pulses phase by angle ? sin or. If this angle exceeds the phase stability at the frequency of the signal margin and the loop gain at this is more than 1, a steady-state subharmonic, frequency subharmonic oscillation may be excited by creating appropriate initial conditions.

Therefore,

when

continuously,

the odd

subharmonic (a)

(b)

10

20 30

40
odd

Fig. 12.12

Third

subharmonic

mechanism

Fig. 12.13

subharmonics

L-plane boundariesfor in a system with

saturation n/2n.

It is
the

that seen from Fig. 12.12

third-

and for
systems

control

shift is less the phase are subharmonics displayed higher-order the stability margin is always phase
observed.

than

in Fig. bigger

The boundaries for 12.13 [9]. In practical than n/6, and odd

subharmonics are not

12.4.2

Second

subharmonic
can

The secondsubharmonic
link

be observed
greater

only if

the

characteristic

of the are

loop

nonlinear in

is asymmetric,

the

subharmonic's

saturation, system values of the signal amplitude that correspond to different subharmonic the figure, the second in Fig. 12.14 [9]. As seen shown from than are 30\302\260. in the where margins greater phase stability generated systems self-excitation second subharmonic Unlike odd subharmonic self-excitation,
existence

subharmonic

and the exist. For

the asymmetry with one-sided

is,

the

wider

the areas

which

the boundaries

of the
are

is not
can be

Chapter 12. Process Instability

soft.
when

329

Soft
either

excitation means that U or CO or both are

gradually
trajectory

changed
entering

along
the
can of

any

domain
be the

where the subharmonic the observed, amplitude subharmonic increases

from

steadily
that

zero,

without

jumps.

We
single-loop
neither subharmonics

may
the

conclude

in

systems with saturation odd nor the even

present

real

danger,

10 20
/.-plane Fig. 12.14 subharmonic second with single

since
windup

y180\302\260

meeting
and

the

mandatory

requirement

for
substantial

eliminating
jumpexcludes
for

boundaries
existence
saturation
in

resonance

automatically

system

polarity

the subharmonics.

12.5

Nonlinear
dynamic

dynamic
compensation

compensation
can

Nonlinear
sacrificing links

make

the system
the

the

available

feedback. The
with

conversionof

process-stable without
with two
nonlinear

system

to an

is as well
in

Section

equivalent system applied to designing NDCs to satisfy the process 10.7.2 describes a process-stable system with large
one

nonlinear

link that was

described in Section 10.7 criteria. stability Example3

feedback.

12.6

Problems
the

1 Provethat
same

systems

in the

block diagrams
with

in

Fig.

12.1 (a),(b)

are described

by

the

equations.

4 = 1, the phase stability the slope of the Bode diagram below Is this & is -10dB/oct. If not, what must be the slope for the system to be processsystem process-stable? stable? Approximately, what will be the change in the feedback at 0.03 Hz? with system is 30\302\260 and margin
In

saturation,

crossover

frequency

3 Isa system
(a)T=100/(s

with

(b) T= (d) T=
(e) T=
(f)

1000/[(s+ 0.01 )(s+

+ 500/[(s+ 0.02)(s

saturation + 0.01)?

APS
2)]? 3)]?

if

(c) T=123/(s+0.21)?

T=

272/[(s + 2.72)(s + 27.2)]? + 0.08)(s + 0.2)(s + 0.3)]? 5000/[(s

the

Prove

validity
> F(A\302\273)

of

the

following

equivalent

forms

for

condition

A2.2)

of APS:

Re Re

A2.5)
A2.6)

>0 1//=(/\302\251)

330
cos

Chapter 12. Process Instability

arg T(jw) > 1/17T^ca)l
A2.7)

and

T( ico)
\\M(j<o)\\=

1
>

A2.8)

F(j(o)

sin arg T(jco)

in a system in Fig. 12.6 for
with

5 Considerjump-resonance analogousto those

6 Show that
dependence
in

shown

a system

dead zone. Draw with saturation.

responses

a system with dead can be 5-valued, by

chart,

zone
drawing

and saturation, the output-input a response analogous to that

I/WI

amplitude in Fig. 12.6. saturation

7 On

Nichols

the

minimum

value of

for
after

of saturated output?
8

(a) 6dB,

(b) 8dB, (c) 4dB.What

is the

value of E

a system with a jump down

is

from the state

The down

loop gain is (a)

(approximately)

is 20dB in a system with saturation at some frequency.The is 2 times, (b) 1.5times. What the phase stability at this frequency?
with

jump margin

In

system

subharmonic

to be

saturation, observable?

what

must

be

the

stability

margin

for

the

fifth

Chapter

13

MULTI-WINDOW
Since,

CONTROLLERS

nonlinear controllers perform better than linear NDC controllers, generally, interest. We already considered the design of NDCs design methods are of profound AS and DF approaches. In this chapter we consider the NDC design from using yet another controllers. angle, as multi-window composite nonlinear controllers consist of linear high-order controllers and the Composite means of transition between the linear controllers according to some participation rules. Each of the linear controllers is a local linear to the optimal nonlinear approximation controller. The size of the regions wherea singlelinear controller is operational and the laws are discussed complexity of the elementary control Multi-window control makes transitions between the elementary linear controllers on the basis of the amplitude of the error. It is relatively simple to implement and than linear controllers. providesmuch better performance a big difference the transition it makes between the elementary controllers, During to be put on is \"cold\" or \"hot.\" Hot controllers are those with the whether the controller to the signal. This eliminates large transients caused input connected by the initial on of the controller. switching is the large and/or long overshoot in nonlinear systems. It often in occurs Windup The widely the systems with a large integrating component in the compensator. used controllers include nonlinear links the signal into different anti-windup directing paths, depending on the signal level. The acquisition and into the tracking problem is that of, first, finding and locking it. To perform each of these two tasks the target, and then, precisely tracking optimally, control law cannot be the same: for acquisition, the control bandwidth must be larger smaller. but the feedback can be much The transition between the two laws must be linear compensators via gradual in order not to de-acquire the target. When combining multi-window nonlinear it is important to guarantee that the combined transfer summer, function remains m.p. This can necessitate using more than two parallel branches and
windows.

Another

This problem is related

similar. Still

typical

application
to

for the

multi-window

controllers

Several another

examples related

the acquisition and tracking problem, of nonlinear controller applications are

is time-optimal control. and the solutions are

controller to a new controller in an industrial environment when the manufacturing should not generate cannot be stopped. The switching process disruptive transients. issues in multi-window controller design have not yet been investigated, and Many remain as to how to make the best use of such controllers. many questions The ends with a brief discussion of command feedforward in a system with chapter multi-window controllers.

problem

is the problem of

presented.
between

switching

the

existing

13.1 Composite nonlinear

It

controllers
10
and

11 that some nonlinear controllers perform The optimal controller is, in general, nonlinear. controller can be For a small region in the variable space, the nonlinear optimal linear approximated well by a linear controller. For an adjacent region, another can be designed that would be optimal over this region, and so on. The design controller arises of integrating these locally-optimal linear controllers into a therefore, problem, was

demonstrated

in Chapters

much

better

than

any

linear

controller.

331

332
composite
Transitions

Chapter
nonlinear

13.
and

Multi-Window

Controllers

controller
the

providing

smooth

transitions

linear laws.
between
the

between these regional

by in Fig.

control

rules
transition

defining
interval

set

of participation

modes can functions

the

be

characterized

participation

illustrated

13.1. Over

some
of the

of a

variable or

a condition,

controller

action

is

the

sum

actions of the adjacentregional control and at the ends modes, of the modes (or conditions, or actions) takesplace. The transition rule can be linear and expressed as
action

of the

interval

only

one

= A

- k)xaction\\

+ kxaction2,
transition the

A3.1)
interval. transitions

where when

the the

scalar actions

k changes from 0 to 1 over the are scalars or collinearvectors,

in

With these rules and between the control

in Fig. 13.1(b). not matter much as

laws are

as

illustrated the

Commonly,

precise

long as it

is monotonic,

13.1(a). A smoother rule functions of the participation shape not too steep, and not too shallow.
Fig.
interval

is

illustrated

does

transition

rrr
variable

or condition

variable

or condition

(a)

(b)
functions

Fig. 13.1
In general, the smoothness

Participation

of control

laws

in

composite

controllers

a monotonic shape of the participation functions does not yet guarantee that the of the transition different actions. It is also required between that the action control laws in combined of the mix well, i.e., adjacent particular, This is not always the controller. controllers exceeds that of each individual adjacent case. For example, even if someresiduethat needs to be cleaned out can be removed by with either an acid or a base, an acid and a base should not be used as a mixture electrical a a reactive content. For of variable current, gradually regulation changing should not be combined can be used, but these elements capacitor or a variableinductor link should not A low-pass in series or in parallel since they might produce resonances. be carelesslymixed in parallel with a high-pass link or else notches and n.m.p, shift
might

result.

into several discrete steps, transition logic controllers break each smooth different laws. Since these control the total number of regions with control laws. regional regionsbecomevery small, fuzzy logic control can use low-order can be based on phase-planepartitions, and on passivity control Hence, fuzzy design In fuzzy logic controllers, variables need to be many theory expressed in state variables. sensed and processedto define the boundaries of the regions. controllers? What region size is optimal for composite the are to There two making regions small.The first is that the control advantages enables which smooth in become the laws similar, very adjacent regions might is The second between them without taking special precautions. transitions advantage that the linear controller can be of low order, and the phase plane can be used for the,, such As claimed controller analysis and design. advocates, logic by some fuzzy when controllers can be designedeven by those ignorant of control theory. However, Fuzzy
This

increases

Chapter the number

very

13.

Multi-Window

Controllers

333

of

the

regions

is large,

the

number

large.

Correspondingly,

the number
modes

for changing between the control controller design and the designed On the other hand, higher-order

of boundaries between them becomes and instruments of decision-making algorithms becomes very large. This complicates the both

controller. linear

optimal over a much the regions and the

broader number

region of the boundaries

control laws can be made to remain nearly than low-order laws. This reduces the number of

For

the

design

of

the regions should be between frequency domain methods should be used.The partition and application of caution also defined in the frequency domain. This approach requires 4 to provide good blending of the regional control in Chapter certain rules discussed is not difficult the regions. Nevertheless, this approach laws at the boundaries between and leads to economical and controllers. nearly optimal summation For controllers designed in frequency domain, A3.1) may cause rule nonminimum logarithmic transition lag. In this case it is worth considering phase
log(action)

higher-order

between them. regional control laws,

not

the

phase

plane

but

= A

- k) \\og(actionx)

+ k

\\og(action2),

A3.2)

i.e., multiplication
action

= action\\

x (action?!action^.

A3.3)

13.2 Multi-window control

In

the

following,

we
output

will

consider

controller

is

the

of the
other

logic controllers,no
low. As
shown

of the nonlinear controller. The input single-input feedback summer, i.e., the feedback error. Unlike fuzzyand variables are employedto modify sensors the control

the output of a nonlinear by N. Weiner, operator can be approximated by of linear the input signal to a bank various operators, and then combining links can be products of the linear operators' outputs. In other words, nonlinear dynamic of linear dynamic links and nonlinear static links. The approximated by interconnections make a small subclass of such multi-window controllers links. Although relatively
applying allows for much richer varieties of the input-output simple, this subclass relationships than those of the linear Multi-window controllers perform significantly better system. than linear controllers, do not require of and (i.e., design implementation high accuracy are robust), and therefore allow some rules of thumb suitable for the developing In spite of the subclass simplicity, conceptual design and the designtrade-offs. rigorous methods for the such of controllers are yet to be developed,and synthesis strightforward in practice by repeating the computer the initial As design is further optimized analysis. we concentrate on the applications, the presentations in this chapter are not rigorous and rely largely on examples and simulations. The signal components of the error can be divided into several sets bounded by in Fig. 13.2(a). The windows two-dimensional windows shown the frequency divide the time-response behavior) and the amplitude spectrum (or, equivalently, range. Within a regional linear controller (compensator) is employed. each window,

334

Chapter 13.Multi-Window

Controllers

\">

frequency
\342\200\242* time

>

frequency

\302\246

Fig.

13.2 The multi-window the choice of the linear the error amplitude and

control
controller

concept:
defined

Fig.

13.3

Diagonal windows

by

frequency

content
controller

The

multi-window into

nonlinear

partitioned components by the linear operators nonlinear functions. This number of useful nonlinear The regional linear
performance condition

can be implemented as follows: the error is into the different windows, processed falling components and the results added up or combined of the windows, by is referred to as multi-window, and a great architecture can be cast in this form. schemes control

controllers are
with

optimized

using phase

Bode

bounds. for smooth

blending,

The criterion for

minimum

behavior

as integrals is employed as
frequency.

the the

blending
the

the

adjacent
the

regions
between
threshold

differing
rules

in

Due

to

this smooth
nonlinearities

exact

shape of
the

participation

used

to implement
saturation

transition

the
of

critical. The static control modes can all be

is not saturation

chosen exact.

to be

of

hard

type,

and the

the

need

not

be

A strong correlation exists in many systems between the error's amplitude and the as shown in error frequency content so that the errors fall into a set of diagonal windows is a stochastic force with 13.3. This is the case, for example, when the disturbance Fig.
flat the

and causing the body displacement with density, applied to a rigid body of the frequency, and when a to the density spectrum inversely proportional square the is in limited force command chosen consideration of available displacement profile the actuator. the signal components that should from Due to this correlation, go to a can be selected or by the frequency (the order either by the amplitude specific window is further discussed in Section of the selection 13.5). The controllers for these systems spectrum

can be composed
functions

of

for

pre-

Suchcontrollers
amplitude

linear operators of the or post-processing and good are

windows for

and non-dynamic

splitting

and/or

(static) nonlinear combining the signals.

problems.

provide

performance
compensators

for a wide variety

are two-window

of practical

The simplest multi-window

components

compensators. The
low

large
low-

processed

by the

regional compensatorwith

gain; the low-amplitude signals are processed with higher frequency The are widely employed, in particular, two-window controllers gain. in and schemes, tracking systems, and in Nyquist-stable acquisition

low-frequency in anti-windup

systems

for

provision of global
The discussed
multi-window in

and

process
compensator

stability.
is nonlinear
whether

dynamic.
are

And

conversely,
combination

the NDCs parallel multi-window

of

Chapters

10 and
with

11,

they

made as

channels or controllers.

as

links

nonlinear

local feedback,

can be

viewed

as

Chapter
13.3
The with

13.

Multi-Window

Controllers

335

Switching
sharpest the
Assume

between

hot controllers and

to a coldcontroller

switching,

feedback

rules are the instant between the controllers. Even switching the transition between the regional laws can be made smooth. the inputs of several linear controllers are connected to the output of the summer as shown in Fig. 13.4(a). The controllers are \"hot,\" i.e., they process
participation
A

the error all the time.

simple

switching
function

one of
actuator.

the

or a nonlinear outputs Since the controllers

the

are

hot,

or some nonlinear law can be used to choose of all or some outputs to send further to the and if the difference between the controllers is
to

not excessive,
switching

output

signals

between

them

will not

of the controllers are create largetransients.

some

extent

similar,

and

command i\"

\302\273(

(a)

(b)
(a)

Fig. 13.4
On
both

Switching

between

\"hot\"

controllers

and

(b) to
inputs,

\"cold\"

controller

the other
which other

hand,

when

a nonlinear

law allocates the

input

but

the

outputs

are
the

permanently

connected

to the

actuator

as

shown
its

controller

has been
When

off for a long

large
the transients

in Fig.

13.4(b),

time

is

\"cold,\" and
this

output

someconstant.
but

the actuator

input is switched to
can

controller

signal is zero or from even a similar

\"hot\"

controller,

result.

The following

example illustrates
and

the

problem.
system

1. Consider Example linear compensators shown

with

a single-integrator

plant

two

switchable

in Fig.

13.5(a).

Fig. 13.5

Switching

between

controllers,

(a) at the

input,

(b)

at the

output

336
The much

Chapter 13. Multi-Window

lower path
be
the

Controllers

compensator is a lead with

bandwidth

an

integrator.

larger

feedback
output

but

smaller

feedback

responseswill
connected
Switching a certain

discussed of the

in Section
outputs

13.5). The
occurs

The upper path provides at lower frequencies (these

are

compensators

to

feedback summer

so that
when

permanently

the

compensators
magnitude

are

\"

hot.\"

between

the compensators'

the error
frequent

achieves

threshold value, with some hysteresis to avoid forth. In Fig. 13(b), a similar is here the shown but system to a cold compensator. The saturation are -100, thresholds the thresholds are 0.1, 0.2, and the output switches between 1 and 0. The switch engages the upper path when 1 is applied to the switch when 0 is input, and the lower path |i

switching

back

and
hot

switching

occurs
the

from a

100; for cold

hysteresis

link,

applied to the switch

The

input. responses Fig.

g for

systems in the
transients
while

output transient are shown in

system
caused transients

both

time

with

,,.,. the

by the caused

'

seen that hot compensators the

13.6.

It is

... to .. ,.by switching

switching

are

small

with

the

Fj9- 13;6uTralnsi?nLresPTS?I, to hof and colcF switching

comrjensators

cold

compensator

are large.

13.4 Windup and

The

anti-windupcontrollers

of a system with saturation and large-amplitude steps can be as shown in Fig. 13.7. The overshoot for the input step is excessive and large-amplitude - this is called persistent
time-responses

to small-

J,
\302\247

phenomenon

windup.

The

windup

can be

time

many

times

longer

than the overshoot in the linear for operation (i.e., the overshoot of smaller amplitude). command
Windup

mode of a step

Rg 137
in

Transient

response

r,near

mode

is

typically
two

caused
factors:

combination

of
in

the

a by error
actuator

(|Ower curve)
(upper

and
saturation.

windup

curve)

integration
return
integrator

the

compensator

and the

signal
from

and therefore
being

prevents

the

error

signal

During the initial when is still low and the error is large, the compensator integrates the output applied, be compensated When the time comesat which this integrated error would the error. by this does not for of in the linear mode the return large happen operation, signal commands, since the return signal is reduced by the actuator saturation. Therefore, it error. the integrated The error to compensate take a long time for the feedback might state after some time does the output signal drop to the steady \"hangs up,\" and only
compensated. value.

The saturation limits the in the compensator accumulated is after the step command period

Example 1. We
a single-integrator
in Fig.

will

illustrate
shown

plant,

in Fig.

the windup 13.8(a).

with

with of a simple system an example The asymptotic loop responseis shown

13.8(b).

Chapter

13.

Multi-Window

Controllers

337

Compensator

dB

|
\302\273(TI

ifr

0.51s

-i
>\302\251-*

Actuator
2/E+2)

Plant

1/s

-6dB/oct o) log. sc.

0.5

1^X2

(a)

(b)
and (b) the
connection

Fig.13.8 (a)
path, and a
As following

System

with saturation

loopasymptotic

Bode

diagram

The compensator
seen

includes a
link

parallel at

with a pole

function input

the asymptotic Bode diagram, ratio), the closed-loop (return function to the error, and the transfer
from

a unity of an integrator and gain The crossover frequency is 1 rad/sec. must be stable. The loop transfer the system the transfer function from the transfer function, to the input of the actuator are, respectively: 2 rad/sec.

_ m
n

2s + l
s3 +2s2

n +m

+2s +

error
command

1
F

s3+2s2
n + m

si+2s2+2s

+ \\

actuator

input L\342\200\224,,

command
without

=Ms=>

Is1 + s
-,

s +2s

5
+

2s +1 the

The time-diagrams obtained with in are shown saturation It 13.9. is the seen that Fig. signal at the actuator input has a large

MATLAB

step

command for

this

system

1 -5

peak.
plant

The

output

response

overshoot follows this peak with of the about 90\302\260 because delay
integration.

Clipping
the saturation

actuator

the signal peak at the actuator by

causes

windup.
the

Fig. 13.10
response

shows
to
when

output

the

step-function
the

-0.5

command
windup the length

saturation
\302\2610.25. The height

level in the actuator is increases

Time(sees)

the

and

of

Fig. 13.9

Time-responses

of a

linear system

the

overshoot.

338
Using the DF explanation for the as follows: Actuator
function

Chapter 13. Multi-Window

concept,
windup

Controllers

the

qualitative
goes reduces

phenomenon

the thus describing loop gain shifting the down. The crossover equivalent frequency is overshoot resulting long, corresponding to this low crossover frequency. The value of the the loop phaselag. When on windup depends
saturation the
the

-1

time

phase
windup

stability

is practically

large

when The

margin is more than 70\302\260, nonexistent, but it is the stability margin 30\302\260 is or can be
nonlinear

pig.

system

smaller.

windup
link

reducedor eliminated
dynamic

for the Time-responses 13.8, solid line; with added saturation with threshold 01 'n *ron* of the integrator in the line dashed compensator,
13.10
in

Fig.

by

employing

compensation.
in

For
of the

saturation

with

saturation
shown

level 0.1
in Fig.

front

example, integrator

placing an extra
in

the

compensator

dashed line. on the idea of The of the explanation wind-up phenomenon can be also based and overload the actuator intermodulation: large component amplitude low-frequency the it from remedy suggested by this components; prevent passing higher-frequency and higher-frequency is channels for analysis processing lower-frequency using separate signal components. in a PID system is commonly reduced or eliminated by placing a saturation Windup
produces

the response

13.10 by the

in

front

output

of or after the signal to zero at

integrator, the

or by

resetting

the

integrator,

i.e.,

by changing

its

rise-time.

in analog used In Fig. 13.11, two measures are shown which are widely In Fig. 13.1l(a), the diodes the windup. (or Zener compensators to reduce or prevent limit the maximum voltage on the to the capacitor in the integrator diodes) in parallel the the maximum charge in it that can be accumulated during and, therefore, capacitor is shown: reset transients to a step command. In Fig. 13.10(b),the option the capacitor is shorted for of the step-command, with the application simultaneously certaintime (close to the rise-time) to prevent the built-up charge.

(a)

(b)
with (a)

Fig. 13.11

Analog

integrators

parallel diodes and (b) with

is placing

reset

switch that

Another method of the windup in Fig. 6.19 in the command path. is sometimes A saturation link Fig. 13.12, with a larger threshold a three-window makes the controller

elimination

a rate

limiter

like

shown
in

than

placed as well in front that of the saturation one.

of the
in front

P-term as shown of the /-term.

This

Chapter 13. Multi-Window

1

Controllers

339

l/s
S

k.

r>

Ds

Fig.

13.12

Saturation

links

in front

of the

/- and

P-paths

13.5 Selection order

The

diagrams

in Figs.
the

13.2

and

13.3

indicate

whether
particular

frequency order

selection

are somewhat or the amplitude

different

ambiguous since
selection in

they

do

not

Often a
Fig.

is performed the

first.
in

is required.
two

This order is
types

block

diagrams
multi-window

13.13

which

exemplifies

of

architectures

for

compensators.

'->HP

(a)

(b)
compensators

Fig. 13.13
saturation
gain

Multi-window

with parallel

channels

Fig. 13.13(a) shows compensators links are commonly placed

response
the

with in the

dominates
low-frequency
eliminating

at

lower

frequencies.

channels. In such compensators, low-frequency channel since this channel's At large signal the saturation link levels,
parallel
compensator link

reduces
reducing
threshold

gain,
the

and the

phase lag of the

a
saturation

or
in

windup.

Placing

with

decreases thus an appropriate

of the /-path commonly reduces the length and the height of the is not critical. Placing a dead-zone value of the threshold in element channel with k < 1 reduces the phase front of the high-frequency lag at large signal amplitudes, which helps to eliminate windup and to improve the transient response. When link follows the fork the saturation linear filter fork (a filter is a filters for splitting or combining combination of low-passand high-pass low-frequency
front
overshoot.

The

and

high-frequency side of the block

by

signals,
diagram

in

this

case

low-pass
the

LP\\

and

in Fig. of the

13.13(b),

amplitude

HP\\) as in high-pass of the overshoot

the

left

can be

regulated

in some cases, while the However, the time of the overshoot remains.The of the overshoot reducesnicely, overshoot can be reduced to say, only time. 1%, but the hang-off can last a long (In a version of the controller described further in this section, the overshoot of 1% lasted 1 temperature In some applications, small is acceptable, but not in all hour.) amplitude windup
adjustments
saturation

threshold.

value

applications.

340

Chapter 13. Multi-Window

Controllers

The block diagram in Fig. 13.13(b) shows an architecture of mixed order of nonlinear windows and filter forks. The best architecture of a PID controller with anti-windup depends on the sort of command the controller must to and also on the nature of the disturbances. respond When the only command is a step, placing the saturation first will prevent the accumulation of integrated error that causes if there is largeHowever, windup. short random noise, and the low-frequency of this amplitude, pulse-type components

the integral term needs to be functional to reduce the static error but the is not effective if the peaks are being clipped by the saturation integration In this case it would be better to lower the of the preceding the integration. amplitude a low-pass filter (or an integrator) in front of the saturation link. pulses by placing When the error signal can be arbitrary, the best performance (in a minimax sense) of the two strategies, i.e., the saturation link could might be provided by a combination be sandwiched between two low-pass filters. of an Here, two options exist: (a) half can before the be and the other half or after; saturation, (b) using two integration placed links - one before first-order the nonlinearity, to cut off the higher frequencies using a and one off with a zero the after, single pole, cutting low-frequencies, compensating
noise

are substantial,

pole of the
extra

first

link.

These

frequency can be adjusted

knobs integrator

implementations are indicated in by a single knob. But still, counting

Fig.

13.14.

The pole/zero

the saturation

level,
the

two

are required version, there is

compared
only

with

the

linear

PID

controller.

(For

half-

one

additional

knob.)

,-0.5

,-0.5

s+

a
a
(b)

s +

(a)
Fig.

13.14
the

Possible
used

/-path implementations

for

anti-windup local

These

NDCs and
Fig.

for the

same purpose NDC with

with

nonlinear

feedback

shown
in

in

13.15 11.

can be
with

designed
shown

the

describing

function

approach as described
in described

Chapter

The NDC

in

Fig.

13.15 can

also be designed as
approaches.

Chapters

10 and

12

the

absolute

stability

and process stability

Fig.

13.15

Anti-windup

NDC with

local

feedback

13.6

Acquisition

and tracking
those

Acquisition and tracking systems,like to in two modes: acquisition designed operate

tracking

used

in homing
the

missiles, are

a pointing
maneuver object.

is large, and when the of mode when the error is small. An example acquisition/tracking type is which a rapid retargeting a in for control system camera, spacecraft-mounted form a mosaic image of the to is followed by a slow precisescanning pattern
error

mode

Another

example

is clock
frequency

acquisition

in

the

phase-locked

loops

of

telecommunication systemsand

synthesizers.

Chapter When the error in Fig. 13.16(a), and

13.

Multi-Window

Controllers

341
regime,

signal is large,
the

controller
in

should be

wide, as shown
the

Fig.

the system is in the acquisition should respond rapidly, i.e., 13.16(b). In the acquisition

as indicated

the feedback
mode

it is

howeverthat

large, since the error is big and even with a small maximum available power to the plant. In gain in the compensator, the actuator applies the feedback bandwidth needs to be reducedto reduce contrast, in the tracking regime, the output effects of the sensor at lower frequencies noise, but the value of the feedback to minimize the jitter and the tracking error. should be maderather large
loop

bandwidth not necessary

gain be very

acquisition \342\200\224~~L^

dB

30
> ^ intermediate

tracking

20
tracking

>w

^M\342\200\224\342\200\224\342\200\224\342\200\224\302\273. ' .25 .5 tiniB

10 0

eg

log. scale

-10

(a)

(b)
time-history

Fig. 13.16 (a) Error

While

and

(b) acquisition/

tracking loop responses

the

determination
the

mode

and

for

tracking
transition

responses excessively

during large,

of the optimal frequency responses for the acquisition is straightforward, guaranteeing smooth transient from to tracking is not trivial. The transition can acquisition
mode
in

generate large transients

the

the

output

and

in

the

error

signals.

If

the

transients

are

de-acquired. The transition between the responses as shown in can be made by switching windows: the small errors are directed to the tracking Fig. 13.5, or by using nonlinear A special compensator, and the large errors directed into the acquisition compensator. care must be taken to ensure that all intermediate frequency responses of the combined channel are acceptable. An improper intermediate response might result in an unstable or a in with small and, therefore, would produce largesystem, system stability margins
target
amplitude

can be

transient

responses.
showing

As an example

the

importance

of paying
weighted

attention

to
the

the

intermediate
and

responses, let the total loop the tracking responses shown

response
in Fig.

be

the

sum

A3.1) of

acquisition

13.16(b):

A3.4) and suppose

rises, and
When the that

k smoothly

varies from
acquisition

0 to 1. As
the

the

transition

to track mode occurs, the

frequency this

from acquisition
the

mode

response

gradually
two

sinks,

tracking

response
two

frequency

at which the moduli of is still low, the difference exceeds

functions

at

this

frequency

therefore 180\302\260;

are components in phase between the total transfer

equal, increases.
the function

transfer
T has

zero in the right half-plane of s. (The conditions for the transfer function Wt + W2 to become n.m.p. when each of the channels W\\ and W2 is m.p. were given in Chapters 4 and 5.) The nonminimum reduces the and in result phase lag phase stability margin may self-oscillation. the system The transients generated while passes these values of k can be big and disruptive, even causingthe target to be lost. For example,in a modification of the system in Fig. 13.5 where the compensators'

342
outputs
the

Chapter 13.Multi-Window
are combined
avoid

Controllers

via nonlinear

windows,

the overshoot
and

reached 500%.
the slopes transients, more than by 9 dB/oct
although

To reliably
Bode two-window

of diagrams controllers.
a linear

better

than

phase lag not regional responses should Hence, the two-window still does not allow controller,
and

the nonminimum

excessive

of
in

different
controller,

substantially

for responses

acquisition an

controller
in

using

intermediate

for tracking. This can be frequency response like that

implementation
done

of the
with

best possible
dashed line

a three-window by the

shown

Fig.

16(b).

The
continuously.

appropriate
One

responses can
for this was
regulation
the

be

also

obtained Sections

by

changing

the response

method

described in

6.7.2,11.7.

Example

1. With

function

l.l(j+0.25H+2)Q+3)(s2

+5^+64)

s(s+05)(s+7)(s2 + 10s+100)
and

the

intermediate

return ratio

250E+0.3)

s(s+0.005)(s2 +1Qs
the responses

+100)

of F.17) for the

return

ratio

Tare shown

in

Fig.

13.17.

50
CD \302\246a Mi

*
\302\246I \302\246 \302\246Ml

\\
-50

10

10\"

101

Frequency

(rad/sec)

-270

10
Fig. 13.17

10
Frequency

10
(rad/sec)

10

Responses

for

smooth

transition

from acquisition to

tracking

Chapter

13.

Multi-Window

Controllers

343
force

13.7
Time-optimal

Time-optimal
control commanded

control
1
upper

limit

betweenthe
using has

the output variable changes levels in minimum time,

y^

position
\\yelocity

with limited force or power. It for the control that to be timeproven the of the actuator action optimal, magnitude must be maximum all the time during the transition of the output variable between the limits. For example, shifting a rigid body with a
an

actuator

been

time

force

lower force
Fig.

limit

13.18

force actuator

in

minimum

time

requires
relay

the force
controller.

of the

position

Time-optimal control of a rigid body

profile shown
between

in Fig.

13.18.

Time-optimal plant dynamics.

controller is a
and
the
the When

the positive

negative

plant

It switches the action on, off, and on the at appropriate instants depending for the switching cannot be is uncertain, the timing values,

exactlycalculated
A stable
switch infinite

actuator gain

considerable errors. and the open-loop control entails of an uncertain control closed-loop large-feedback plant cannot employ a element with a preceding since this actuator is equivalent to a saturation in advance,

linear
A

link, and

in

practical

systems

the loop
over

gain

cannot

be infinite in a

at all

frequencies.
with obtain

good

approximation

to a

closed-loop time-optimal
the
must

controller

saturation the

requires

using

best
the

practical
achieved chosen
the

large loop gain results, a proper balance

feedback

wide bandwidth.
be kept

system In order to
the

between

achieved

loop

gain and Whatever

limitation

bandwidth.

the
using

an

Chapter

be maximized under feedback bandwidth, the feedback must a windup. This requires the system globally stable and without controller as was shown in NDC which can be implemented as a multi-window controller can also help reduce the settling time. 10. Using a multi-window of keeping

For
controller
very

most common
suffices. like

practical problems
pointing

of

time-optimal
the

control,
required

two-window

More windows may

of space

be necessarywhen

settling

error is

small,

in beam

optical telecommunication

systems.

13.8 Examples
The 1: Despin Control for S/C Booster Separation. booster Example spacecraft is stabilized by spinning from the booster, the spacecraft at 85 RPM. After separation shown in Fig. 13.19(a) is despunby a yo-yo to about 2 RPM. (The yo-yo is a weight at When the spacecraft is the end of a cable wrapped severaltimes around the spacecraft. released and released from the booster the is also the rocket, begins unwrapping weight is separated cable. When all the cable is unwrapped, the cable from the length the takes most of the rotation The and momentum.) spacecraft, yo-yo away remaining thrusters. about spacecraft spin needs to be removedby firing Spinning of the spacecraft the z-axis is unstable since the spacecraft is prolate and not absolutely and symmetrical, will the spacecraft tumble. the despin when left for some time uncontrolled, Therefore, of large conditions after the separation, should be fast. Because in the initial uncertainty with various and spin rates and different positions types of coupling between the axes, and at the same the controller design for the despin function must be made very robust, After the despin is complete, in a nearly fashion. the it must perform time, time-optimal in the cruise mode. must be changed to providebetter control controller accuracy

344

Chapter 13.Multi-Window
>x
DM

Controllers

z
M

PWMand

decoupling

thruster logic

Gyroscopes

s/c dynamics
external forces and

Thrusters

torques

(a)

(b)

Fig. 13.19
The

Spacecraft (a) local

shown
thruster

frame

coordinates,

(b) attitude

control block diagram

modulated are

controller

in

thrusters.
and

Since each

produces

Fig. 13.19(b) uses pulse width x-, y-, and z-torques, they

(PWM)

combined

in pairs

This renders the control of each axis logic matrix. to The problem is, however, independent complicated by coupling between the x-, y-, and z-rotations due to the spacecraft including spinning of dynamics, fuel and oxidizer,initially at the rate of the booster. Due to large the plant uncertainty, over the despin was chosen to be proportional, providing a large phase stability margin entire frequency range of possibleplant and x-, uncertainty y-, and z-controllers decoupled

by the thruster a certain extent.

coupling.

block diagram, DM separates the error vector into its the demultiplexer The M does The are the multiplexer compensators independent components. opposite. for the x-, y-, and z-rotations, i.e.,the controller matrix is diagonal. such as to despin the s/c without When the controllers' gains were chosen in Fig. 13.20(a). It is seen that was as shown substantial overshoot, the z-axis response the control is not time-optimal.
In the
A window

better

nonlinear

changes

basis of error in done by

smooth
control

is a twowhich the control law on the of the the absolute value each channel. This was via the errors passing
controller controller

0 5 10 15

20

10 15

20

time

time

saturation/dead
laws.

zone

windows

with

(a)
of Fig. 13.20 Time-response

(b)
z-axis

between the transition The resulting control law is nearly for the despin perfect function and as well for the cruise
shown

despinning:

(a) linear

controller,

(b) two-window

controller

mode. The
was

transient

response

for this

controller is

in Fig.

13.20(b). The despin time

than

same time more robust controller performs for error mode the with linear controller, large margins stability larger original controller the two-window is when the cross-axis however, was, (This coupling largest. the Mars Global into not and has been too late Surveyor incorporated designed and PID controller was software. The initial provided sufficiently employed simple
two-window

The
the

by 20%. better and is at the

reduced

control.) good despin and cruise This example shows that even for complicated plants with multi-channel controller two-window nonlinear feedback loops, a nonlinear using only law provides nearly control channels for changing the individual

coupled
the

error

in

time-optimal

Chapter
performance,

13. Multi-Window than that

attitude integrator,

Controllers

345

substantially

better
spacecraft double

of linear controllers.
control

Example2: Cassini
The

with thrusters

(without

PWM).

plant is

close to a pure

frequencies.

The thrusters are not throttled fixed positive or negative value, or zero controllers often do not include an /-channel (low-frequency disturbances are almost and channel. To avoid nonexistent), only include a P-channel and a high-frequency is which then considered to be use saturation in the P-channel, windup, they commonly the low-frequency channel.

although there are flexiblemodesat high is some and not modulated, and the torque to a 3-position relay.) These (similarly

Example3: Temperature
Narrow

controller

for

the mirrors
telescope.

Angle

Camera.

The camera

represents a small
be

of Cassini spacecraft's
The
the

primary
same

and

the

secondary

mirrors
the

of the
mirror

telescope must
to match

kept

at approximately
image

temperature

in order for

surfaces
an

each other, and the

to a
thermal

in the

be clear.
mounted

focal plane to

Fig.13.21
telescope

shows

electrical

analogy
into

control is

system

for a

spacecraftthe

(recall

Section
and

3.1). The
free

plant

highly
within

nonlinear
K 1.6\302\260

because of

nonlinear

law

of heat
the

radiation

temperature
(Another

of
loop,

primary

space. the secondary

The heater Hi is

used to

keep

the

mirrors

of each

other.

the primary mirror heater H\\ which discussed here, drives The heaters are within the 263\302\260-298\302\260K range). temperature of 6 and the modulated with the modulation sec, pulse-width pulse-width timing period resolution of 125 ms. The heater total frequency power cannot exceed 6W. The of the plant transfer function differential is from the heater to the temperature response losses G, which are basically that of an integrator; however there are also radiative

which

is not

maintains

the absolute

nonlinear.
CuF

cMF

cHF

(a)

(b)
Narrow

(c) (a), its

thermal

Fig. 13.21

Angle

Camera

controller

electrical

analogy

(b),

and the
The compensator is implemented (HF) channel is high-frequency

controller

configuration

(c)

in three

parallel

channels. The

for compensation

the

a complexpolepair:

A3.5)
The

medium-frequency
\302\260'5

(MF) and

low-frequency (LF)channels

are

first-order:

= CMF MF

and

CLF= F

s + 0.035

A3.6)

346

Chapter a saturation

13.
the

Multi-Window
LF
and

Controllers

and

compensation.
combined compensator
nonlinearity)

element The

precedes separate

frequency channels
are

of the responses the (ignoring shown in Fig. 13.22,

compensator

and the
in

response is shown loop frequency 13.23. The Fig. parallel connectionof the MF a Bode and HF channels forms near 30mHz. step on the Bode diagram

The controller was as implemented was digital, and the feedback bandwidth limited by sampling effects. ultimately
dB

-20

Fig. 13.22

for responses dB

Parallel-channel compensator
thermal

controller

60

60 loop phase
shift

t-plane

40

40

20

0
-20

loop gainS^

\\

f,

log. scale

20

-270-240-210
i i i

-120-90
J
i

1O3

10-2

/*\"

So

degr

-40
Fig.

13.23

Loop frequency response

for

thermal

controller

larger

1-10 mHz range, providing in windup, i.e., excessive device in which the heater saturates, unless an anti-windup overshooting,for transients The is provided. transient, the heater saturates immediately.) (For the typical power-on This used here is a element the LF device saturation anti-windup preceding path. \" is saturated when the actuator the LF path from prevents integrating up\" excessively were observed, the simulations and the error is large. After a few E -10) step response in the LF path was chosen K. The closed-loop saturation to be 0.8\302\260 threshold system in this level, which makes a good is notably insensitive to variations transient response level to determine. Note that placement of the saturation element after the LF easy a a is small in transient with but takes an results windup error that compensation
The LF
feedback

compensation steepens the response at low frequencies. This would

in the
result

excessive
saturation problem.

amount

link

of time to decay. after the /-path, frequently

Industrial

controllers,

use

integrator

which often place reset features to overcome

the this

The
power

nearly

step response for most of the time and the overshoot time-optimal,
power-on
is maximum

the

controller

while

is shown in Fig. 13.24. The heater the mirror is heated up. The controller

is

is insignificant.

Chapter

13.

Multi-Window

Controllers

347

K\302\260

temperature
difference

300

-10

265 260 255 , 250

2nd heater

power

-20
-30

-40

t, sec

2000

10

t, hours

(b)

Fig. 13.24 Step

Example 4: The microgravity example of a two-window stability with loop phase shift of
is another
eliminates

response accelerometer controller.

for thermal that This

controller
in

was described controller not only

Section

11.9 global

provides

it at frequencies where the loop gain is large, but also band of the the acquisition reduces the overshoot, and increases and if the feedback condition. The tunnel effect is an exponential function, tunneling when the distance in the tunnel sensor gap was much smaller than loop were initialized would become the be much larger, and then the loop gain would normal, system the NDC. unstable if it were not for the gain reduction by

windup,

Example 5. The example of a two-window

13.9

antenna

pointing
controller.

controller

described

in

Section

6.10.5

is another

Problems
In

a system

with saturation,
windup

a doubleintegrator
saturation
simulations

plant,
in

and
front

effect on the
SIMULINK

of the

links placed
with

or SPICE,

and make

different

the a PID controller, study of the / and P paths. Use saturation thresholds.
about

2
3

In

the

previous
paths.

problem,

use dead

zone feedback paths

shown
in

the

integral

and

proportional

Make SIMULINK simulations

of the

system

Fig.

13.5. with switching

4 Make
two by

simulation

for

the

responses, an octave

similar

acquisition and tracking in shape (of the PAtype)

problem but

one

shifted

between relative to the other

along the frequency

plant

axis.

The

nominal

is Po =
saturation

The actuator is a Hz (it is limited by

+ 1/[(s+ 10)(s

link

with unity
plant

sensor

noise or the

in gain. with up to \302\2612dB variations 100)] is 200 threshold. The feedbackbandwidth uncertainties). Design a good controller.
plant

In

Example

1 in

Section

13.8, assume the

for

gain

is uncertain

within What

3dB. is

the transient conclusion?

response

plant

gain

deviations

up and down.

Plot the

Study

command

feedforward
in nonlinear

feedforward link

with different frequency modes of operation.

responses of the command

Study

feedforward system for commands and of the plant response (b) large deviations
a command (a)

large-level

from

the

nominal.

348

Chapter
Study multi-window

13.

Multi-Window

Controllers

controllers with

bounded

internal

variables

in

the

plant

and the

actuator.

10

Study

and

a system with multi-window feedback path.

compensators,

command feedforward, prefilter,

Appendices

Appendix 1 Feedback
Al.l

control,elementary

treatment

Introduction complex systems is to break them standard in computer aided the blocks' interaction systems relies on understanding the feedback.
to

The easiest way The block diagram

Understanding
understanding

comprehend
method

into
analysis

building
and
particularly,

blocks.
design.
on

became

and,

The term feedback ofThe Bell Laboratories

in

was applied
in the

to closed-loop system

engineering processes
everywhere

biological,

economical,
of

1920s. It describes regulation social and political systems influences

by Harold Black in engineering and information where

about the results

comes backand
feedback opinion,

the input.

The

fundamentals in

can be

expressed in
as

simple

terms.

Feedback
in

systems
school,

can and,

our

should

be

taught

a part

of a

sciencecourse
and

high

preceding and It is important

system

facilitating

the teaching of physics, chemistry, and social biology, control but also to demonstrate not only how automatic works,

sciences.
how

the

dynamics
word

limit the

speed
is often
on

and

accuracy

of control,

why

and

how

feedback

systems fail. employed in a much simplified sense, denoting merely of one's action.There is much more, however, and methods of feedback. In the modern to the quantitative world, feedback is meaning and missile control, in cars, and in TV sets, and is widely used to employed in spacecraft the processes studied in biology, and social sciences. We economics, explain and quantify the following material will provide a better perception of how the systems of this hope
feedback

The

the obtaining

of

information

the results

world

operate.

A1.2

Feedback

control,

elementary

treatment

Al.2.1 Feedback blockdiagram

For

the

purposes
an

of analysis
interconnection

and

design

of a

presented as blocks. value of 3, the

of smaller block

complicated system, the called parts of the systems

diagrams.
diagram

system

can

be

subsystems

or

Pictureslike Fig. Al.l

output

are

called

Here,

in

response

value

of 25

is produced. The

describes

to the Input this arithmetic:

3x10 = 30;

30-5 = 25.

10
Fig. A1.1
A

30
's I

output

25

block

diagram
input

with a

summer
case) is
summer

The factor
called the
In the
block's

by

which gain

the block's coefficient.

in Fig.

output

is

larger
of

than the
5 is

A0

in this

block diagram

Al.2,

the

output

fed back

to

the

input

349

350
forming

Appendix

a feedback

loop. The arithmetic

is the

following:
input

6-5=1;

1x5 = 5.

output

feedback

Fig. A1.2 Blockdiagram

An

of a

feedback

loop
device

inscription

in the

block (or

closeto

it)

often

gives the

name of a physical

represented

by the block.

Al.2.2
We

Feedback control
with examples. the rifle
error

start

a rifle is being aimed, an eye looks at the target Example 1. While through sights. In Fig. Al .3, the rifle points down and to the left of the target. The pointing the difference between the direction to the target and the rifle pointing direction.

is

Brain

command:

error to
\302\246

direction
the

Controller

i i j i \"\"

Arms Eye

pointing
Rifle

target

r
pointing

direction

Sights

Fig. A1.3 Using the

information sights,

Blockdiagram

describing

aiming
direction

of

a rifle

to

the

the eye registers brain as indicated direction the

the rifle
in

pointing

and

communicates
error

this
by

Fig.

A1.3.

The brain
aim.

(a) calculatesthe
also

subtracting

the

pointing

from arms'

issues appropriate ordersto

Example

the command, and muscles to correct the

(b) acting desert, the

process car's

as a

controller,
can be:

2. While
The eyes

\"drive
calculates

west.\"

block

operation.The

a four-wheel-drive car in a diagram in Fig. A1.4 shows the estimate the actual direction of the
steering

\"command\"

of the motion,

control system and the brain

the error

and gives ordersto

Brain

the

hands. driving

Command:
drive

error
i I

west

Controller

Hands

Steering
wheel

direction
Car

Eyes

Fig. A1.4

Block

diagram

describing
with

driving a

car
telescope
the

Example3. While pointing goodpicture of a planet, the flight

a small
computer

spacecraft

a hard-mounted

to take a
and sends

calculates

the direction to

planet

Appendix 1
this

351

as a command to the control shown in Fig. A1.5. The pointing angle system here can be, for example,a camera the telescope; the with a wider angle than the means can be the the The at summer steering jets rotating spacecraft. signal output is the difference between the command and the actual readings of the sensor, i.e., the error.
data

sensor

command: calculated
direction

pointing
Controller

to'

Jets

->

angle
Spacecraft

the planet

measured spacecraft direction

Fig. A1.5 Blockdiagram
describing

Angle sensor

pointing

a spacecraft

We may now generalize Closed-loop system to the control, called the plant. command:
what error

form

the feedback is also called the control system which shown in Fig. A1.6. The actuator drives the object of

the

output

output

Controller

Actuator

Plant

should be

measured
Fig.

Sensor
value

of the

output
control

A1.6

General

block diagram describing

of a

plant

If the error is 0, no action is taken. The controller's gain coefficient and aggressively is large. It senses even a small error to compensate for the error. orders the actuator In a typical control system, the actuator is powerful, but not as accurate as the sensor. The sensoris accurate, but not powerful. The feedback control integrates the best features of both the actuator and the sensor. It is widely employed in biological and engineering
systems.

We now

know

enough
Design

to start
a

designing control systems.

to maintain

Example 4.
industrial furnace.

system

the temperature of
in Fig.

1206\302\260 C

within

an

We use the
\021206\302\260C.\"

general

diagram

of feedback
an

control

The

actuator

is now
electrical

electrical

heater.

A1.6. The The plant is the

command here is:

furnace

with
is shown

payload. The Fig. A1.7.

sensoris an

thermometer.

The resulting

block diagram

the in

120ff

error

temperature

Fig. A1.7

Block diagram of temperature control

352

Appendix

Example

Now,
sensor

the

command

5. Design a system is 2.2 atm,

to maintain
the

a pressure
is a

of 2.2 atmospheres
the

in a

chamber.
and

actuator in Fig.

is a pressure gauge,as shown

pump,

plant

is the

chamber,

the

A1.8.

2.2

error.
atm

Controller

Pump

Chamber

pressure

Pressure gauge
Fig.

A1.8

Block diagram of pressure

control

Assume that the pressure gauge reading is 2.15 atm. This means that not performed perfectly, and the error is 0.05 atm.

the

command

is

Example 6. Design
amount

a block

diagram

of a

biologicalsystem
the

to

produce i.e., how

a certain

of a

specific tissue.
Fig.

The blockdiagram is manufactured and

A1.9

measured,
a

will do it. (What is inside is not considered here.)

blocks,

the tissue

Gene: make
certain

of a
tissue

specific

amount^

error

tissue

Controller

Tissue generator
amount

Tissue

gauge

Fig. A1.9 Blockdiagram When

when the

of tissue

manufacturing

control even

feedback

mechanism

there

is more than

enough of it.

This

to be manufactured fails, the tissue continues problem. may cause a serious health

Al.2.3

Links

of links. Feedback systems are composed An electronic thermometer, for example, produceselectrical to voltage proportional the temperature. This link speaks two languages: its input understands Fahrenheit, degrees is 0.01 V. At in volts. When the temperature is 1\302\260F, the output and its output speaks is 1V. this thermometer That 100\302\260 thermometer the is, F, particular output generates 0.01V Al. each as in 10. indicated degree Fig. per

temperature,

\"F

Thermometer,

0.01V

voltage,

per degree

Fig. A1.10
The

Thermometer

link

electronic

pressure

atmosphere

of pressure. In

other

gauge displayed in Fig. Al.ll produces IV output 1V/atm. transmission coefficientis words, its

for

each

Appendix

353 V

pressure,

atm

Pressure gauge,
1V/atm

voltage,

Fig. A1.11
Fig.

Pressure gauge link

making

A1.12

shows a

heater consumes chamber

each secondper each

connection of two links electrical powerfrom the input,

the

a composite
and

link.

An

electrical furnace

in watts,
temperature

produces

heat,
in

0.24 calories
the

watt. The heat raises by an amount depending on the size

of the

payload

of the

payload.
temperatun

electricalpowe?
In

Heater

heat, cal/sec
Loaded

watts

0.24(cal/sec)/W Fig. A1.12

furnace

Composite link

Can

we connect A1.13? speak

as
the

in

Fig.

links

a thermometer and a pressure for example, two arbitrary links: gauge, 13 is an unlucky number: No, this will not work, and not only because different languages and do not understand each other.

Thermometer
Fig. A1.13
At

atm

Pressure

gauge
Links

that

cannot

be connected

the

link joint,
electrical

the

language

must

be common
output

to
the

the

links.

connectan
Fig.A1.14.

thermometer

to the

of

links of

example, in Fig. A1.12, as shown

We

can, for

electrical

heat,

electrical
f> Furnace

power^
in

cat/sec
Heater

V
Thermometer

power
In

Total

watts

watts

Fig. A1.14

Equivalent

composite

link
the

the

When several links are correctly connected of these links' gain coefficients. product Why

in a

chain,

resulting

gain coefficient is

A1.3

control

cannot

be perfect
is

Al.3.1 Dynamic links

We

assumed

before correct

approximately
minutes

that thermometers measure the temperature A mercury thermometer has to be kept

in

This instantly. the mouth for

only

several

the readings to approach the mouth as shown in Fig. 15(a). temperature, thermometers settle faster, but still not instantly. The thermometer readings but also on what the temperature was seconds depend not only on the instant temperature, and minutes ago. Thus, the thermometer has memory.
for

Electronic

354
frame

Appendix

position
desired
98\302\260

100'

temperature
water

temperature

T
70\302\260

\302\246 time

delay
time

time

50\302\260 time

the moment of placing thermometer in the mouth (a)

the moment of moving the frame

M links

\\

the moment of turning the valve (c)

Fig. A1.15
Consider
initially

Dynamic

time

(b) pendulum
now

position

history;

histories: (a) time history (c) temperature

of thermometer
history

readings;

after

a delay

a pendulum
shown

at rest,
the

as

in

suspended from a frame, Fig. A1.16 by dashed lines.

r
i

vy
! i

Let us push
distance

frame

by some
the

distance, considering this

output of the not only on but also on the
link

1 I

the input

of

link.

The

is the
i

!/

the frame pendulum position. It depends at the current moment, previous position frame position and when the position changed. The plot for the pendulum after the frame was pushed is position shown in Fig. A1.15(b). The output on what depends happened in the past. The pendulum has memory. link with memory is the shower. Another The input is is the shower water the hot water valve position, the output time histories are shown The input and output temperature. is it takes in Fig. The the time A1.15(c). output delayedby the

*L

L..

J...

Fig. A1.16

Pendulum

water

to flow

through

the

pipe. memory
the

Devices
instantly

by

or processes with a certain amount,

are called in the

change

dynamic. When the output is delayed, the

input output

is changed can grow

gradually, and can be oscillatory. Certainly, a feedback system

Al.3.2 After
takes

composed

of dynamic

links itself becomes dynamic.

Control a step
some

accuracy

limitations

command (s) is issued, it

time
command

for the output of a dynamic control system to change, as seenin Fig. A1.17, curve (a). The error time decreases with but does not

completely vanish.
A larger

more controller

exemplified
However,

control, with aggressive gain, reduces the error as in Fig. A1.17, curve (b).
bigger

with

controller
the

gain,

the

Fig.

problem arises of
action

stopping

actuator
zero.

immediately

after the

error is reducedto

Control system's output time history Since the links in the feedback
A1.17

loop

Appendix 1

355 zero comesback to some time after the

are dynamic,
the

the

information

from the
and

sensor that
actuator

actuator

with some

delay,

the

the error is already action proceeds for

an error of the opposite it should be terminated. Then, sign will appear at the The then and the oscillates as seen in the Fig. A1.17, itself, process output. repeats output curve If the controller is even the oscillation increases and (b). gain larger, amplitude will more like with further increase of the controller the look A1.17(c); Fig. gain, output oscillation becomes periodical and with large amplitude like that in Fig. A1.18. A simple is by trying to regulate the shower to explore this process experimentally way temperature

moment

while being
The

very

impatient.
total

larger the
the

be the controller will be sluggish

gain

major

attention

should

must dynamic links in the feedback loop, the smaller to remain stable, and the less accurate and the more while a feedback control system is being control. Thus, designed, be paid to reduction of delays in the loop.
delay

of all

for

the system

A1.4 More about feedback

Al.4.1

Self-oscillation
history in

The
is

time

of an

shown drawn

be

pendulum

It Fig. A1.18(a). by a pen bound to on Fig. A 1.16 while

oscillation can
the

frequency=2.

osc/sec,

i.e. 2 Hz
time

\\r\\
(a) 180\302\260 360\302\260

the

of paper is being dragged in to perpendicular oscillation. This curve is called a

sheet direction

v^

sec

sinusoid.
oscillations
the

The
per
A

number

of zero

second is called
frequency oscillation single

phase

difference; signals

are

in

phase

oscillation

Hertz (Hz). a cycle.

Oscillation
oscillation

in is

(b)

sec i

The cycle is
shifted
remains
90\302\260

360\302\260 long.

time

delay

0.25 sec;

phase

delay

of 90\302\260 1 sec

(b) is in phase with Notice that if (a).

by 360\302\260,the

(c) opposite
(d)
in

oscillation
sign,

in phase.

Oscillation (c) is
compared

or having

phase

delay

of 180\302\260

delayed

with
1 sec

oscillation (a).
delayed

Oscillation(d) is
180\302\260

by

which the

is

to changing the oscillation.

equivalent
Rigorously

sign

of

Fig. A1.18
is can some

Timehistoriesof motion
not exactly sinusoidal, and the be maintained constant if the mechanism

speaking,

oscillation
friction-caused the

gradually
losses

of the pendulum oscillation dies. The oscillation amplitude of energy

are compensated by

injecting

energy

in

system
The

by some
operation

actuator.

in Fig. A1.19 can be explained with the help of the actuator is muscles. The kid the kid's diagram jerks his body to in the the The extra tension to sustain oscillation. sensors he uses are in his rope, produce for his movements vestibular apparatus. He detects the proper zero timing by feeling

of a

swing

shown

block

in Fig.

1.20.

The

356

Appendix

velocity
signal

in the

in the rightmost feedback

and

leftmost
must

system

be

positions. in phase

To
with

sustain

the

self-oscillation,

the return
be

the

swing

motion and

must

strong

enough.

signal

to jerk

motion

[->

Brain

Muscles
Motion sensor

Swing

Fig. A1.20 Blockdiagram Fig. A1.19

Similar
Swing

for swing

operation

feedback

dynamos

generating

systems are employed to electricity at power stations.

generateradio

and

TV signals

and

in

the

Al.4.2

Loop
and

frequency

response

Links

can be tested with a set of sinusoidal inputs with different systems is This method for in audio used, frequencies. example, testing recording systems like that in Fig. A1.21. This system illustrated contains a CD player, a power amplifier, and The input to output coefficient speakers. gain expressed in decibels (dB) is.the system are exemplified in Fig. A1.22 for a good quality gain. The gain frequency responses with nearly equal gain at all frequencies from the lower frequencies of 25 Hz to the system of 18,000 Hz, and for a portable boombox where the lower and higher higher frequencies thus making the sound different from the original. frequencies are not well reproduced,
entire

good system

CD

CD
player

disk

Amplifier
fmquency

FSg. A1.21

CDplayer

block

diagram

Fig.

A1.22

Frequency

of a

CDplayer

responses

resonate

gain frequency response is not flat (as would be desired) becausethe speakers at many frequencies with various Better and more expensive speakers amplitudes. (bigger,with better magnets, with larger and firmer enclosures, with some special filling
The inside

the enclosures)
Audio

have
are

wider

and

flatter

gain responses.
by

systems ears

typically
phase swing.

characterized
insensitive

only

the

sound

amplitude responses
sound.

since our

are

to a

large extent
shift

to

the phase
as

of

the

For

feedback

systems* however, the the analysis of the from

in the

loop is

important

well

- as we already know

Appendix

357

Al.4.3
Self-oscillation

Control
in

system design using frequency responses

control

A control system must disastrous. be at To Stable, any frequency. prevent self-oscillation, are designed such that at frequencies where the return feedback control systems signal is is its not such that and at those w here the return oscillation, big, phase frequencies supports is in a that the return is small. signal phase signal supports oscillation, sufficiently control system design, the gain and the phase shift frequency about During responses the feedback loop are first calculated with computers and then measured experimentally in Fig. A1.23. and displayed with a signal analyzer as is shown

systems
must

is

potentially

i.e., self-oscillation

not

occur

vloop gain

loop phase

delay
frequency

Controller \342\200\224>

->

Actuator

->

Plant

Sensor
Signal

Analyzer

Fig.

A1.23

Measuring

loop transmission frequency responses

Al.4.4
We

Some algebra
know

already

qualitatively
find

Using some algebrawe will

by

is small. that when the controller gain is large, the error how small the error is, and how many times it is reduced

the

feedback.
in

As mentioned, of the gain product

series

link connection,
the

the

equivalent

gain
the

coefficient
feedback

is

the

coefficients of all
the CAP

elementary

links. Then,

system

on

Fig. A1.24 implements output = error X

error

following

equations:
(Al.l)

= command

-fbs

(A1.2)

Jbs = errorx CAPS

command

(A1.3)

error

Controller
(fbs)

Actuator

Plant

output

fed back signal

Sensor

Fig. A1.24
By substituting

Feedbackcontrol

system

(A1.3)
command

into

(A1.2)
X

we get
CAPS,

error =
wherefrom

- error

358

Appendix 1

error =

commandl{\\

+ CAPS).
that

The expression1 + CAPS smaller the error. And, we

large.

This expression shows

the

error

is,

numerically,

is A + CAPS) times the feedback

that

smaller

than

the command.
feedback,
arbitrarily

The larger the

feedback

the

already

have concluded
error

the

cannot be
that

After

substituting

this expression for the

-1

into (Al.l),

we

find

output = command
When

CAPS
(A1.4)

S 1+ CAPS
more

the product

CAPS is large, much

than

1, then 1

in

the

denominator

can be

neglected, and
output

= command

\342\200\224.

(A1.5)

S = -2, CA = 20, and P = 1, or i.e., very 0.488,0.4988,0.49988, correspondingly

For example, if

10, close

or 100, to 0.5

the output from from (A1.5).

(A1.4)

is

Al.4.5
The

Disturbance rejection
inaccuracy at

actuator's

and the

environmental

disturbances The
with

D shown value
(A1.4)

add some unwanted

components

components

to
output

the system's
command:

the plant's output. can be calculated

in Fig. A1.25 of these unwanted

when

using

the

disturbance as the
disturbances

at the

output

= D

1+
Without

CAPS output
A would

at the system's the effect of disturbances feedback, the the reduces of disturbances feedback Therefore, output effect used to reduce the effects of mechanical feedback can be therefore the

be

DP.

+ CAPS) vibrations

times. The on some

precision

instruments

and

machinery.

Fig. A1.25 For example, floor

vibrations

Disturbancesat the

plant

input

caused motors, by passing cars, by the air-conditioner on a desk. By mounted disturb around, precision optical systems walking by people the amplitude of the sensors and piezoelectric motors to move the desktop, position using times. can be reduced vibrations many optics'

and

Appendix

359

Al.4.6
In

Conclusion

short introduction to feedback systems we considered single-loop control with a actuator and a single sensor. Sometimes, are employed. While several sensors our hands, for example, we use position and stress sensors in the muscles, tactile operating and sensors in the skin, and the eyes. In complex systems, many coexist temperature loops to regulate various heartbeat and amount of parameters: frequency strength, enzymes in the and many others. It would be difficult to count all feedback stomach, body temperature, TV in a set there are of them. hundreds loops
this

single

A1.5

New

words
list

The following
the authors to

was composed those

when who

the

material

teach feedbackcontrol
for

to his
will

might be
control

useful

readers

of this Appendix was used by one of then eleven-year-old daughter Helen. The list a similar task of explaining feedback attempt

to their children.
like a motor, power amplifier, control, feedback control - using actions muscle data

actuator - a device
closed-loop
actuator

from

a sensor to

correct

- a source of error in the system motion when forces are applied dynamics description of physical system from the output to the input feedback- return of signal or of information in Hertz (Hz) - a number of oscillation periods per second frequency - a plot of gain or phase dependence on frequency frequencyresponse - a number the signal is amplified gain coefficient by which - without in phase phase delay of one variable dependence on another link representation - a useful or or heated paid for load to be moved payload disturbance
in phase phase shift a change - an object to be controlled plant

oscillation supporting positivefeedback- feedback - expressed in numbers quantitative sensor - a measuring device oscillation sinusoid - a curve describing periodic whose summer - a device output equals the sum of its inputs - a numerical of a system (such as temperature variable description of a feature distance)

or

360

Appendix 2

Appendix

2 Frequency
have

responses

A2.1 Frequency responses

Linear output

same
output

the property that when they are driven by a sinusoidal signal, the - and, in fact, - is also sinusoidalwith the variable of the any system to the input of a link, the frequency. Thus, when U\\(t) = ?/m]Sin (Ot is applied signal = of the link is + and are the uz(t) U^smitot <p), where Umi signal U^i signal
systems variable

amplitudes, and output link,

@ is the signal frequency the input

in

rad/sec, LW^mi gain

and of the

<p

is the

phase

shift between the

and

signals. The ratio 20 logio(LW?Ani)is calledthe

is called

the gain
in

coefficient

of

the

link

dB.

1. If a sinusoidal signal with unity amplitude and the output is the input, Example sinusoidal signal is delayedin phase with respect to the input by n/3 (i.e., by 60\302\260), and the output is then the shift or is -rc/3, 2, -60\302\260, the signal amplitude phase gain coefficient is 2, and the gain is approximately 6dB.
link: a Fig. A2.1shows how to measure the phase shift arid the gain of an electrical of signal generator is connectedto the link's input, the voltmeters read the amplitudes the input and the output, and the phase difference between the signals can be seen with a two-beam or another difference meter. phase oscilloscope

Signal generator

fvoltmeterW

Fig.

A2.1

Measurement of a
and

link's

gain both

and

phase

shift
the

The
frequency.

gain

coefficient

the phase
functions

shift

The

plots

of these

are

called

functions of are, generally, gain and phase shift frequency

responses. Fig.

The frequency A2.2 depicts a truss

axis is commonly
structure

logarithmic.

(which
noisy

can be

a modelof
equipment

a stellar

interferometer

1 is placed on platform 2 is the place where while motors, reaction wheels, tape recorders) (pumps, platform some sensitive It needs to be measuredto what extent the vibrations optics operates. from the upper platform propagate through the truss structure to the second platform of the is defined as the ratio which is supposed to be quiet. The transfer function 2 to the force at a on platform measured acceleration of a specified point applied in the to measurements 1. The are performed frequency domain, specific point platform of the measurements, the force is applied and the signals are sinusoidal. For the purpose and a of an that down a Inside the shaker there is moves shaker. up electromagnet by the motion F case called a mass. This force reacting body proof generates appliedby on a of the shaker to the platform. An accelerometer (a small proof mass placed a in of a or of on the field a coil a core piezoelement, magnetic suspended spring an to acceleration a. electrical the permanent magnet) produces signal proportional

or something

else). Somerelatively

(vibrating)

Appendix

361

and a signal generator, a signal analyzeris used that three devices together with a display and a computer that sends of appropriate amplitude and frequency to the input of the signals power amplifier the shaker. driving

Instead

of

two

voltmeters

incorporates

these

Shaker

Accelerometer

XX
2

xxxx

Fig.A2.2
in

Measurements

of a

link's

gain

and

phase

with a signal

analyzer

to a body with mass M as shown of the resulting acceleration, velocity, and position A2.3(a), and the calculation is reflected in the three-link block diagram shown in Fig. A2.3(b). The input to the first link is the force, and the link's output is the acceleration application

Example 2. The

of force

F = 5sincof

Fig.

a =
This

A/MMsin

(at.

link's gain coefficient plotted in Fig. A2.3(c).

is \\a/F\\

1/M,

and the

phase

shift

is 0.

The gain
output

in

dB

is

The second link

v=

is an

integrator:

its

input

is the

acceleration

and its

is the

velocity
cof. \\adt= [5/(Mco)]cos

dB
gain of

second

or

third

link link gain

X.
(a)

\\
\\

v
\\

composite

a
MM

20logA/M) I

\\

first

link's gain

s
(b)

.01 o

.1 \\\\

10

100

\\\\
(c)

f,

log. scale

Fig. A2.3

(a) Forceacting

on

a rigid
and

the body's position,

that relates body, (b) block diagram (c) the links' frequency responses

the force to

The second link'sgain

The

coefficient

is Ma\\
integrator:

position

the

and its output is the to form a single composite link with jvdt. All three links can be integrated gain coefficient l/(Mco2)and the phase shift -180\302\260. Since the second and the third links' gain coefficients are inversely to proportional third

link is

also

an

= 1/co,and the phase is its input is the velocity

-90\302\260.

x =

362
the

Appendix 2
frequency,

the gain
-12

of these
slope

links

decreases

with
link

frequency
gain

with a

constant

slope

of

-20 dB
equivalently,

per decade. The

dB/oct.

of the

composite

is therefore

-40dB/dec,

or,

A2.2
The

Complex
two

transfer
the

function
gain

scalar

variables,

coefficient transfer

and

the phase

shift,

can

be

seen as

the

magnitude

and the

phase of a complex
that

function.

1. Saying Example gain coefficient is 5, and

Example

a transfer

function

is 5exp(Jn/6), or 5Z3O0,

means

that

the

the

phase

shift is

30\302\260.

2. In

transfer

function

Section A2.1's example of a mass driven by a force, the it can be written from force to position is -l/(Mco2). Notice that

total as

A2.3

Laplace
Laplace

transform

and the

s-plane
Table

The

transform

A2.1

Laplace transforms

F(s)
or

1
Ms

8@ K0
t

renders a unique a function of time

correspondence fit)

between

Us1

and

a function
variable

F(s)

Us3

?I2
a)\021

of
s =

Laplace
a+j(o.

complex

(s +
(s +

is linear The transform and exists for all practical stable functions fit). Some of the transforms are shown in Table A2.1. delta-function Here, 8(f) is the narrow pulse whose area is 1), (infinitely and l(t) is the step-function.

a)'2

teT

^
+

a/[s(s + a)]

1 -l^\"

a/[?E +
a2/[s(s

a)]

(at-l
sin at

e^ya

+ aJ]

1 -c\"\"'(l

+at)

a/is2 + a1)

Example 1. For the

(s+a)~\\

Laplace fit)

transform

s/^+a2) a

cosat c
alll

the

function

= e<a.

In

the

region of small
for
transform

is+bf+a2

Hi

times: (s + (s +

fit)

*=l-at;

a)'1, fit) a)'3,

for transform
The

**t-af fit) * ^lland

m\342\200\224ht f*r\\c* sit \342\202\254 COS dl

is + bJ

+a2

initial-value

final-value

theorems

are the following:

]im sF(s) s\342\200\224\302\273\342\200\242\342\200\242

f(.0)=
and

Appendix
When

2
can

363
be found
by,

F(s)

is rational, partial

F(s) as a sum of to the fractions.

the related function fit) fractions, and then, summing

first,

presenting

the time-functions

that correspond

of F(s) in the 5-plane and the related functions of Fig. A2.4 shows various poles time. As seen in Table A2.1, real poles make exponential signals; purely imaginary As long poles make sinusoidal signals;complexpolesmake oscillatory time-responses. as the pole is in the left half-plane, 0 < 0 and the envelope of the signal is exponentially
narrowing

with

time.

Fig. A2.4

Poles in

the

s-plane

and related time

exponents

A2.4
The

Laplace transfer function

transfer
of its

Laplace
that

function

is

the

ratio

of the

Laplace

transform

of

a link's

output to

input.
is an and the ratio delta-function, delta-function Laplace transform 1/s is the Laplace transfer junction of an transform Laplace by s is analogous to
to

Example 1. Since the step-function of the step-function Laplace transform to Table A2.1 is 1/5, evidently, according
integrator.
differentiating

integral of the
the

Conversely,
the

multiplying

the corresponding
Laplace

time-function.
the

Since
connected

transform

in parallel

equals to
convolution
links

sum

function of several is linear, the transfer of the Laplace transforms of the links.

links

chain

According to the connection of

links.

(Borel) the

theorem,

the Laplace transfer

Laplace

function

of

is

product

of

the

transfer

functions

of

the

individual

Example
cascaded

2. The

step-function functions

1@

links

with transfer
step-function's

is applied + 1) 5/E

to the input of a link composed of two and (s + l.4)/(s+ 2). Find the output is Us,
the

time-function.

Since the
output

Laplace

transform

Laplace

transform

of the

is

4)

55 +
s3

7
+25

E+1X5 + 2M

+3s2

364
The

Appendix

partial fraction
-2 5+1
\302\246

expansion of the
+
-

Laplace

transform

of the

output

-1.5

35 S

S+2
with

can be found
from Table

the MATLAB

The time-function

of

the

output

function residue, as is illustrated can be obtained by summing

to the

in Section

7.2.1.

the

time-functions

A2.1 that

correspond

partial fractions:

-2c\"' -1.5e~2'+ 3.5x1@The

output

time-function

can be plotted

using

MATLAB

either

with

num =

den = [13
impulse(num,

[5 7] ;
2

0];

den)

or

with

num

den
With

step(num,
the transform

=[132];
impulse of the

[5

7];
den)

command,
output

the

numerator

and

the denominator
the

of

the

Laplace

are the

used

transform is
transfer

1); with

step

(as the response to command, the numerator

6-function and

whose

Laplace

the

denominator

of

the

function

are used.
and

Laplace transforms be directly found with

When function,

inverse

MATLAB

Laplace commands

the input signal is an exponent the output signal is zero.

the

transforms (i.e., finding ^(f) and invlaplace. laplace s0 is a zero Re(e~lS\302\260t) and
is

from

F(s)) can
transfer

of the

For
transfer
large

input

signal
is infinite,

Re(e~s>')

where

sp

a pole

of

the

transfer

function,
infinitely

the

function

i.e., the signal

is infinitely

amplified

and becomes

at the

When a poleof a transfer function is in the right half-plane of s, the output signal in is is an exponentially growing signal. Such a system response to 8-function input in the input noise. considered unstable since there always exist 5-function components
In

output.

practical

because

of the

systems, power

the

output

limitation

in be

grows exponentially active devices, the

until output

it

becomes
signal

becomes

so large that, limited, is stable,

there

and the system no

might

longercan
roots

viewed

To determine whether
calculate

a system

as linear. with a given

rational

transfer

function
whether

one
are

the

of

the

denominator can

polynomial

and check
and

roots with positive

real parts.This

be done with

MATLAB

many

other

popular
roots actually

software packages.
when
criterion indicates the presence of right-sided polynomial is simpler than these certain inequalities hold; verifying inequalities the roots. The criterion is not described here since software packages finding in no time. the roots

The Routh-Hurwitz

calculate
This

To calculate the results in a complex

response

to sinusoidal

inputs, s

should

be

replaced

by jos.

transfer

function.

Appendix

365

3. If the input signal is Re[exp(/coo)], and at this coo the Laplace transfer of the link will be ARe[exp(/coo then the output signal +;'<p)]. In other A and times the is shifted the is words, (advanced) signal amplified phase by <p radians.
Example
function

is AZip,

Example
function

4. The

transfer

function

is 100/(/a>
output 45\302\260.

+ 5).

At

frequency

14.1Z-450, i.e., the equals the input, and the output is delayed by
A2.5
The important \342\200\242

amplitude

is 14.1

@ = 5 rad/sec, times larger than that

the

of

Poles
locations aspects:

and
of the

zeros

of transfer

functions
poles
and

transfer function's

zeros

manifest

themselves

in two

They

show

which
the

exponents equal to
with

the

exponents
and

system stability,
\342\200\242

(exponential signals are amplified infinitely signals with the and which are not transmitted at all (exponential signals In Chapter 4, the former issue is related to equal to the zeros). the second one, to nonminimum shift. phase poles),

They

affect

the transmission

of
shown

purely

sinusoidal

test-signals,

i.e., the

frequency

responses.

Example

1. In the
rational

example
function

in

{/(Ms1). This is a
replaces j(O.

with

function Fig. A2.3, the Laplace transfer a double pole at the origin. It is seen that

is
s

Example
gain

frequency

function 2. Consider the transfer L(s) = 50/(s + 5).The is the the of function plot response
= 20

pole

is s

= -5.

The

20

loglL(/(\302\273)l

log[50/0'0)
shown

+ 5)].

in Fig. A2.5(a). It is evident that this vector is lowest in where the transfer is largest. At zero therefore function magnitude frequencies is 20dB the and the is 0. When the the increases, frequency, gain phase frequency vector becomes longer and eventually the gain coefficient decreases in proportion to the the frequency doubles, i.e., increases by an octave, the gain frequency. That is, when coefficient is halved, i.e., decreaes 6dB. the gain decreases with the Therefore, by constant of -6 dB/oct. slope j(O +

The vector

5 is

at lower

dB
jot-axis

20

.co, log. scale

(b) Fig. A2.5Gain

frequency

to the pole

-5

response
on

the

(b) corresponding (a) s-plane

366
When co changes
rational

Appendix

from 0 to <\302\273, the

transform
their

phase and

Laplace
coefficients.
conjugate
commonly

functions
poles function

Therefore,
The
as
written

changes from zero to -n/2. for physical systems always have zeros are either real or come in for complex
(ao2 =

only

real

complex-

pairs.

transfer

multipliers

poles (or zeros) are

[5-(o0
Here,

+;co0)] [s-@O-j<oj]
negative
and

= s1-2aos+

sl +

2?co0s + oo02.
coefficient

0O is

-o0 /co0represents the

function

damping

for the

pole.

Example 3. The
L(s) =
\302\246

transfer

[s-(ao-j(oo)][(s-(ac

has two

where \342\200\242s-plane

complex-conjugate poles, 0O \302\261 jcoo. is and the two small; 0O negative

of
the

Fig.

A2.6(a)

shows the

the

poles

on
in

the
the

vectors

represent

multipliers

The frequency response is obtained by substituting j@ for s when co approaches co0, the first multiplier becomes -a0, the becomes becomeslarge.With a further increase of the denominator 2a0co0, and IL(;co)l the denominator of the function decreases. frequency gets bigger and the modulus the shows for function. the A2.6(b) Fig. gain frequency response

denominator
in

function.

the

function.

Then,

/co-axis

s-plane

gain, dB

cq log. scale

(a)

(b)
Complex

Fig.A2.6

(a)

poles and

(b) the relatedfrequency

response

is the peak The smaller the damping coefficient ? (and therefore |cro|) is, the higher on the gain-frequency response. At higher frequencies co \302\273 decreases as the co0, IL(/'co)l the and with constant -12 dB/oct. of the decreases square frequency, gain slope

A2.6 Pole-zerocancellation, dominant poles

Next,

and

zeros

a pole-zero pair with little distance between the pole and the zero, as Since the vectors corresponding to the pole and to the zero are Fig. other affect the frequency the each and same, they compensate nearly insignificantly a to transfer function will such pair any certainly change the order of response. Adding the system but will have negligible effect on the frequency And, since the response. the a will be no characterizes of linear there link, response performance fully frequency in these links' performance in any application. substantial difference
consider
in

shown

A2.7.

Appendix

2
zero
from

367

For
can be
the

example, by

a cluster one

replaced

of two poles and one pole. If the cluster is far

interest

frequency

range of

on

replacement is adequateeven when But if the cluster is very very tight. frequencies of interest, then the distance
singularities

the yco-axis, the cluster is

close

the
not

yco-axis s-plane zero

to

the

between
replacement

the

must

be very

small for

the

to be

adequate. In many
function

0
Fig.A2.7
prominent Pole-zero

systems,

mutually

compensate

or

transfer

within

several and zeros poles have small effect on the the frequency range of
poles

pair

interest,

and only

one or a few

and

zeros have

effect

on the

response. Suchpolesand zeros Much more about frequency

in

frequency

are called responses'

dominant.
relation

to

the

poles

and zeros

is explained

Chapter

6.

A2.7

Time-responses
calculation solution the
should

In

the

exponents of the the poles are to

time

of time-responses, to a system jot-axis,

not

the poles

of the

transfer

function

characterize
The

the
closer

the
have

loop responses
history

of certain linear differential more oscillatory the solution poles too close to the jot-axis
from

equations.

is. Therefore, in order

the closedoutput

that the

not differ

substantially

the command.

A2.8

Problems
system

1 Can the

be linear

if

the

input

signal is
(c)

(a) 3sinEf+

2.72); (e)2.72sinB.72f+

34);(b) 3sinC4t+34);
(f) 3sinC40f-

5sinEf-

5);

3sinC41 + 5) and the output 5); (d) -13sinC4f + 5); (g) 5teinC4f- 5).

is:

2
3

What

is the phasor for the function + 2) (c) 3sin(cof 12); (b) -2sin(cof

(express + 12);

the phase in radians): (d) -5cos(cof + 2); (e)

(a) 22sin( cof +

+

-2.72cos(cof 2).

What is the

(a) 22sin(tof (b) 12sin(tof

phasor of the sum: + 12) - 12sin(tof+ 12); - 1Osin(cof+ 12); +12)

(cLZ30\302\260-40Z60\302\260;

(dLZ30\302\260 + 40Z60\302\260; (eLZ60\302\260-40Z30\302\260;

(f)
4

4Z60\302\260

+ 40Z30\302\260-20ZO\302\260. and phasor is 4Z 49\302\260

-30\302\260; (e)

What

is the

transfer

function
-59\302\260; (c)

if the

input signal
229\302\260; (d)

the

output is:

(a) 4Z 49\302\260; (b)

5

40Z

40Z

1000Z
(a) the

2.72Z

-2.72\302\260.

Find
5)(s+

the originals of the Laplace transforms: Table A2.1, and using 10)] (Do it using
the

1/s; (b) s; (c) 2/(s MATLAB function

+ 3); (d) 4/[(s+

invlaplace.)
with the
(f)

Find

Laplace

transforms
equal

value of the step

to

of the signals: (a) 5-function, 8, (c) 5f2, (d) 1Ofe\022t,

(b) (e)

step-function

13A

e\024'),

6sin2f,

368

Appendix 2

--4' (g) 4e\"cos5f,(h)

laplace.)

-4cos2f

(Use

both the

Table A2.1 and the (a)

MATLAB

function

Find transfer
(c)

function f{tj

of

the

double

integral of
signal

(Use

Table

linear operators: A2.1.)

output

df(t)/clt,

(b)

integral

of

f(f),

8 The

(a) (s2+ 2s + 4)/Bs3 + 4s2 + 30); + 12s2 + 60); (b) (s2+ 3s + 24)/Bs3 + 12s2 + 80); (c) (s2+ 4s + 42)/Bs3 + 2s2 + 90); (d) (s2+ 40s+ 46)/Bs3 + 22s2 + 120); (e) (s2+ 50s+ 40)/Bs3 + 20s2 + 300); (f) (s2 + 60s + 100)/Bs3
Find the
link's

input

is the

5-function, the

signal

Laplace

transform

is

transfer

function.
expressions + 43)(s

Which of the following (a) B0s2 + 30s + 40)/T(s

(b)(s2+ 30s+ 4)/Bs - 2s2 + 30); (c)-A0s2+ 10s +40)/Bs4 - 2s3 + 3s2+ 80); (d)(s4+ 5s3+ s2+ 20s+ 5)/(s3 + 23s2 + 200s + 300); + 2000)]; (e) -60(s + 3)(s - 16)/[(s + 33)(s + 75)(s + 200)(s - 22)/[(s + 65)(s + 150)]; + 40)(s (f) 10(s + 2)(s (g) -20(s + 2)(s+ 26)/[(s + 43)(s + 85)(s + 250)(s + 2500)].
MATLAB command root to calculate the poles and + s3 + 5s2 + 36); (a) B0s2 + 30s + 40)/Bs4 (b) (s2+ 30s + 4)/{s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 36); (c) A0s2 + 10s + 40)/Bs4 + 2s3+ s2+ 3); (d)(s2+ 20s + 5)/(s4 + 5s3 + s2 + 3); + 20)/(s4 + 2.72s3 + 7s2 + 2.72); + 27.2s (e) B.72s2 + 33). (f) (s2 + 10s + 8)/(s4 + 12s3+ 12s2 zeros

can be transfer functions + 85)(s + 250)(s + 2500)];

of stable

systems:

10 Usethe

of the

function:

11

Use the

MATLAB

command

poly

to convert the

following

functions

to ratios

of

polynomials:

(a) 50(s+
(b) -60(s

+ 1200)]; 6)(s + 12)/[(s + 50)(s + 85)(s + 110)(s + 2300)]; + 210)(s + 7)(s + 15)/[(s + 53)(s + 95)(s + 50)(s + 65)(s +150)]; (c) 10(s + 8)(s + 62)/[(s (d) -20(s + 9)(s+ 66)/[(s + 63)(s + 95)(s + 240)(s + 2700)]; + 1200)]. + 7)(s + 10)/[(s + 70)(s + 130)(s (e)

2.72(s

12

s by Write the frequency response function by replacing + + s3+ s2 + + 30s 3); (a) B0s2 40)/Bs4 (b) (s2 + 30s + 4)/(s4 + 2s3 + 2s2+ 3); (c) A Os2 + 10s + 40)/Bs4 + 2s3 + s2+ 3); (d)(s2+ 20s + 5)/(s* + 5s3 + s2 + 3); + 20)/(s4 + 2.72s3 + 7s2 + 2.72); + 27.2s (e) B.72s2 + 130). (s2 + 10s + 8)/(s4 + 12s3+ 12s2 (f) Three links
with

jca

for:

13

transfer

functions,

+ 85)(s + 250)], -20(s + 2)(s + 26)/I(s (s2 + 30s + 4)/(s3 + 2s2 + 30), and

respectively,

+ 2s3+ 30s2+ 1000) A0s2 + 10s + 40)/(s4 are connected (a) in series (cascaded), (b)
second
in

in

parallel,

(c) with

the

first

and

the
in

parallel

and

the third

in

cascade,

(d) with

the

first

and

the

second

Appendix

2 link. Find

369

series and with the third in parallel to of the resulting composite links.
14

this

composite

the

transfer

functions

Use

MATLAB to

plot

the

frequency

response

for the

first-,

second-,

and

third-order

functions:

10);

(bI00/(s+10J;
Describe

(cI000/(s+10K.
the

correlation

between

the slope of the gain-frequency response and

for response and the step time-response

the

phase

shift.
MATLAB

15

Use
(aI0/(s

to

plot

the frequency
functions:

the

first- and

()();

second-order + 10);
+

(cI00/(s2 4s+100);
(dI00/(^ (f)
of

+ 2s+100); (e) 100/(s2

s+);
shapes

Describe the correlation betweenthe

the

IOO/^

+ s+IOO).

of the

frequency responses and

and

those

step-responses.
MATLAB

16

Use

to

convert
for

the

function to a

ratio

of

polynomials

plot the

frequency response + (a) 50(s + 3)(s + 12)/[(s (b) 60(s + 3)(s+ 16)/[(s +

the

function: + 55)(s + 30)(s

(c) 10(s+
(d)

-20(s

(e) (f)
What

2)(s + 22)/[(s + 40)(s + 65)(s + + 2500)]; + 250)(s + 2)(s + 26)/[(s + 43)(s + + 100)(s + 1000)]; + 10)(s 2.72(s + 7)(s + + 44)/[(s + 55)(s + 66)(s + 77)(s + 8800)]. -25(s + is the value of the function at dc (i.e., when s = 0)? What

33)(s + 75)(s

100)(s + 1000)]; + 200)(s+ 2000)];

2)(s
into

20)/[(s

85)(s

150)];

does

this

function

degenerate

at very

high frequencies?
responses of:

17 Comparethe
(a)(s

frequency

(b) (s + 2)/(s+

+ 2)/(s+10)
10J 2)/(s

and
and (s + 2)/[(s + 9)(s +11]; and (s + 2)/[(s+ 7)(s+ 14)];

(c)(s
Draw

(d) B.4/

+ 2s3+ 8s2+ 3). + 25s + 20)/(s4 a step command

responses

+ 10J

a conclusion. for

18

Plot time-responses to Draw a conclusion.

Plot

the

functions

in

the

previous

example.

19

and

zeros: (a) (s +

compare

frequency

of

the

functions

with complex

poles and

+ 5.1)]; + 10)(s + 10) and (s + 2)(s + 5)/[(s 2)/(s (b) (s + 2)/(s + 10J and (s + 2)/[(s + 9)(s +11)]; + 10J and (s + 2)/[(s + 7)(s+14)]; (c)(s + 2)/(s (d) Bs2 + 22s + 20)/(s4 + 2.5s3 + 7.5s2 + 2.5).
Draw

a conclusion.

20

Plot the frequency responses (on the

functions:

same

plot,

using

hold

on feature) of the

370

Appendix

Over what
(a) 10
proportionally

(d)(s+10)/(s+1000).
frequency function to the
high

range

do the

functions

approximate

the differentiator response:

s?

21 Make a transfer
at (b) 10 at frequency;

to implement
rolling

the

following

frequency

lower frequencies,
frequency;
frequencies,

down

at

higher

frequencies
proportionally

inversely
to the

rolling

up at

low

frequencies

(c) 10 at
(d) 100

low

frequencies,

at

(e) 10 at frequencies,
frequencies;

10 frequencies, medium frequencies,

low rolling

down

100 at high frequencies; at high frequencies; rolling up proportionally inversely proportionally

rolling

to

the

frequency

to the frequency

at lower at higher

(f) resonance

peak response,
rolling

up

proportionally

frequencies,
frequencies;

down

inversely

proportionally

to the frequency at lower to the frequency at higher

resonance and rolling down peak response, flat at low frequencies inversely proportionally to the square of the frequency at higher frequencies; (h) resonance peak response, flat at high frequencies and rolling up proportionally to the square of the frequency at higher frequencies; notch of three different kinds, with different behavior at lower and (i) responses
(g)
higher

frequencies. functions

22

Which of the

(a) (s + 2)(s+ (b) (s + 2)(s

following

22)/[(s
22)/[(s

+ 40)(s
+ 40)(s

(c) (s +

2)(s

+ 22)/[(s

(d) (s + 2)(s +

+ 40)(s (e) (s + 2)(s + 22)/[(s (f) (s + 2)(s + 22)(s+ 150)/[(s + (g) -is + 2)<s+ 22)/[(s

22)/[(s + 40)(s + 65)(s+

+ 40)(s -

are positive real? + 65)(s + 150)]; + 65)(s + 150)];

65)(s
+

150)]; 150)(s

+ 250)];

+ 65)]; + 40)(s + + 65)(s + 40)(s

150)]; 150)].

Appendix

371

Appendix

Causal

real functions
When

systems,

passive systems, and

positive

a pole, the transfer function is \302\253>. A transfer function pole in the right means that the to a finite an exponentially is half-plane response input signal rising This cannot be of a a without output signal. property passive system, i.e., a system of energy. Therefore, passive systems sources must have no transfer function in poles the right half-plane of s. Causalsystemsare those systems whose output value at any 7, does not depend on the input signal at t > t\\. All stable systems are causal. Positive realness of a function Q(s) means that for all s in the right half-plane, > 0. AD passive is the ratio Re0E) driving point impedances (a driving point impedance of the voltage to the current at the same port) are positive Such an impedance real (p.r.). has non-negative for all sinusoidal signals and resistance resistance for all positive or not A does not). rising exponential signals (whether oscillating p.r. impedance but generate only dissipates power. admittances of passive systems arealso p.r. The driving point and of passivesystems The admittances can be p.r. but are not transfer impedances
s is

equal to

necessarily

so.
point

The driving

impedances

of active

systems can

be p.r. but

are

not necessarily

so.
of a passive plant the actuator control where and the ratio of the sensor readings to the actuator action or an integral of the or admittance, or a derivative driving point impedance This limits the range of the plant phase variations to 180\302\260. impedance. as a driving point impedance Any p.r. function can be realized (i.e.,implemented) it is always possible to make a system of a passive system, i.e., composed of passive In some is the function. elementswhosedriving cases, point prescribed p.r. impedance of resistances, in and inductors connected the system is an arrangement capacitances, series and in parallel. For some p.r. functions, realization however, requires bridge-type as a driving function can also be realized circuits or transformers. A p.r. point

Collocated
sensor

control is a feedback

and the is the

are collocated,

impedance of an
The
function

active is p.r. no

RC circuit.

A. There are

if the following poles or zeros in

on the

three the

conditions

are satisfied:

right

half-plane

of 5.

B. Polesand

zeros

^co-axis are single.

C. Re

6(/o>)

> 0

at all frequencies.

372
Appendix

Appendix

Derivation

of Bode
part

integrals

A4.1 Integral of thereal

The
function

Laurent
and

\302\260\302\260 for an m.p.f. Q(s) = A(s) expansion at s -\302\273 is odd an is function, B(s)

+ B(s),

where A(s)

is an even

The

expansion the form

converges over the

entire

right

half-plane

of s.

On the^co-axis,

it accepts

(A4.1)

The function
the

contour

AMis m.p. as well. Therefore, the right integral of 0 AM around

0

s-plane

half-plane
integration
,/oo-axis
radius

of s equals 0. The contour of viewed as composed of the completed by a n-radian arc of infinite
may be

R as
the

shown
equals

in

Fig.

A4.1.

The integral
integral

along

arc

nB\\; the

along

the whole

joo-axis equals
part

twice the

integral

of -

the even

of

the

integrand,

i.e. of A

A_, Fig. A4.1

along the positive

semiaxis.Therefore

Contour on the s-plane

(A4.2)

A4.2 Integral of the imaginary

If 0

part

is m.p.,
origin.

then

Q/s

is analytical

in the

right

half-plane
the

of s So

and on the yco-axis,excepting if the origin is avoided along

radius

s-plane

the n-radian
shown in Fig.
the

arc of infinitesimal A4.2, the integral

enclosing

as

of Q/s

around

contour
The

the
along

equals 0. equals JiA0

frequency.
equals A^

integral

right half-plane the small arc

where

The
-nA^

the value of 0 at zero integral along the large arc

A,, is

where,

as follows

from (A4.1),
frequencies.

is

the

value of

0 at

very

high

Therefore,
along

the

integral

of

the even

part of

Q/s

on the s-plane Fig. A4.2 Contour avoiding a pole at the origin

the^eo-axis

equals

Appendix

373

La

i.e.,
u=A\"~A\302\260

(A4.3)

where u =
Another setting

This relation ln(co/coc).

important

is known

relation

between

as the phase integral. the real and imaginary components

around

results from
W

to

zero

the integral

of 9 -

A^ifsW

the

same

contour; here,

is

function of a reactance two-pole. On the function, i.e., an impedance or sW is purely W is either negative. The function positive j(O axis, purely imaginary, on thejoo-axis. real, positive or negative, between The function 4sW therefore alternates being purely real or purely at the joints of on adjoining sections over the jco-axis. It has branch points imaginary these sections.The sign of the radix at the sections must be chosen so that the whole folds. On this contour, the contour of integration to only one of the Riemann belongs function Re W(jo)) must be even and Im W(J(O), odd. decreases with s at at higher frequencies to s, the integrand For those W reducing least as s~2, and the integral total Since the contour along the large arc vanishes. integral is zero, the integral along the jco-axis equals zeroas well.Its real part is certainly zero:

reactance

!Re^zAi.d(a
-1

sW
in

= 2lRe^^-d(o
0
W=(l

sW

= 0.
then

(A4.4)

If,

particular,

+sl)/s,

ysW =yl-(d

is

real

for

lcol<l

and

imaginary otherwise, and (A4.4)yields

0=0
A4.3

I {A- AJdarcsineo
General
the

-J
1

da. -co

(A4.5)

vl

relation
frequency
0O\"a>c)>

Let's define
0C =

at which the
Ac and

Ac + jBc =

phase

shift

is of

interest

as coc, and
of s

also define

where

Bc are real.Considerthe

function

(A4.6)

374
This
points
in

Appendix

function
-jeoc, A4.3

Fig.

in the right half-plane of s and on the /co-axis except at the the of function taken around the contour shown the Therefore, jose. integral zero. The the sum of the integrals contour consists of several equals pieces;

is

analytical

along

these pieces
The

is 0.
term

integral

along
the

0 because
integrand.

of

R equals the arc of infinite radius s1 in the denominator of the Bc, and

s-plane

As s

approaches jcoc, 8 in

A^

approaches

the
to

second
V(sfj

multiplier

the

left

side of along
the

(A4.6) tends
infinitesimal

Then \302\251c).

the integral

arc

centered

at j(Ocequals
Bds

I\"

/J
The

c along the
equating

Fig. A4.3

Contour

integral

small arc centered

at -j(Oc

equals

-nBe as well.
Next,

^miNnsT

*otes'\"9

the

integral

along
whose

integrand

of all components of the contour the the joo-axis equals 2nBc. Neglecting is these annihilated within symmetrical integral
the sum

to 0, we integral odd component

see that

of the boundaries, we have

J(A-A)
and finally

2@ \342\200\224z\342\200\224S-r d 0) CO

= 2TCBC

-0>c

d<a
\302\246(A~Ae)d(O.
71 i\302\2512-<

(A4.7)

Since
2\302\251,.

co2

-\302\251

jd(O

=\\UdV

UV-\\Vdu

(A4.8)

where

we

denote:

U _

A-Ac n

tidied
CO \342\200\224

COj

u =
(A4.7)

ln(\302\251/\302\251c),

equals
dA , ImI , , \342\200\224 lncoth\342\200\224du.

\342\200\224-

(A-A.)lncoth-

-i?

~7tJ

(A4.9)

du

Appendix 4
The

375
imaginary

left

side

of the equation is

real. Hence,the
can

components

on the

right

side Since

are

annihilated

after summing. We

therefore

count the

real componentsonly.

lncoth\342\200\224=/7i+lncoth\342\200\224,

2
coth!\302\253/2l

replacing In coth(a/2) by In is therefore permitted. After

does

not change

of the real components in

(A4.9)

and

the

even and is annihilated

because

replacement, of symmetrical

the function

square

brackets

becomes

limits. Thus,

B((o c) = -

% J

\342\200\224 In coth\342\200\224du.

du

(A4.10)

376
Appendix
The

Appendix

Program
can

for phase

calculation

be calculated with MATLAB numerical routines using These three are among several m, and integral_u. for calculation of different routines Bode written Michael Kantner from integrals by Caltech. The routines can be used to calculate the phase shift response of a physical m.p. plant on the basis of its measured gain response. The magnitude is prescribed over a finite interval. The function frequency takes as inputs and returns and magnitude vectors the find_phase2.m frequency
integral

(A4.10)
,m,

f ind_phase2

table_maker.

phase.

Behavior

of

the

magnitude the

outside response
within

an asymptotic
that

extensionof
higher

the specified frequency interval within the specified interval.

the

is assumed That

is, a

has

-40dB/decade

roll off table created

off

at the
in

same rate at
a lookup

frequencies.
by

frequency range is assumedrolling specified The integrals of the tails are precomputed and
.m.
code.

to be system

stored
when

table_maker

needed,

the lookup
might

table yields faster

become well

The

While these could be computed errors introduced by such

handling

of the tails
accuracy

dominant

frequency
The

asymptotes are not

of the
finite

developed
difference

when within the

the

high-frequency

and
interval.

low-

prescribed frequency
of the
integral

routines is sufficient. The functions have When the input is 100 logarithmically spaced errors are under 0.1 degrees. As the number By placing data rapidly changing, cost. computational
improves.
function
points

approximation been tested on

points

used

variety

of

transfer

in the functions.

unevenly, accuracy

is

over 4 decades, typical spread of data points increases, accuracy with more of them where the known minimal be improved with added can

The programs' listing

Function

follows:

find_phase2

function
% % % % % % %

[phase]
[phase]

= find_phase2(magdb,
= find_phase2(magdb

function This from magdb: freq: The

routine uses the Bode Integral of a a magnitude response row vector given in dB gain row vector given in frequency

m.p. function. rad/sec

natfreq) ,freq) to generate phase data.

Magnitude Before running

= =

and Frequency this function

if

vectors must be the prepare table with

== 1,

same

table_maker.
end;

length.

[row,col]
[row,col]
%%%

size(magdb);

col if

size(natfreq);
% calls
% %

col

magdb = magdb'; end; == 1, natfreq = natfreq';

load table
=

table_maker

load table

data con

the function the creating for toe and tail needed numentries hilimit lolimit

calculations:
numintstep

table

points
numsteps
%

= points
following

length(natfreq);

- 1;
are

The

ilnfreq

variables = log(natfreqA));
=

for the

lookuptable (u

domain)

toeslope
tailslope

flnfreq

= log(natfreq(points)); = (magdb(points)
(magdbB)

magdb(l))/(log(natfreqB))-ilnfreq);

log(natfreq(numsteps)));

- magdb(numsteps))/(flnfreq-

Appendix

377

dmagdb

dnatfreq
deriv

= magdbB:points)
=

- magdb(l:numsteps);

natfreqB:points)

- natfreq(l:numsteps);

= dmagdb./dnatfreq;
=

nnfreq
wl

nat?req(l:numsteps);

= nnfreq';w2
=

= natfreqB:points)';

for I
% we

l;points,

The =

next

lines

perform

the integration...

weights

= (w2+ wc).*log(w2 + we) +... + we) - (wl + wc).*log(wl (wc-w2).*log(abs(wc-w2+eps)) - (wc-wl).*log(abs(wc-wl+eps));

=

natfreq(i)*ones(wl);

u = [flnfreq ilnfreq] + ind = (loglO(abs(u))

looplnfreq
ind
end
=

log(natfreq(i));

- [looplnfreq]*[1 1]

[eps

eps];

max([l

tailtoe

= abs(piA2/4*[l;l]-table(ind',2));
=

1;ind]);ind=min([numentries

J-loglO(lolimit)-loglO(lolimit)])/con+[l

numentries;ind]);

phase(i)

(deriv*weights

[tailslope

toeslope]*tailtoe)/pi;

Function table_maker.m
function
% % % % %

table_maker
called the

table_maker.m, creates

by

function to

lookup
limits:

table
le-9

le-15
reasonable This

is

used

for zero,
all

650 is used
100 of the
of

find_phase2. for calculation the

contains
=

nearly hilimit
%

for infinity area (to 6 places).

entries,

toe

This routine
and

tail

numentries
=

lolimit

le-9;
=

% number of steps numintstep 100; vector logspacedoglO(lolimit),loglO(hilimit),numentries);

= 4001;

= 100;
number

table

for each

should

integration

be odd

table(:,1)

= vector';

[tabled,2)]

= integral_u(le-15,lolimit,
2:length(vector),

numintstep);

for k
end

[table(k,2)]=table(k-l,2)+integral_u(table(k-l,1),table(k,l),

numintstep);

clear vector k

con
save
clear
Function

Iogl0(tableG,l))-logl0(tableF,l));

table
con

hilimit

con hilimit lolimit numentries numintstep lolimit numentries numintstep

table

table

integralji

function
%

[trap]=integral_u(ul,u2,numsteps)
[trap]=integral_u(ul,u2,numsteps)

function

378
% %

Appendix 5
routeens

This

It

may

not

handle

integrates

some special cases,

in u domain.

however.

% vector=linspace

calculation{ul,u2,numsteps+l);

if

end
end

ul=le-15;

(ul==0),

if (u2==0),
=
This

u2=le-15;
next

vector
%

logspacedoglO calculation
=

(ul) , loglO (u2) ,numsteps+l) ; is the logu_function

valvector
delta
%up %down

= vectorB:numsteps+l)-vector(linumsteps);
valvector
=

log(abs((exp(vector)+1)./(exp(vector)-1)));

(lmumsteps)

*delta'; ; result

valvectorB:numsteps+l)*delta';

trap=(.5*(valvector(l:numsteps)+valvectorB:numsteps+l)))*delta'

if

disp('Warning: end
Different

trap=0;

trap==NaN,
NaN

found

in

integration,

set

to 0')
[6], QFT.

MATLAB function

For the
to a gain

for Bode integral calculations programs without high-Q resonance peaks, the phase

are listed in response

Appendix

corresponding
14.

response

can be

found

using

function

boniqas

.m from

Appendix

379

Appendix
When

Generic
system
the

single-loop feedback system

easily broken
can be
into

a feedback

cannot be
feedback

a connection

of

links,

a more

general

description of
w

system

used as a connection
A6.1.

of

a unilateral

two-port

to a

passive

four-port B as displayed

in Fig.

Fig. A6.1
The

feedbacksystem Single-loop zero reverse

When
transmission

two-port

w is

assumed to have
output

and

either
in

infinite

or

infinitesimal

input

and

impedances.

the circuit

diagram

Fig.

A6.1

applied to the analysis output impedances may series to the amplifier's

into

of
be

circuits
imitated

with physical by connecting

Further,

amplifiers, the amplifier passive two-polesin

two-poles

input
parallel

is and or in

input

and output.

these

have to

be

integrated

the B-network.

In principle, the dimensionality of the signals at the and output of the input and at the input and output terminals of the whole does not influence system we select one of the the the exposition, following analysis. However, to simplify and characterize the signal at the input to the active element versions by the possible The and the at current active element its output with voltage J?i, signal by the I4. transadmittance w = lilEi is therefore assumed to have high input and output
amplifier

impedances.

When
the return

an external
as shown is

emf E\\

is applied

to the
the

input

of

the amplifier

fl-circuit, ratio

in Fig.

A6.2,

return

voltage

disconnected from the port 3'. The l/3 appears

at

T =

U,

-.

(A6.1)

Fig.

A6.2

Disconnected

feedback

loop

380
When
the

Appendix

the return input

therefore
while

ratio

T is

system's
ratio

must

be

superposition principle.Thus,
return

depends
the input

being measured, the emf E\\ of the source connectedto in accordance with the circuit, replaced by a short the source is to the connected impedance Zx port 1. The on Z\\, i.e., T= T(Zt). In particular, the value denotes 2X0)

of T measured

is shorted,
input

and

while 7X\302\260\302\260),

Fig. A6.3showsthe
and

cross-sectioned and

feedback output

Z\"

connected

to the

of the

for the disconnected parts loading coefficients The emf E6 unchanged.

return

of the B-circuit appliedto the

two-poles broken loop provide appropriate in order to keep their transfer of the broken input loop produces

the input is open. circuit. The external

signal

U$. The

ratio

E6
equals

E6 Us

U
this

T. When

shunted

Tis measured the emf Ej. by

way,

the two-pole

Z1

need

not be

connected since it

is

w>
0
E6

Fig. A6.3

Disconnecting feedbackloop

in the

feedback

path

ratio of a linear fourpole can always be Generally, the voltage output-input the of the and the ratio of as the two ratios: current presented product output-input ratio, load impedanceto the fourpole input impedance. The latter ratio is found to be 1 when T is calculated. Therefore, T may be measured arbitrarily as the ratio of either voltages or currents. In the system, the signal U3 is formed by superposition of the effects closed-loop and U3\302\260

-U3T
=

Thus

f/3

produced respectively t/3\302\260 U3T, whence

by

the

signal

source and

the

output

of the

amplifier.

(A6.2)

here, F = T+ 1isthe relative to ?3.

The

return

difference,

i.e., the

difference betweenthe

signals

t/3 and

E3

of the feedback system in Fig. A6.1 is a linear combination of two the of (A6.2), and the signal source. By virtue the signal output of the amplifier F is the reduced times. from the Hence, closed-loop system output signal amplifier and as the ratio of the output voltage to the transfer coefficients in voltage, current,
output

sources:

signal

emf

are, respectively,

Appendix

381

K0L

\342\200\224 = \342\200\224\342\200\224-

kd,

(A6.3)

aol

_ =

Ki \342\200\224 = \342\200\224

h _

klA

(A6.4)

^-+*Edand

(A6.5)
the

Here,KOh,
while differences

KOhh

#ole
path

are
is

open

loop

the feedback measured

disconnected;

system transmission functions, F = F(Zi) and F@), F(\302\260\302\260),

measured

are

the

return

under the conditions

Z\\ to

of

connecting

zero
input

impedance,
terminals;

infinite
and
k&,

impedance, or, respectively,impedance and ^ are the coefficientsof direct determined under the same set of loading

the system's

ku,

Let Z designate
without

the

feedback

(with

signal propagation through the fi-circuit and are at the input terminals. conditions and Zp, the input impedance in the system input impedance, w - 0, i.e., with the a cross-sectioned feedback path, or with

active

element

killed out). Then

(A6.6)

K = K0L^-,

\342\200\224,

(A6.7)

By substituting

(A6.7), (A6.8) into

,

(A6.3),

and (A6.4)

into (A6.6), we get

M Z
U(\302\253)

F@) from

which Blackman's formula

follows:
i

F@)

= Z

r@) +
T()

.
calculated

(A6.9)
three

The

formula

expresses in

Z through
any

the

easily

functions:

Zo

and

return

ratios T@) and

Since,

T{\302\260\302\260).

principle,
the

two

terminals

of

feedback

system,
any

driving point impedance at with the port n shorted, and

port

as input nodes of the fi-circuit can be regarded the formula (A6.9) can be used of for calculation n, provided that F@) is understood as F measured

with F(<\302\273),

If the
For

terminals

are shorted,

this

reason,

the feedback

is called current-mode (or series) with

the port terminals open. the voltage betweenthem vanishes,

but not

the

current.

respect

to the

382
terminals

Appendix

n if with respect to
the

these

terminals

T@) T@)

= 0 =

feedback is
equals 0,

voltage-mode (or parallel)if

feedback

= 0. and T(\302\260\302\260) Analogously, 0 and T(oo)= 0. If neither of

the
them

is called

If the feedbackis infinite,

compound.
the

input

impedance

is

(A6.10) )
It

B(oo)

depends

on the fi-circuit and not on w. exclusively More detail along these lines is given in [2, 9].

Appendix

383

Appendix
The

Effect

of feedback
of Blackman's

on mobility
Blackman's original
proof,

following

derivation

formula follows

however

in mechanical

a mechanical Consider
port. That is,

terms [21].
system active

with

consideran
is the

structural

member, a
For

structure

connected.

an actuator accessed via a single mechanical member including an actuator. To the active The structure's mobility is ZL. The force F is

measuredbetween
to the

active

member

and

the

structure.

the feedback loop at the input actuator and applying E to the actuator The relative velocity V across signal input. the active member and the feedback return signal Et at the end of the disconnected feedback can be each a s loop expressed a linear function of the force F and the signal E:

the purpose

of analysis, considerdisconnecting

V=aE + bF,
Here a,
that

ET=cE

+ dF

(A7.1)

b, c, and
find

d are

when

the feedback
the

First,
without

feedback,

be determined from conditions. Notice boundary = = it is is E and E 0 when closed, Ej, open. loop without and with feedback. The case for the mobility expressions V= bF. Thus, the active member without i.e., ? = 0, gives mobility
the constants to
(A7.2)

feedback,

Zo, becomes

Z0=V/F = b
When active

the loop is closed, i.e., Et = E, (A7.1) gives member mobility with feedback, Z, becomes

V= [b + adl{\\

c)]F

so

that

the

Z=b

+ ad/(l-c)
for the return ratio for the expressions when the active member is clamped and when T of the active member feedbackloop is defined

(A7.3)
the two different loading it is free to expand. The as the ratio of the return

Second,find
conditions,
return

ratio

to the negative of the input i.e., T=-ET/E. signal signal, of the structure ZL, i.e., T(ZL). function of the mobility When constrained, Zl = 0, the active member is rigidly

This ratio is
i.e.,

certainly

(A7.1)gives
the other

F =

-a/(bE)

and

Et

= (c

- adlb)E.

Hence,the

return

ratio

V=0. In this becomes

case,

T\\0) = -c
On

+ ad/b.
when

(A7.4)

hand,

Zl

i.e., the \302\260\302\260, case

induced

in the

active member.In this

active member is free to expand,zero E, = cE and the return ratio is

force

is

r(oo) = -c.
Comparing

(A7.5)

the obtained

equations (A7.2-A7.5) results in

.

Blackman's

formula

as

i The

7X0)+ 1
/j0

formula
member

expresses active member

Zo,

mobility

with

feedback,
the

Z, in terms
system

of three
to which

other functions,
the

7*@), and

that do T{\302\260\302\260),

not depend on

structural

active

is connected.

384
Appendix
The

Appendix

8
derived
two

Dependence
in the
two

of a
previous

function
a Laplace

on a parameter
i.e., can be presented
transfer as
transform

formulas

sections

are bilinear,

a ratio

of

linear

functions.

Generally,

function

of a

as A/A,,, where the main determinant A and the physical linear system can be presented minor Ao are linear functions of the value of an element of the system (e.g., for an electrical system, resistanceof a resistor, capacitance of a capacitor,inductance of an in [2]. The proof can be found inductor, gain coefficient of an amplifier). is a bilinear function feedback For example, return ratio of the system load

impedanceZl- This
L
and

function

can be

expressed as

z
to analyze the effectsof
the

can

be used

plant

uncertainty.

Appendix 9

385

Appendix
As

9 Balanced bridge feedback

formula (A6.9), each one
of the

is seen

from Blackman's

following

equations

7\\o) =

r(~
F(co)

F@)=
validates
the

(A9.1)

the other two. This are the conditions of balanced bridge. In such a system is not dependent on the external and therefore the value of the impedance, feedback is not limited this variations. by impedance An of a balanced bridge circuit is example in Fig. A9.1. shown The Wheatstone bridge is = ZJZ&. In this the if ZJZ\\, balanced case,
feedback

transmission

from the

output

of

the

each of the system output the voltageacross the bridge

connecting

terminals
diagonal

amplifier to is the same, is zero, and

any

these

terminals

by
the

external

impedance

will

not change
first

return

ratio.

Therefore,

the

condition

from

(A9.1)

is Flg.A9.1

satisfied.

Zero
output

terminals
similar

of

inverting

between the system's the input of the amplifier is use. An example can be drawn by the direction of the amplifier in Fig A9.1. The
transmission

Balanced

and

bridge feedback
of the loop.

amplifier (actuator)

Z& can

be implemented

by

desired output a nested actuator using

impedance feedback

386

Appendix 10

Appendix
For

10

Phase-gain relation for

describingfunctions

function of a system of linear links and a nonlinear composed the relation between the and link, nondynamic gain phase frequency responses B(A) is the same as in linear systems if the DF of the nonlinear link stays the same for all the at the to link does not depend the nonlinear frequencies,i.e., signal amplitude input on frequency. This is the case of the iso-w curves. When, link the nonlinear however, depends on frequency,the relation B(A) becomes more complicated. Assume that the conjunction of filter is applicable to the problem considered. Let us determine the relations between the real and imaginary of the describing components link: function of a nonlinear
a

describing

= In H = Re H+jq>

U2

- In Ux

Here, U\\ is the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal, input fundamental. The derivative is amplitude of the output signal

and

Uz

is

the

complex

dN

?/, <#/,
U2dU1

dlaU1
where

-l = exp@-tf)-l
function

the logarithmic

transfer

for

increments

Q=
and

A+jB = lndU2~\\tidU1,
is real.

dUi

Therefore,
- Re

dReH
dlnUl

= exp( A
the

H) cos(B -

<p)

-1, stable

and,

by

applying

Bode relation to the

differentially

linearized

m.p. link,

we

see that
cos

din

t/J

from the measurements its derivative on the level of the of the of the real part the response input signal dReH/dlnUi, and frequency must be measured while simultaneously linearized circuit A. The latter differentially The the main to the link's input a\302\273o. signal with amplitude U and frequency applying with if at A is to measure a voltmeter this frequency frequency-selective magnitude easy Since no nonlinear the power of the set of amplitude. product has a substantial in comparison of these componentsis small with the power of all real frequencies A (the differentially linearized differentiable function for the continuously frequencies, will be must be m.p. and not containing on the ./toaxis, which circuit singularities in can be the the results of the seen on (A10.2) measurements), integral clearly from the measurement results of A on a limited determined with sufficient accuracy number of frequencies. iso-w is rather complicated. For practicaldesignapplications, The relation (A10.2) are preferable and should be used whenever possible. responses
can o\302\273o)

of: the

Using (A10.2) the phase shift <p(?/i, real component of the describing

be calculated

function

Re//,

Appendix

11

387

Appendix
The

11 Discussions
of the

function

also to
transcripts

address certain persistent

to whom

\"Discussions\" sections is to anticipate questions and objections, and In most cases, these are condensed misconceptions. of conversations which took place with the authors' colleagues and students, we extend our sincere gratitude.
Compensator
it is
What

All.l

implementation stated
does
that

Q: In the Preface, compensators.

order? Isn't A:
it

modern

the

word
an

somehow relates to high-order technology \"modern\" have to do with the compensator's

gimmick?
of
way

used the

here just gimmick.

as
the

advertisement

It is
same

more than
technology

The old
are

as that for

actuation.

compensator exist There

implementation

used

the

mechanical,
integral

hydraulic,

and

pneumatic

gadgets

whose

outputs

proportional

to the

or to

the derivative

These were combined to make the desired transfer function of of the inputs. devices the compensator. Since the devices were relatively expensive and rather difficult to The the low-order. most them remained tune, compensators complicated among were the PID controllers a proportional and a device, an integrator device, using differentiator device, all connectedin parallel. The way of the mechanical controller implementation the control impacted for low-order controller design theory. Convenient methods have been developed are not suitable to handle high-order controllers. however, they

On the other hand, feedback amplifier technology was not limited to low-order used in the compensators compensators since small capacitors,resistorsand chokes for highwere cheap.The Bell Laboratories scientists developed synthesis theory best. These theory and design order compensators to approximate the theoretical methods only partially control. into the so-called classicalautomatic propagated in and 1990s. Nowadays, in The sensor technology changed completely 1980s of the sensors are and hydraulic systems the outputs mechanical, pneumatic, the the of the and are actuators are electrical, electrical, inputs compensators can be economically in electrical. Therefore, high-order compensators implemented hardware or software, and the control can be made close to the best possible.
some elementary level, however,lagged,still practicing obsolete but plain counterproductive and confusing when they to make a precision controller design. on the closed-loop performance are often formulated in the time Q: The specifications and domain. Is it worthwhile to convert them into frequency-domain specifications then design the compensator with frequency-domain methods? the trouble of frequency-domain of A: Definitely.The benefits design far outweigh of most practical conversion converting the time-domain specifications.The

Teachingthe

control

at the

tools that had

become not only had been used to try

specifications is simpleand
initial

transparent.
while performance

Q:

For

design,

is it

advisable to optimize the

parameter

ignoring

some

like noise, nonlinearities, and plant A: That sort of approachtypically produces Even in the initial design, the system should for design will time and resources allocated
details

variations?

disastrous
be be

results

addressed wasted

in engineering practice. in its entirety, or else the

on dead

ends.

388
A11.2

Appendix

11

Feedback:
the

positive
sign at
the

and negative
summer

A: No. At
modulus

Q:

Does

minus
any

mean

that the
sign

specified and phase of

transfer

frequency,
CAP

the

of

feedback is negative? the feedback also depends on

transfer

the

the elements in

the

loop.
the

Q: From the

functions

and B,

closed-loop all

function
first and

CAPI(\\ +
will

A: It's not quite that simple. When the be accurate. Even rather errors large
much

CAPS)can

be

calculated,

and vice-versa.

Is that

there

is to it?
the

feedback

is large,

only

calculation P do

in the

knowledge of C, A,

not cause

in the closed-loop transfer function. The result is that the inverse is with small errors in or the observed calculated closedill-conditioned, problem into in errors the calculation the of loop response possibly mapping large loop the calculations or measurements transmission. the closed-loop of Therefore, to determine the loop transfer function. response are commonly inadequate
uncertainty

A11.3

Tracking

systems
definition

Q: Isn't a common isl? A: B = 1 is required

identically

of a

tracking system that

much
a

the

feedback

path transmission and B

and

for

frequencies
with

lower
the

than

the

crossover,

can be
a

in

a system
provide

prefilter.
and

However,

with
the

B= 1
design
nominal

without

prefilter, may be
A11.4

the disturbance

rejection

compensator

need to be
plant.

to compromised

acceptable

transient
systems.)

responses for

(This

unavoidable for homing-type

(links)
factors

Elements
the

of the

feedback system

A: There are

Q:

or digital? path and the compensator be analog A has the advantage to consider here. compensator many digital it can be reprogrammed in response that to known changes in the plant; however, it nor cheap. A software is often neither trivial should be pointed out that changing of is that reduce the available they primary disadvantage digital compensators in the is it often is. For as feedback when the computational delay loop significant, are the first for fast feedback this choice reason, compensators loops. If analog
Should

feedback

of an analog compensator can be made the parameters \"programmable\" converters. The summing device and the feedback D/A by employing multiplying than about path can be analogas long as the required relative accuracy is not better 0.0001. To achieve much accuracy, higher they should probably be digital. Many will affect this other factors cost, decision, power requirements, including and so forth. production quantity,
necessary,

Q: The

compensatoris optimized (and/or prefilter) is designedto

A:

nominal plant. But what deviates from the nominal? calledquantitative feedback A methodology has been developed, (QFT), that theory the so as to the specifications in the satisfy closed-loop performance designs system is discussed in This variations. the of worst-case procedure parameter presence of a amount the methods involve calculation, 8. they significant Although Chapter

link and the feedback rejection, the desired closed-loop response with the provide the to the closed-loop response when plant happens
for

disturbance

Appendix

11

389

are

useful

when

parameter
is sufficient determine the with

applications, it
plant,

variations are very large, i.e., more than lOdB. For most to first design the closed-loop with the nominal response
the

and

then

changes

caused that use

by

the

plant

variations,
response

and, if
as the

necessary, modify
Q: What is
wrong

prefilter. design

methods

the

closed-loop

objective for the compensator design,like the pole placement method? A: With such methods, the appropriate value of feedback and the stability margins are not observed and preserved. This can cause many the system stability problems: or wind-up might occur, die disturbance may be only conditional, rejection may not be optimized, and the plant variations cause parameter may larger closed-loop
variations response

than what is achievable based on the open-loop frequency response.

with

feedback

maximization

methods

A11.5 Plant transfer functionuncertainty

Q:

A:

How accurate must the related phase responseto About 1/2 dB.
The

gain

response
5\302\260 ?

approximation

be for

the

accuracy

of the

be

Q:

compensator

transfer

function

required function
will

transcendental may be very the system

Variations

response.

must be high But, the poles

polynomial correct?

order

and

to approximate well zeros of a high-order transfer

the

sensitive to the
not robust. Is this
in the

coefficients. is not
sensitivity

Then, rounding

errors

make

A:

Not exactly.
the

frequency response to polynomial coefficients in typical cases is not high, and the compensator order is in this aspect irrelevant. For example, in analog telecommunication systems, with 20th order transfer with the functions, employed equalizers have been routinely
frequency

response

values of poles and doesn't change much.

zeros

The

important as long
of

as

the

of the desired response of \302\2610.001 dB. The requirements accuracy of implementation for the control system compensators are by a long way easier. What if the is non-minimum-phase? plant Q: of the loop phase lag must be compensated A: The non-minimum-phase for component of the the This can be done by minimum-phase by reducing component phase lag. of the Bode step. Simpleformulas /b to increase the length reducing the frequency calculations are given in Chapter 4. for these the sensor is path are known, and Q: The command, the prefilter, and the feedback This data to CAP. C is the suffices calculate if Further, output. measuring plant's determined and this be to C AP can be information can used known, exactly, modify is as desired. Right? function such that the loop transmission the errors in the calculation. The sensor is A: Before deciding to do this, let's consider the not the command is not well-suited to the goal of characterizing ideal (noisy), the where and the problem is ill-conditioned for all frequency components plant, be used for the frequency where the is large. This approachmight band feedback of the crossover frequency /b. feedback is positive, i.e., in the neighborhood of the command need the high frequency for this application, However, components the than which is not the case. to be sufficiently noise, usually large, larger feedback be the resonances on the available the effects of plant potentially Q: Can

A:

calculated in advance? Sure. See Chapter 4, Problem

4 and

the Answer to

the

Problems.

390

Appendix

11

A11.6

The Nyquist stability criterion

Q: Is
A:

the distance of the poles of the closed-loop transfer from the jfO-axis a function better robustnessmeasure then the stability margins on the Nyquist diagram? No. A practical counterexample is an active RC notch filter. Its closed-loop poles are close to the joo-axis, but the stability very margins in this feedback system are the is reliable and used. sufficient, system globally stable, widely Conversely, the of a far from the does not placing poles closed-loop system away jo-axis

guarantee

global

stability,
to define

Q: Is
and

it

convenient sufficient

or process stability, the boundaries on the

robustness.
Nyquist

diagram

to reflect

necessary

stability

requirements?
the

A: Yes.

Q:

How

are

the values

for

stability must

margins be

determined? in the

A: Global and
actuator
the

process stability

assured

presence of
is

the

plant

and
but

Q:

of a certain norm on the errors in the nonlinear state of operationis the the to of closed Also, acceptable.) sensitivity loop response plant parameter variations must be limited. the critical Why should the area surrounding point be defined by gain- and phasesatisfaction

parameter variations. (Often,process stability

not

strictly

achieved,

A:

margins, and not by mathematically simpler circular boundary? The shape of the margin is defined stability boundary by global and process the In the and variations. of plants, requirements by majority plant parameter variations of the plant gain and plant phase in the neighborhood of the crossover are not well This and correlated. necessitates defining phase-margins gainindependently. the methods and use circular lost if we simplify performance design Q: Is much
stability

margin
the

boundary?
stability

A: Changing
substantially

margins

from

those

appropriate
in

to circular

would

reduce

therefore, the Q: Is the definition definition A: No. The Lyapunov stability depends on the initial
actuator

the integral of negative integral of Nyquist-stable

of positive feedback
feedback in the the same as that
conditions. may

frequency range and, functional frequency band. of conditionally stablei

this
that

for conditional be

stability is
A Nyquist-stable

the

nonlinear
with

system
the

system
but

usual

saturation

nonlinearity

conditionally

stable

can

be

rendered

globally stable by

the

addition

of nonlinear dynamic

compensation.

A11.7

Actuator's output impedance

Q:

we can always apply to its the internal (output) impedance of the actuator, input such a signal that the system output will be as required. Therefore, it doesn't matter what is the actuator Right? impedance. output is right, but the effects of the plant the statement A: Wrong. For the nominal plant, on the are to extent from the nominal a deviations dependent large parameter
Whatever

actuator
Q:

output

impedance. output

Compound feedback produces somefinite can be achieved more simply, by making

impedance

for the
and

driver. But,
a resistor

this

voltage feedback
system

placing

in

series.

A: The result

will

be the

same as long as the

remains

linear. This

method can be

Appendix

11

391

used in the

laboratory this

for series

testing resistor,

power losses on

various control and as a result,

schemes. However,there
the

will

be

actuator

needs to

be more
actuator

powerful, with Q:
But,

a larger

saturation

level.
anyway

isn't

the

power

when

the impedance

dissipated is made finite

by

A: No. Compound
efficiency.

feedback causesno
of feedback
is the

internal impedance of feedback? compound and doesn't reduce losses power

on

the

the
the

actuator

A11.8

Integral
what

Q:
A:

At The

frequencies

feedback positive?
within gain

feedback

is positive

the decreases

circle

of unit radius
monotonically

centered at (-1,0)

on

the

Q: A:

with frequency, the major to 4/b. The integral of feedback falls in the band 0.6/b part of the area of positive small feedbackat much higher frequencies is negligibly (see bibl. to [9]). makes the system better at some frequencies, but at others even the feedback Well,
T-plane.

When

the loop

worsethan
Negative

before. So, what is gained from the application of feedback? is used to cover the frequency range where the plant parameter are and positive feedback is variations and the effects of disturbances critical, confinedto the frequency range where the noise and the disturbances are so small be that even after being increased by the positive feedback, they still will
it was feedback

acceptable.

All.9

Bode
many

integrals
Bode

Q:

How

relations
30 different

A: There are

about

been made since then? of these relations Q: Have new relations or expansions A: of the real Yes. The most important are the R. Fano expansions of the Bode integral in Laurent which use not one but several terms the expression. They are usable part, for RF and microwave Bode relations were circuits on expanded design. Also, of the unstable discrete multivariable systems, parallel paths systems, systems, for disturbance and the transfer function isolation. An example signal propagation, is given in Appendix 10. However, of an expansion on certain nonlinear systems these expansions are less for the four practice, compared with important fundamental Bode relations described in this book.
All.10

are there, total? integral relations

in

Bode's

book.

The Bode
is the

phase-gain relation
the

Q:

Why

slope of

Bode

diagram

A: The same reason

Q:

barrels. Gain samples supermarkets the to with less than 5\302\260 one octave suffice calculate phase response apart typically And it is certainly convenient error as needed for sound feedback system design. is nearly -10 dB/oct. that the slope of a well-designed Bodediagram a constant slope of Does it make sense to consider a loop gain response having
that

expressed here in sell milk by gallons,

dB/oct,

not in

dB/dec?

not

-10 dB/oct? can such a response be implemented How A: It can be closely by a rational function approximated Are the Bode to transcendental integrals applicable Q:

in a of s.

physical

system?

plant

transfer

functions?

392

Appendix

11

A: Yes.

Q:

At

a university Afterward

where

method.

I started

I have taught, to work

the in

relies teaching aircraft industry

heavily on the root and was surprised that

locus
here

is it so? prefer Bode diagrams. Why A: Bode noticed that for an engineer striving to make the best of the design, it is difficult to cope with three variables: gain, phase, and frequency, scalar and he reduced the number of the variables to only two scalars: gain and frequency. This allows MIMO and approach (including handling high-order systems multiloop In contrast, systems). applying the root locus method to an nth order system increases the number of the variables to n complex variables (roots) crawling all over the s-plane in a strange, manner. and unmanageable threatening,

the engineers

All.11

What

limits

the feedback?
the clipping of and the level of

What are the physical factors which limit the feedback? A: The major factors are:the uncertainties in the plant transfer of the sensor noise in the higher frequency components

Q:

function,

actuator,

noise in
Q: Does
when
it

the pay

system's output. to exploit as much

designing

the control
increases
full-state

as possiblethe law?
available
and

available

knowledge

about the
is

plant

A: Certainly.This
for hypothetical
unpredictable

the

feedback,

feedback. The availablefeedback no feedback is available for

infinite

a completely
require
designing

plant.
concern

Q: A

of the project manager: the system design of its subsystems, and knowledge of the available performance be made trade-offs often employ feedback. How can the system
typical

trade-offs
these
without

subsystems

the feedback

subsystems?
should
that

A: The manager
performance

approachthis
Q: What
kind

of

Using the Bode compensator. the compensator. can be calculated without actually designing What kind of mathematics is data do we need for this estimation?
can
with

data request be achieved

about available
the

subsystem

performance,

i.e.,

the

optimal

involved? A:
The

following
in

data
the

octaves

vicinity

is generally required: the of the planned

sensornoisespectral
feedback
bandwidth,

density the

over

three

available

of frequencies ranges output signal amplitude from the actuator, four estimated to octaves over the where plant structural can fall, up modes is This sort of data feedback and sometimes more. available, bandwidth, typically it may not always be very precise. The available disturbance rejectioncan although (nondistorted)
then

be estimated

using

the

Bode

integrals.

All.12

Feedback
to develop

maximization
and market
soon

Q: I want

a product.How
me, with a

can

I be

sure

that

my
that

competitor
uses

will same

not enter the market, and actuator, plant, A: The Bode integral
available

after

superior product
faster

the

sensor,
approach

but has

bigger and

feedback?

allows

the determination
transfer

of the best

theoretically

system

performance.
to approximate

Q: Is it

necessary

a physical

plant

function

(which is

sometimes

Appendix

11

393
\"model

A:

to perform function and/or transcendental) by a rational when designing a feedbacksystem with the Bode method? No. The calculated or measured plant and actuator transfer

plant

reduction\"

functions

are subtracted

from
rational

the

desired

loop

function
is

the response to obtain approximation is introduced

desired

compensator in the only

of

response,
final

and

the

stage

of

the

compensator design.

Q:
A:

What

the

required

accuracy of

the

approximation

the desired
will

loop

gain

response?

The accuracy must be such that the related phase response desired phase response with an accuracy of about 5D.
Why5\302\260?

approximate

the

Q:
A:

from the stability margin case, the average loopphase lag must stay 5\302\260 away will be less than the the of the Bode Then, boundary. average slope diagram the f or maximum 90\302\260 1/3 dB/oct (from 6dB/oct). by proportion: acceptable over each of the 3 octaves of the cut-off, 1 dB of feedback is lost. Therefore, The small remaining possible these losses are marginally Typically, acceptable. of the feedback increase may not justify a further increase in the complexity In this

compensator.

Q: How accurate
A:

must

the

gain response
be ? 5\302\260

approximation

be for

the

accuracy

of the

related phase responseto About 1/2dB.

the required

Q: The compensator

of transfer function must be high-order for accurate approximation transcendental response. But, poles and zeros of a high-order transfer coefficients. function Then, the rounding may be very sensitive to the polynomial this correct? errors will make the system not robust. Is zeros A: Not exactly.Variations in the values of poles and are not important as long as

has doesn't change much. The typical compensator response response frequency to the of the such function modulus no sharp peaks and notches; the sensitivity order is in this less than 1, and the compensator polynomial coefficients is typically be within irrelevant. in for the to accurate 0.5 order Therefore, compensator aspect the polynomial of the transfer coefficient function, dB, i.e., 6% in the magnitude accuracy need not be better than 1 to 5%, and the effect of rounding is insignificant. What is the best availableaccuracy of analog Q: compensators? A: Equalizers for analogtelecommunication have been routinely designed with systems with accuracy of implementation of the desired function, up to 20th order transfer
the

response

of

\302\261 0.001

dB.
designed? by using

Q:
A:

How were these equalizers

By interpolation, by cut-and-try procedures, by using asymptotic Bode diagrams, in the element domain, polynomial series, by adjustments by using Chebyshev the Second Remez Algorithm, and by using the Simplex Method.
What

Q:

if the

plant is
the

non-minimum-phase?
component

A: The non-minimum-phase
by reducing

of the

minimum-phase

reducing the frequency fb for these calculations are given

component to increase the in Chapter been

loop phase lag must be of the phase lag. This

for compensated can be done by Simple

with

Q: Only analog systems

digital

have

length of the Bode step. 4. discussed. What is the difference

formulas
regard

tp

controllers?

394

Appendix

11

A: Sampled data systems, which an analog-to-digital include converter, a digital filter, and a digital-to-analog converter are time-variable and have an inherent delay that reduces the available feedback. What about a proportional-integral-derivative the (PID) compensator having Q: transfer function Cis) = kp + kjs + k^s ? A: With appropriate the response of approximates gains, the PID compensator roughly the PID controller; however, the approximation error can be quite optimal large. control falls short with of the performance an appropriate of a system high-order

compensator.

Q:

But

how

much
on

better off
the

than

a PID's

is the optimal

controller?
transfer
responses,
when

A: It depends
disturbance

frequency

response

of

the

plant
plant

function
the PID
a

and

the

spectrum
in

density.

For

smooth
is 5 to

improvement

disturbance

rejection

10 dB
plant

expected controller is resonances,

replaced
especially
to

by when

30

Q:

Why

dynamic compensator, dB improvement can be expectedfrom the high-order controller. aren't the Ziegler-Nichols PID conditions for tuning controllers presented

higher-order it is used in

controller.

For a
with

with

structural

conjunction

a nonlinear

a5
in

this book?

A: This method
only

does

not

use a prefilter

(or a
and

command

feedforward),

and

is suitable
with

for

frequency

specific plants. More general domain approach.

better

results

can be

achieved

the

A11.13
Q:

Feedback maximization in multi-loop systems

loop

What about loop response shaping for multi-loop systems? one A: Basically, the technique is the same. Multi-loop systems can be designed a time, as long as loop coupling is taken care of by adjusting the responses within certain frequency bands. providing extra stability margins of the loops is large? Does when the number this work well even technique Q:
A:

at
and

Yes,

typically.

All.14

Nonminimum
there

phase functions
advantageous to
apply

Q: Is
A:

a case
transfer

where it is
functions?

compensators

with

non-minimum-

phase

has high-frequency structural a the plant modes, Probably not. Sometimes, when the make the a to stable. introduce in must system loop compensator phase delay be achieved with a minimum-phase low-pass However, this phase delay can always - with the extra function stability filter-type advantage of increasingthe amplitude margin

and reducing
Feedback
awkward

the

noise

effect

at the

actuator's

input.

All.15

control
to go
the

design procedure
and

Q: Isn'tit
A: It's a
design

back
one

forth

from

the Nyquist

diagram on the

L-plane

to

the Bode

case of

diagram? Isn't
stability
the

right

characterization,

all require

of diagram enough? for the right job: global and process stability dynamic compensation margin definitions, and nonlinear the trade-off resolution and use of the L-plane, but
type

tool

the

Appendix

11

395 the Bode

Appendix

compensator design number of variables.

are simplified

by

using

diagram due
12 apply

to

a reduced

Q: Do the
Q: Still, if A: 3 times
All.16

design

of single-loop

A: Single-loop. But
you

discussed in the phases or multi-loop systems?

multi-loop

following

for

the

design

have longer

to design, than

or 27 times
channel?
longer,

extension of this procedure. design is a natural a will it take 3, 9, say, three-input, three-output system, of for each single-loop system comparable complexity

system

typically.

Global
it

stability
to

and absolute stability

functions

Q: Is

convenient

use Lyapunov

in

the

design

of

high

performance

control

systems?

A: Devising
high-order Q:

appropriateLyapunov
linear part and
the Moscow,

functions

is yet
elements.

unmanageable for systems of

Automatic

with

several nonlinear
International

At the

1st Congressof
in

Federation

Control

(IFAC)
important

in

1960
theoretical

researchers

from

Russian

academia presented

A:

This research impressed using time-domain and state variables. American the conference and shifted to a large extent the attending professors in American academia. Were these methods direction of research the methods Russian engineers employed to designcontrol laws for their rockets and satellites? No. Russian rockets' control systems have been designed with frequency domain methods in very much the same way as American rockets (see A13.9).
results

All.17
Q: A:

Describing function and nonlinear dynamic

predict instability
in certain

compensation

DF analysis fails to

systems.

Would
just

it

be

right

therefore

to discard the DF approach altogether? be foolish No. It would to discard a Phillips

screwdriver

because

it cannot

drive

all screws. Similarly,

fairly

although

DF

analysis

is

not

a universal,

accurate
with

loops Q:
What

is

when employed for analysis and synthesis monotonic steep low-pass responses. the purpose of using DF now, when nonlinear systems
computers?
is seen

foolproof tool, it is of well designed control

can be simulated

well

with

A: The DF advantage for the purpose

of analysis but only, of control with especially, design systems conceptual of the analysis need not be high. links. In many cases, the accuracy several nonlinear with the phase calculated The phase of the DF has an error of up to 20\302\260 compared - but, this phase is not of critical importance since NDCs can with exact analysis
not

when it is

used

for

the purpose

of design,and

easily provide the required phaseadvance. for additional created DF analysis does not account by higher phase shifts Q: in the nonlinear link. So does the DF design guarantee harmonics interacting robustness? can typically yield up to 15-20\302\260 of extra phase harmonics A: Interaction of high-order be increased The NDC DF phase advance must by this lag for the fundamental. NDC phase advance exceeds which is rather easy to do since the typical amount,
100-200\302\260.

396

Appendix
much

11

Q: How
NDC?

improvement

in disturbance

rejection can
of

be expected from
rejection

using

an

A:

It

depends

on the

desired frequency

shaping

the disturbance

in

some

cases,

Q: Is it
A:

up to

30 dB.
SISO
the

to use NDCs in MEMO advantageous systems? Yes. In addition to providing the same advantages as for reduce the effects of nonlinear between the loops on coupling

systems,
system

NDCs

stability.

All.18

Multi-loop
is it

systems of saturation
elements

Q:

Why

the number
DF

that

matters

when

defining

what

is the

multi-loop system?

A: Becausethe
gain during with

saturation link changes from 1 down to the inverse of the loop 100 or 1000 times. This to be accounted for effect needs the functions synthesis. Compared stability analysis and the loop transfer this effect, even the effects of the plant parameter variations are small.
of a
coefficient,

i.e.,

A11.19

MIMO systems
is the

Q:

Where

better place to path?

path, case,

implement the
in this

decoupling

matrix

in

the

forward

path

or in the feedback A: In the forward

since

case

the

decoupling the

matrix sensors'

doesn't

commands should be formulated (and sensors are not aligned with the actuators), the decoupling matrix should be placed in the feedback path. Is the design of MEMOand multi-loop difficult? systems Q: A: It is not simple, but several oft-ignored the design: techniques greatly simplify \342\200\242 The Bode technique of making trade-offs betweenthe loops without designing the compensators, \342\200\242 the m.p. character of parallelsignal verifying propagation paths, \342\200\242 the effects of loop coupling only in the narrow frequency ranges considering

precise. In

this

commands

are formulated in in actuators' actions

readings.

need to be When

wherethe
using using mode

coupling

is critical,

\342\200\242 \342\200\242

appropriate NDCs

Q:

How

does

A: The effects
transfer

output impedances for the actuators, and in the nonlinear to provide global stability and good performance of operation, without sacrificing the disturbance rejection. and robustness? between the loops affectthe system stability coupling can be analyzedby considering the change in one loop of loop coupling
caused

function

by the

plant

and

the actuator

transfer

function

variations

in
the

another
stability

loop. The robustnesscan

margins.
frequencies nonlinear

be

provided

for by correspondingly

increasing

Q: At

what the

is the mode,

coupling most dangerous?

at lower
saturation

A: In

frequencies, where
could

the

loop

gain

is large

and

changes

in it

caused
using

by

taken care of by near the crossover

an NDC.

In

loops. However,this can the linear mode, the coupling is more dangerous
affect other
the

be

frequencies where the feedback in

loops

is positive.

Appendix

11

397

A11.20

The
the

Bode's

book
the book is
named

Q:
A:

In

bibliography,

analysis. However,Bodehimself
The

characterized as a book on synthesis, it as the book on analysis. Why?

and

not on

Q:

for synthesis. book describes the tools for analysis also, but mostly for these two purposes are, generally speaking, quite different. What about the terminology in the Bode's book?

The choice

of tools

A: Bode
and

developedseveral

powerful

approaches

valid for

a wide range of applications,

is the

the terminology to serve this wide For example,in his definition the transfer function is the ratio of the relative output, and the sensitivity allowed of the result. These definitions integrating point functions analysis and synthesis.
he optimized

range

of applications. ratio of the input of the cause to change feedback theory with

to the
the

that

driving

the functions

as certain functions as minimum phase shift with all transfer functions the having phase among we use the inverse definition of the transfer same gain response. Today, however, for function which better the narrower area of is, maybe, intuitively applications, but are not as elegant and general. With the definition employed today of the transfer to the source, m.p. function in fact function as the ratio of the response has To bring maximum phase shift. some sense to this, function must be called m.p. but in minimum functions most it is books called still, lag inconsistently phase minimum phase function. Bode didn't use the word as a telecommunication Instead, \"compensator\". engineer,he used the word \"corrector\", for feedback loop or for any other signal of this word is: we know the theoretically transmission channel. The meaning best we have to (of the loop) as is, then, response, we have measured the response correct the response for it to be as prescribed to be the optimal. by the theory, Bode used separate for the sensitivity and for the return difference, definitions while in some works the return is formally defined as difference contemporary - which be if we limit the use of this term to a \"sensitivity\" may acceptable only class narrow of too narrow even the control for problems, very engineers. Bode formulas has been later modified and for the purposes of generalized certain researchgoalsand for the convenience of teaching. Nonetheless, the authors of the Classical Feedback Controlfound no versions in the existing literature better or equally usable for the engineering than those in the design purposes employed Bode's book. This is why Classical Feedback Control, with very few exceptions, uses original Bode's notations, definitions, and expressions.
he

Following these definitions,

the

defined

smallest

398
Appendix

Appendix

12

12

Design

sequence
of

In the an estimate of the average time is given for completion of each following, the steps by an experienced designer, and for a not-unusually-complex problem.

Phase I:
\342\200\242 determine \342\200\242 decide

Calculation

of the

available

performance (up to 24 hours)

and

the feedback what

the

bandwidth/b (about 30 minutes);

dynamic

kind of

nonlinear

compensation
minutes); the

(if any)
which

will

be

employed,

define
\342\200\242 draw

stability

bounds

on the

L-plane E

the desired and draw all

Nyquist diagram on

L-plane

maximizes

the feedback

E
\342\200\242 find

minutes);

the desired Bode diagram

the

E to
the

30 minutes);
responses and by the

\342\200\242 make

required by spectrums, by other feedback loops in variation, reshape the Bode diagram available feedback and report the system
Design

trade-offs

frequency system,

of
plant

the

disturbance

transfer

function
the

A0

minutes to 22 hours), determine to your manager; performance

and

PhaseII:
\342\200\242

of the

linear compensators

prefilters model,

(up to subtract

5 days)
plant

given

the nominal

response
\342\200\242 in

from

plant response, the desired nominal

or a plant
loop

the nominal

gain

gain

response

to

obtain

the

required

compensator
approximate Chapter

the required 6

compensator
\342\200\242 make

gain response A0 to 30 minutes); compensator response using one function and obtain the compensator transfer hardware/software (a day or two); system model
nominal and

of the

and specifications

methods discussed for the

a linear

calculate

the

closed-loop frequency

frequency response
that

(severalhours);
\342\200\242 decide

on the type of the optimum B minutes the

closed-loop

gain

response

is close

to

to several

hours);

from the desired response to closed-loop gain response find the the to 30 obtain or, minutes); alternatively, prefilter gain response A0 desired responsefor the feedback path, B; \342\200\242 the required response the prefilter to approximate find link) (or feedback path
\342\200\242 subtract

calculated

A0 minutes
\342\200\242 determine

to 3

hours);

the frequency
Nonlinear

and time responsesfor

design
the

the

linear

system A to

24 hours);

PhaseIII:
\342\200\242 create

compensator

and time-response simulations

and

a nonlinear

model for

system

find the

responses for large-level

mode) (up to 10 days); signals(nonlinear \342\200\242 in the compensator and/or design a elements nonlinear introduce the system test and tune nonlinear performance compensator, dynamic

specialized
(up to 30

days);
Subtotal

time

for Phase
only your

HI:

up

to 40
in

days.
the

Note that design (of which times for different so it is important

Phase

I is

feedback

configurations

path for the global is a subsystem). PhaseI might system of the global system beforea final
critical
simple,

engineering
be

repeated

decision

system many is made,

that this

procedure be short,

and reliable.

Appendix 13

399

Appendix
In

13 Examples
to the

addition

here

of single-loop

several examples examples in the book's chapters, and multiloop systems designed with the frequency

are

given

domain

approach.

A13.1
Temperature

Industrial
control

furnace temperature control

of a

single-loopSISOsystem heat dissipation into the

payload,
plant

precision
depicted

industrial

in Fig.

environment,

furnace, Fig. A13.1, is implemented as a A13.2. The plant includes a sink representing two thermal capacitances, the furnace and the

connected
equivalent

by the heat flux electrical circuit is

conductance
shown

as illustrated
in

in Fig.

A13.1(a). The

function
heater
shown

is the ratio of the

and
in

payload temperature
to
the

and the plant transfer Fig. A13.1(b), to the difference of the power of the
The

that dissipated Fig. A13.1(c).

environment.

plant

gain frequency response is

p,
dB

f,

log. scale

>v

(b)

(c) (b)
its

Fig. A13.1 (a) Industrial

The actuator

furnace

with payload,
plant

equivalent

thermal

schematic

diagram, and (c) the

modulated

frequency

response

is a pulse-width
of

electrical

heater H,
rather

the

carrier

The signal
amplifier

amplitude

the

thermocouple

sensor TC is

small,

being 60 Hz. so that the error

noise

limits
three

be adjusted by
different

payloads

the system's accuracy. The response of the PID can compensator manual The regulator in relation to the regulators. adjustments are easy to make.
temperature

power

time

Fig. A13.2

Temperature control

system

Fig. A13.3
transient

Closed-loop
response

for not less than The payload must be kept in the furnace a specified time (say, 3 hours) at a prescribed 1150\302\260 \ 302\261 The furnace 2\302\260). temperature (e.g., operation during the time is not paid for by the customer; time needs to be therefore, the settling settling minimized. The settling time on the heater's available output the depends power, feedback bandwidth, and the value of the feedback. The feedback bandwidth is limited noise and the by the effects of the sensor

400
noise on amplifier modulation. The
compensator
the

Appendix

13

actuator's

input,

and by the
margin

amplitude stability employed, rather big

is
in

carrier frequency of the 10 dB. Because of the

loop phase
shift

pulse-width low-order

variations

the

are

expected

over

the frequency range with positive loop gain. Then, for the minimum phase stability to be the must The be about 60\302\260. 40\302\260, margin average phase stability margin average must therefore be about -8 dB/oct. The average slope cannot slope of the Bode diagram be made steeper, in this case the compensator since for each type of adjustments be than need to of is payload higher precision practical. With such stability margins, wind-up cannot be large,but it can be a problem if the is not well tuned. To improve the system robustness, wind-up was eliminated system the loop phase lag for large-level signals. with a simple NDC that reduces The transient in Fig. A13.3. The control looks nearly system response is shown because the settling time in the linear mode of operation is many times time-optimal shorter than the full-power preheating time. of the controller the interfacing and made the Digital implementation simplified

controllercheaperin
A13.2
The

mass

production.

Scanning
mapping

mirror

spectrometer

object image in the light of is attached to a yoke suspended on

Solenoid LVDT

of a mapping spectrometer of the Cassini spacecraftis an instrument an producing The mirror spectrometer'sscanning specified wavelengths.
a flexure

as shown

in

Fig.

A13.4.

Driver

Flexure

Yoke

electrical

to

mechanical KXX

xxa

Fig. A13.4
suspension

Scanning

mirror

Fig.

A13.5
for

Mechanical
scanning
with

schematic diagram
positioning
control

with actuator
(LVDT)

mirror
feedback

(solenoid) and sensor

The yoke

is measured by a linear actuator. The mirror angle in The plant's mechanical schematicdiagram and the LVDT, and the mirror characterized Fig. A13.5 shows the cores of the solenoid respectively by the moments of inertia Js. Ai> andJLVDT> the stiffness and the damping in model flexure stiffness and damping. The analytical the yoke's arms, and the suspension was simulated as a blockdiagram of the system dynamics was derived and the system of the analog controller blocks. Later, however, for the convenience with unidirectional electrical circuit was modeled as an equivalent (the design, the mechanical plant with that of the mechanical model and response for the electrical model was compared
a solenoid

is rotated by

voltage differential

transformer

(LVDT).

with the controller's model in SPICE. exactly the same) and integrated is to increase the in such a The control goal time, i.e., to scan the mirror exposure will in each the remain of focal with a the beam that longer plane photocells, way light in The should track the command as shown A13.6. mirror angle Fig. staircase-type with a rise-time less than 2 msec. Thus, the feedback bandwidth must exceed command
found

to be

1kHz.

Appendix 13
angle,

401

mrad

time

Fig. A13.6
The for

Closed-loop transient

response

of the

scanning

mirror

that

of a pixel, angle-wise, is 0.9mrad. The plant parameter variations are such beam to stay reliably the plant within the pixel, the feedback about must exceed 60 dB at lowerfrequencies. must not exceed 30%. The overshoot The feedback bandwidth is limited by the structural resonance of the solenoid core on its arm. The nominal resonance is 6 kHz with deviations of possible frequency \302\26120%. The of the resonance is known with the accuracy of \302\26120% (for damping the maximum this is excellent accuracy).Therefore, damping, plant gain in the 6 kHz with the accuracy of \302\2612dB. The plant phase, well, neighborhood is known pretty LVDT resonance uncertain due to the effects of the however, is quite (at a higher in the coils. Therefore, the loop and the stray inductances and capacitances frequency) must be gain-stabilized at the frequency of the solenoid core resonance, i.e., the gain at
size the

the resonance must

be belowthe

amplitude

stability

margin

of -10dB.

The plant and controller simulation has been performedin SPICE. The chosen on the L-plane is shown in Fig. A13.7(a) and has a 45\302\260 stability boundary phase margin. The Bode diagram for the designis shown in Fig. A13.7(b). Here is seen the resonance of the mirror on its suspension at 8 Hz, and the solenoid core resonance on its arm at is higher than 10 kHz. 6 kHz.The resonance of the LVDT core on its arm frequency
171, dB
ITI.dB

L-plane

60

-180\302\260

-135\302\260

phase

f,

log.

scale

n 111111 n i mi 11

10

100

(a)

(b)
and

Fig. A13.7 (a) Nyquist

(b) Bode

diagrams

for

scanning

mirror

control

will not cause the resonances It is seen that variations in the frequency of the plant of 45\302\260 is preserved over all frequencies where system to oscillate. The stability margin the loop gain is more than -10 dB. The The feedback path transfer coefficient (B) was chosen to be a constant. is shown in of a system with such a B to a small-amplitude input step response curve (a). The overshootis about which is marginally acceptable. The 30%, Fig. A13.8, be reduced about overshoot can 10%)by either putting a lead filter in the (to efficiently

402

Appendix 13
or

feedbackpath,
the

by an

actuator

is not

equivalent low-pass prefilter.However, intended to operate in the linear mode.

this

was

not done

since

output

time
LVDT

electronics

Fig. A13.8
response (a) saturation

Closed-loop without and (b) with in the actuator

transient

Fig.

A13.9 Analog model for scanning

whose

controller mirror

and

plant

(simplified)

It is economical small fraction of the

(without

to employ
maximum

a small
torque

actuator

maximum
an

available

torque

is a

that would margin,

be seen in
wind-up

idealized, not

linear system be expected.

saturation).

Due

to the

45\302\260 phase

stability

large

should

Therefore, applicationof an NDC is not required. This was confirmed by computer simulation of the output response to the step command with different actuator saturation thresholds. In Fig. A13.8, curve (a) relates to the linear system, and curve (b) to the
5 times smaller than the maximum torque calculated for the linear system. Even with this small output the is quite good, actuator, output transient response power and the overshoot is reduced. Because of the rather large feedback bandwidth, small production and quantities, to make the entire loop analog. it was decided The required low power consumption, are block diagram and the simplified schematic system diagram of the compensator shown in Fig. A13.9.
threshold

A13.3
It

Rocket booster nutation control

found

in Fig. A13.10 increases rocket booster shown small auxiliary thrusters To this, fight engine thrusting. exponentially during is pulse-width modulated were employedto produce moments. The thrust stabilizing a a as sensor. Since the carrier of 10 a feedback Hz) by (with loop using gyro frequency 0.8 the is a bandof 0.2 to feedback are in the the nutation Hz, loop range frequencies was

that the

nutation

angle

of a

the

main

bandpass

one.

is the real part of the the feedback is, the smaller the of controller's shift responses frequency phase version are shown (o) in Fig. A 13.11. The control loop compensator by curves original of 4 Hz and a high-pass consistsof a two-pole low-pass filter having a cornerfrequency at the filter reduces the loop gain with a corner frequency of 0.1 Hz.The filter low-pass filter attenuates level of-27 dB. The high-pass 10 Hz carrier frequency to the acceptable It was

shown

that

the

larger

nutation

exponent. The loop gain

and

dc and
thrusters.

low-frequency
The

filters

components of the error are made analog as a

to prevent
cost-effective

them from
solution

overloadingthe
to

low-quantity

production.

Appendix

13

403

m,
dB

argT,

degr
(m) gam /\302\246

20

\\

s.\\
\\
\\\\

phase

10 0 -10
-20

V \\\\
\\\\[m) \\ \\ \\V^
f, I

log. scale

10

Fig. A13.10

Rocket

booster nutation

Fig.

A13.11

Bode diagrams

for

nutation

controller

The loop responses with the modified higher-order compensator, employing a notch the carrier instead of the low-pass are shown by the curves to attenuate filter, nutation and the over the range of the marked (m). Both the feedback frequencies is a increased. The controller are stable; however, globally margin amplitude stability of of the phase stability because substantial jump-resonance could be expected margin the process same as in the older system). Although (the instability might not only 30\302\260 even of jump-resonance and a problem, it is safer to eliminate the possibility create for small signal levels is an NDC whose frequency response wind-up by introducing
filter
shown

in

Fig.

A13.12(a).
are open

signals,the

diodes

The NDC schematicis shown and the NDC gain is 0 dB.

in

Fig. A13.12(b).

For large

NDC

gain,

10

dB

(small

signals)

(large signals)
f,

log. scale

(a)

(b)

Fig. A13.12 Nonlinear (a) gain responses,

Computer

(b) schematicdiagram

dynamic

compensator:

simulations
in

amplitude

the

modified

showed that after system was 50 times

12 seconds of smaller.
an

thrusting,

the

nutation

A13.4 Telecommunication repeater with

Linearity
multiplex

NDC with

level. The
linearity

should be very good, to reduce the channel of this repeater designed in Russia linearity of a concurrent American counterpart, despite

of repeaters for

telecommunication

systems

the

frequency

division

intermodulation in the the

to an

acceptable
the

to 1960s is comparable of fact that the bandwidth

the

404
transistors

Appendix 13
and the linearity of the transistor in the ultimate was much stage in The Bell Laboratories. Thiswas special transistors developed in the feedback obtained by using a Nyquist-stable by the increase system with diagram shown in Fig. A13.13, upper curve.
was

smaller

worse
achieved

than

that

of the

the

Bode

/0.01

0.1
open-loop

Fig.A13.13Bode
for a

diagrams

Fig.

A13.14

Nonlinear amplifier

telecommunication repeater

dynamic

feedback amplifier

compensation in
by a
nonlinear

a telecommunication

feedback
was

The system loop

shown in

global stability

provided

dynamic

the in

penultimate Fig.

stage. The

A13.14.

simplified schematicof the amplifier The diodes play the role of a dead-zone link.

local feedback with the NDC is

When

the

signal

the diodes start conducting and introduce amplitude exceeds their threshold, negative feedback over the functional thus changing the gain in the common bandwidth, loop as shown This Bode diagram is less steep and the by the lower curve in Fig, A13.13. in the related phase lag is smaller, so that according to the DF method, further saturation ultimate stage does not cause periodical oscillation. were tried elicited initial conditions Many during experiments and none of them oscillation. The repeater was put in mass production in large quantities and no stability problems were ever observed.

A13.5 Attitude controlofa flexible plant

Consider

the

flexible shaft
rotated

of pointing a spacecraft using problem in at 30 Hz in the system shown

a reaction

wheel that resonates on

Fig. A13.15.

The reaction

wheel is
for

by

the motor

M.
the of

We consider here only system. The moment of inertia wheel, JR = 1 Nm2.

rotation planar the spacecraft

about the center is 7Sc = 100Nm2,

of
and

rotation

the

of the

reaction

velocity reference

Fig. A13.15

Attitude

control

of a

flexible

plant

Appendix

13

405

The amplitude

stability

margin

was

chosen

to be

8dB. The
appendage

gyro

noise

feedback
inertia

bandwidth

to

less

than

10 Hz.

The flexible

with

limits the the moment of

somewhere in the 13 -29 Hz region (nominally at 15 Hz) with very low damping, produces an area of uncertainty on the loop gain and phase as illustrated (not to scale) in responses,which further limits the feedback bandwidth The loop at the resonance must be gain-stabilized. The gain Fig. A13.16(a). peak on the value of the output of the actuator. depends mobility
JA =

5 Nm2, resonating

dB

loop phase

lag

f,

log. scale

13

20

-30

Fig. A13.16 Bode

loop

gain diagrams

resonance frequency, not

(a) for the

flexible

to scale,

and (b) for

control plant the nominal

with uncertain plant

A local feedback loop about the driver makes the (not shown in Fig. A13.15) the actuator output to 0.03 This reduces (rad/sec)/Nm. mobility equal peak-to-notch with the case of the actuator being a pure torque swing from 54 dB to 28dB compared source. Correspondingly,the available increases by almost an feedback bandwidth octave. The resulting Bode is shown in Fig. A13.16(b). diagram
A13.6
The

Voltage
supply
is

regulator
voltage
rectified

with main, vernier, and local loops

klystron

power

for a

transmitter
through

is produced
a

by a
and
changing

motor-generator
kV

whose output
voltage

and passed
-22
output

low-pass

filter.
output

The -20
the 2
the

output

is the
the

difference betweenthe
tube. The
of

kV at

the filter's
and

kV voltage
current

drop on
the field
bypass

bypass

voltage

is regulated
(b)

by (a)

in

winding

the generator

(main actuator)

changing

the grid

bias of the

in Fig. A13.17. The goal (the for the tube (vernier actuator), as shown reference) main (slow) loop is to keep the voltage on the bypass tube to be on average 2 kV for the The for the fast vernier loop is to fine-tune tube to be operational. (the reference) goal on the for the the voltage tube bypass drop regulator output voltage to be -20 kV (or value within the 0 to -40 other kV range). specified any

The range
0 to -42kV.

of

the

output
the
winding

voltage of the
bandwidth

generator/rectifier/filter

subsystem

is from

The feedback
generator,

constant of the
the

current

to the

field
the

to 10 Hz by the timemain loop is limited that supplies maximum voltage from the power amplifier of the generator, and the noise of the voltage divider and

in the

the

first

stage of

amplifier

in the

compensator.

406

Appendix

13

2AMkV

ij

j vernier
-(

loop
Voltage

divider,^

Fig. A13.17

High-voltage

power

supply

controller

The vernier loop bandwidth was to be 60 Hz to achieve the required chosen can only regulate the range of 4 kV, so that disturbance rejection. This regulator within its average at the 2kV level (to be de-saturated) output voltage needs to be maintained main the slower by loop. of the The plant is and nonlinear (because of the high-order nonlinearity

The loop compensator's order is rather high. magnetization curve of the field winding). ratio The Bode diagrams and the Nyquist for the main loop return Tx and the diagrams ratio vernier loop return T2 are presented in Fig. A13.18. showed that the system was asymptotically stable following any initial Experiments link S was not conditions that take place in practice. However, initially, the saturation was observed. included in the system, and a substantial Analysis and jump-resonance was a nonlinear that the reason for the indicated jump-resonance experiments the between vernier and the local interaction loop loop T$.

L-plane

f,

log.

scale

(a)
and Fig. A13.18 (a) Bode

(b)
(b)

Nyquist

power

supply

diagrams controller transistor

for a

high-voltage

This local

loop is about

the

high-voltage

driving

the

bypass

tube,

to

Appendix 13
stabilize

407

its

transfer

amplifier which
and
in

is nearly

the feedback
this

This function, with 1 MHz feedback bandwidth. loop contains an is nearly an integrator; which an integrator; a power transistor is nearly a differentiator, so that the phase stability margin path which
and by

loop

transistor

is quite big is overloaded

reduces. This increases the in the vernier phase lag loop.

The
amplitude
stability

the loop is globally stable. However,when in this loop input signal, the feedback large-amplitude thus increasing the phase lag of this subsystem, closed-loop the a

stand-alone

margins

in

the transistor
at the

loop have been increased and

this

signal

limiter S was installed

been

input to

loop.

Since

then, substantial jump

resonance has not

A13.7
An

observed.

Telecommunication
or

repeater
multiport

electrical

mechanical

can

be

characterized

by

transmission

coefficients betweenthe ports and the input impedances (mobilities) at the ports. MIMO as desired, all these parameters of an active multiport feedback can be used to make stable in time, and linear. in the Bell Laboratories in the An of such a system is a repeater designed example telecommunication 1930s for a 12-channel frequency division system over multiplex must have large feedback over the open wires [2, pp.499 - 502]. The repeater amplifier the channels. Over the between band to reduce the intermodulation operational must be continuously band, the repeater's gain adjusted by operational frequency of the open wire span between the level control to match the attenuation automatic can cause the line attenuation to vary within for all weather conditions, which repeaters 20 dB at lower frequencies. The nominal 40 dB at higher frequencies and within input to Z= 150 ft. The provision of the desired and output impedances of the repeaterequal
impedances

and the
the

input-output MMO

gain system

can

Fig. A13.19. This counting

slower

is a
gain

be illustrated with three inputs having

the
and

flowchart
three

shown
outputs

in (not

response

control loops).

|
\302\253--/ \342\200\224f \342\200\224 \342\200\224f-

Load

CombirierJ

Splitter

Gain response control

A13.19

Fig.

Flowchart

of a

MIMO

system two
and

The

amplifier
signals:

is a

two-port

described

two

output

I^n,

1/^,

and
the

/an,,,,

by linear The l/*^. to

connect

the signal
the

source and

load

relations between the splitter three-ports the amplifier and the feedback
the

input
combiner

and

ratios of
input

(variables) to signals the output and impedance,

be controlledare
impedance.

amplifier

transfer
output

path B. The coefficient, the

are
with

The

input
the

and

impedances

specified

(commanded)

by

the

transfer

functions

of

blocks

Z. In

other words,

408

Appendix
current

13

the

of the blocks Z being the command the signals, using the summer 5lt the input voltage Un, with the summer S2, and the output voltage U0M,with the summer S3. The simplified schematicdiagram the gain control loops is shown in including A13.20. in the The is Bode sense it since includes Fig. system single-loop only one actuator with a nonlinear link: the saturation in the ultimate stage of the This amplifier. illustrates benefits of the the functional structural over diagram design: frequency range, the input impedance on the combiner, and the output impedance, depends exclusively on the splitter. The repeater blocks and on the gain depends on these two input-output feedback path B. Thus, gain regulations in B do not affect the input and output impedances.
input

4,

and the

outputs

output

current

/ou,

is controlled

Fig. A13.20

Telecommunication

repeater

simplified
with

schematic

diagram
band-limiting
the a signal

The combiner and the stray reactive elementsand

idealized

splitter
multiple

are made
resonances.

transformers

having

They

are more into

two

complicatedthan
(or

ones shown

in

Fig.

A13.19:
the

unlike in the

block diagrams, splitting

many)

in

electrical circuits there is a trade-off

second

means splitting
between

expense of the at different different The solution frequencies. output. optimal and The stray elements bound the available signal-to-noise ratio, reflectionattenuations, first between these parameterswere the feedback. the trade-offs During the design, defines the for the real part of an impedancethat resolved using the Bode integrals and for the feedback. The available signal-to-noise ratio, for the reflection attenuation, in different directions of the signal and combiner frequency responses for the splitter
how
at the

incoming power much power goes to is to this trade-off

loads,

and

one output

propagation
approximated

Then, these responses were complex. and compensators that are implemented by and splitter. in the combiner incorporating extra electricalelements the which the feedback sufficiently over The functional bandwidth rejects was limited to 50 kHz by the quality of vacuum tubes available at the intermodulation - but the GHz time. Today, the bandwidth of FET feedback amplifiers can reachseveral were

chosen to be
high-order

not

overly

with

correctors

design

principles The loop

the

remain

essentially
with

the

same.
and

gain response
bandwidth

over
with

operational

the

order

of the

compensators over 25. The

frequencies frequencies)

Bode step a crisp was implemented with

bypassed via the

maximum the

feedback

feedback better than 0.5 dB, accuracy was path arranged in two
available

The higher paths. parallel attenuate higher transformers'

the

feedback
filter

path

(whose

high-pass

Bht.

The

minimum-

Appendix 13

409
by

phaseproperty

of the total feedback of the frequency responses B and Bhf. A simple NDC - a back-parallel load some advance

path

B + BM

was preserved

appropriate

shaping

pair for

of diodes

reduced provided phase large-level the jump amplitude of the jump resonance. and the available feedbackover The slope of the Bode the diagram operational band could be increasedwith Nyquist-stable loop design. However, in those days (and until the 1960's) the methods of providing global stability with NDCs were not yet well such an NDC, the system would not be globally stable. developed, and without in the feedback path Three Bode variable have the following gain equalizers flat, slanted, and convex, regulation frequency responses: as depicted in Fig. A13.21. Three pilot with signals at the ends and in the center of the functional dB frequencies An analog frequency band were being sent continuously. in the form of a resistor matrix the decoupled computer

shunting the capacitive signals and significantly

interstage

gain control loops. The automatic gain control levels the the at the of output amplifier constant kept pilot the thus that the total of gain open wire line and assuring the OdB at these remained repeater frequencies and, OdB over the entire frequency therefore, approximately band of operation.
automatic

frequency

Fig.

A13.21

Gain

regulation frequency

responses

A13.8
The

Distributed regulators
level

signal

along
of

the telecommunication
pilot

trunk

can
changing

be

controlled
the

small-amplitude

single-frequency
paths

signal
that

and
levels

attenuation

by sending a of the

feedback

the

repeaters
will

such

the
the

appropriate bandpass filters

be equal

to

references,

of the pilot selected signal by as shown in Fig. A13.22.

Fig. A13.22 Cascaded

in

signal

level

regulation

telecommunication

system

the number of such regulators in a long telecommunication trunk is large, substantial interaction between them. When, the level on the nth signal say, becomes than the the at of levels the reference, suddenly larger repeater output outputs all repeaters starting with the nth become larger than their and all these references, automatic gain control system start acting to correct the signal level. shows that even a small overshoot in a single The analysis of such systems as transient response causes a large overshoot at the output of the trunk regulator
When
exists
there

illustrated

in Fig.
regulators

Al3.23.
are

If

all

identical,

then to make

small

the

overshoot

of the

total

410

Appendix
90\302\260 stability

13 over the
although

response, a
band

where

presents

must be preserved in each regulator loop gain is bigger than -60 dB, which, substantial implementation difficulties.
margin

frequency

the regulator

feasible,

time

Fig.

A13.23

Transient

(b) a chain
Alternatively, be made differently,

responses

for (a) a of regulators

single

regulator and

in the regulator can loops, or the regulators several slower thus regulator following regulators, between the regulators. reducing the coupling Chains or networks of regulation are employed for shape correction of flexible bodies distributed regulators. (optical mirrors, for example) with multiple spatially with

NDCs can be introduced

a faster

A13.9
For
attitude

Saturn V S-IC flight controlsystem

flight
is sensed

the

control system for using an inertially

package.

the

first

stage

stabilized

of the Saturn and the platform,

by

V
attitude

launch
rate

vehicle, the is available

from a rate gyro rocket engines.

The

The

torque

is provided
shown

gimballing

four

of the
digital

five F-l
and

controller

block
computer

diagram from

is the
analog
the

analog. The digital

attitude through

compares

in Fig. A13.24. the programmed attitude platform.

It is

part

command

history

part to the

feedback a D/A

sampled

inertial

converter
RC

to

the

flight
flight

from

the rate
the

of

gyros goes directly to

compensators

high-order

Ct

and

compensators

of the

attitude

are analog because they must in the digital computer can be rather errors

error is passed The attitude computer. The analog feedback control computer. This computer consists that the rate feedback and the C2. Note have a fast response, while the generation
control
slow.

Computations
Launch

D/A
digital
I

C,(s)

Actuator

and

vehicle

vehicle
dynamics

computer

Flight

control

computer

\302\246

Rate gyro
Inertial

platform

Fig.

A13.24

Control block diagram

map the
the

for

the

Saturn
from

Fig. A13.25
the

is a frequency
be seen that slosh,

of the plant

transfer

function

the gimbal

actuators to
structural

sensors.

It can

dynamics

and propellant

frequencies

contains many of which are

resonances due to
uncertain.

Appendix

13

411

Rigid Aerodynamics

Slosh,

mode

6 tanks

Pitch (yaw)

dynamics

Banding, *

modes
I\342\200\2241

pfl
| .01 .1 1
frequency Actuator

dynamics 1

10

100

Fig.

A13.25

Frequency
V dynamics

map

of
The
channel

Saturn

is

Nyquist diagram for the shown in Fig. A13.26.

pitch

The
and
control

Fig. A13.26
for Saturn

Nyquist V

diagram

resonance

propellant has sufficient stability system within the boundaries shown A13.10
The

modes of the structure appear as loops. The

margins in Fig.

pitch

control

for all possible A13.25.

frequencies of the

flexible

modes

PLL

computer

20 MHz

computer

clock with duty cycle adjustments radar must have 50% duty clock of the Cassini spacecraft

cycle

be synchronized with a 10 MHz ultra-stable quartz generator. is is generated VCO A nearly sinusoidal 20 MHz signal by an LC VCO. The the to make the clock To stabilize followed by a Schmitt shape rectangular. trigger are employed. The loops frequency and the duty cycle of the clock, two feedback small and be between the two is can neglected. loops coupling is halved by a D flip-flop and applied The clock first loop is a PLL. The frequency To the to one of the inputs of an exclusive OR gate which is used as a phase detector. The other input of the gate is applied the reference 10MHz signal. averaged phase to the with RC is via an detector output error) compensation applied op-amp (phase diode VCO tuning and corrects the clock frequency. RC low-pass filter. The filter's output The loop uses as a sensora simple duty-cycle is the average value of the clock to the duty cycle. voltage signal and is proportional This voltage is subtracted from a half of the VCC (obtained by a voltage divider), and in the VCO, via an the difference(duty cycle error) adds to the dc bias of the transistor of thus changing the degree asymmetry of the generated op-amp with RC compensation, the the Schmitt trigger, output is forced by the feedback signal.After being clamped by to have the required 50% duty cycle.
and must

A13.ll
The

Attitude control of solar panels

controlled by short bursts is bang-bang Space 1) spacecraft attitude the cycle length of approximately with attitude control thrusters, with time (if the the spacecraft attitude changes linearly Between the firings, deviation from the are neglected) and the maximum and the out-gassing mean the error smaller would 1\302\260. exceeds firing the thrusters more Making which is more and However, the required unacceptable. propellant, using
(Deep

DS-1

fired 1000

from sec.
wind

the

solar
nominal
frequently

412
accuracy

Appendix

13 Fresnel lens light concentrators is must be continuously corrected by the panels via a gear without backlash and
with

of pointing

the

solar

panels

outfitted
toward

0.5\302\260. Therefore,

the panels'

attitude

the

sun

motors. The chosen stepper motors make up to 40 steps per second.

When

rotate

the

motors

are commanded
that

possibility

extreme

excluded conditions of the

is not

the

motors firing

thruster

might slip over one or and excitation of structural

open-loop,

the

action

is fast.
several

However,
steps

the

during

modes

in the

the power to the ion engine). To prevent this from panels (the panels supply affecting the steady state accuracy,the system must be controlled closed-loop using the data from the encoder placed on the solar panel shaft. The sampling is 0.5 Hz. Therefore, fb~ 0.05 the Hz, frequency closed-loop bandwidth = 0.07 Hz, and the rise time is about 5 sec. With this rise time, the settling time of the system is about 10 seconds, which is too long. A better solution is to combine the advantages of the open-loop control and the closed-loop controlby using a feedback-feedforward scheme. A simplified blockdiagram of such a controller is shown in Fig. A13.27. is the commanded is the encoder Here, alpha_com angle, alpha_enc

large

readings,pulsejium
period,

is

the
the

number
number

f forwjium

is
number

of steps the motor must of pulses commanded

make during
by

the

sampling

the

feedforward

path,

fbacK_num is the
alpha_com

of pulses

commanded

by

the

feedback

compensator.
fforw_num

Fig.
The

A13.27 controller

Simplified block diagram has a common a low-pass link

for solar

panels'
of

attitude

control

feedback

configuration with

proportional control path

and

saturation

parallel in front of

connection

of

it.

The upper path

filter path

in the

that

does

not pass
disabled 12 pulses

becomes
up

supplies
settling

to

It begins with a high-pass block diagram is the feedforward. dc. Therefore,in seven or so seconds after a step command this and the feedback control takes over, but for small times it to the motor to speed it up and to reduce the rise time and the

time.

A13.12
The

Conceptual
Limb
radiometer

control design of an antenna attitude

Sounder

Microwave

(MLS) of
antenna

the

Chemistry

Spacecraft
the

radiometer. The
pointing

mirror

scans

Earth

horizon

includes a with

TeraHerz
6arcsec
away settling

accuracy.
180\302\260 for

After calibration,

nearly

each 20 sec, 2\302\260 the antenna must be turned sCan, and then returned to start the next scan. The required
to arcsec

by
must

after the return is 10~5 (the ratio of 6 accuracy be less than 0.8 sec, which is not easy to achieve.

and 180\302\260),

the settling

time

Appendix

13

413

with The radiometer pointing direction can be shifted by 180\302\260 an additional mirror. In this case, there will be two separate a scanning mirror and a switching mechanisms: in the dual mirror is mirror. The design of attitude controllers system simple since the be switched the mirror can be small and can off switching completely optical path of the main mirror during the scan, and the scanning mechanism can include a gear. An economic alternative is to use a singlemirror driven by a motor, and a directly and switching. In the attitude controller for this servo loop for both single scanning time necessitates a wide feedback bandwidth; mechanism, the small settling requirement The question resonances. the bandwidth might be limited, however, by structural servo has to be resolvedat the initial stages of of the single-mirror regarding feasibility have not the when accurate mathematical models of the mechanisms' dynamics project for the purposes of conceptual design and the control yet been developed.Therefore, model of the system's estimation, a simplespecialized performance dynamics has to be

developedby

the

control

system designer.

in Fig. A13.28(a). The angular encoder disk The single-mirror mechanism is shown It is placed close to the motor rotor, thus making is used as the angle feedbacksensor. mirror is connected the control collocated. The antenna to the motor rotor via a shaft. the The of torsional resonance of antenna on the shaft is 300Hz. The entire frequency

mechanism

base, a heavy
from

is mounted on the spacecraft 50 kg laser is installed.

with

a thrust

structure.

On

the same

instrument

driver

to

(a)

(b)
TeraHerz

Fig. A13.28 (a) The (b) its simplified The major

requirement structural

antenna

mechanical

mechanism and schematic diagram

the

modes

that

no structural

of the laser and mode can be lower

modes of the base is about 50 with the torsional motion of the rotor. The coupling coefficients coupled at this stage of the project. are not yet known A simplified mechanical schematic diagram for the rotor torsional motion shown in is obtained by projecting the rocking structural modes onto rotation Fig. A13.28(b) about the motor rotation axis. We will consider the worst case: the rocking mode motion modes. These projections use the moments of inertia of the aligned with the torsional bodies about the rotation The spring coefficients are chosen such axis. that the rigid torsional modes resulting from these have the same frequencies as the projections
frequency

of the

are rocking modes. Thereis a than 50 Hz. The lowest about 60 Hz. Hz, and of the laser modes,
base
in frequency

The modesare

original

rocking

modes.

The employed
introduced

models have no provisionsfor

model, but
in

modal

damping.

The damping
since

can be
modes

in

the

this

example

there is no

need for this,

output

the of the

will be

already
by

substantially

damped

by the dissipative

mobility

motor

driven

a voltage

source.

414
The instrument
inertia inertia

Appendix

13

of inertia of the laser about the rotor rotation axis J^ a 0.5 kgm2. The and the encoder constitute a rigid body with the moment of base, the stator, the motor rotation axis /B ** 0.2 kgm2. The antenna mirror moment of about
moment 0.01 kgm2.
Zsm-

/M =

The actuator

output

is

shown

as a

source of velocity

Qs

with

internal
The

mobility
initial

effects on the control rough estimation of the plant dynamics' loop based on the diagrams in Fig. A13.28 is the following: The base moment of inertia is larger by more than by an order of magnitude than the mirror's moment of inertia. we Therefore, can assume in the course of the system analysis that the base moment of inertia is This simple model is valid infinite. at frequencies to half of the of the up frequency structural lowest i.e., up to 25 Hz. The resonances at 50 and 60 Hz of the resonance, base and the laser will not profoundly affect the loop because the base mobility is rather - as low relative to the antenna as the of interest is up to range mobility long frequency 25 Hz, i.e., the control is below 15 Hz. bandwidth For the control bandwidth beyond 15Hz, the worst-case stability extending analysis the plant model in Fig. A13.28(b). can be made using The equivalent in Fig. A13.29(a), with the electrical schematic diagram is shown 1-to-l ratio in the analogy of the mechanical to electricalparameters and variables, e.g., with Ju replaced by Cm = 0.01 F. The torsional stiffness coefficient of the mirror shaft kM is
the

replaced

by

winding

resistance

mobility and to k is tiie electromechanical motor

of the driver's l/kM. The electrical contour impedance output is a is motor is driven it converted to rw (the by voltage driver); = the mobility 1-to-l electrical impedance where Zs A^rw, representation

LM =

constant.

(b)

Fig. A13.29

(a) Electricalequivalent of the TeraHerzantenna

modified

schematic attitude

control,

for the plant dynamics diagram (b) modified diagram

of the

The schematicdiagram
two-poles
it

about

the

contour

is shown
= 0.2

connection by changing the order of series in Fig. A13.29(b). Here,

= 0.85,

rw =

4 n,

CB

F, CL =
= 400

0.5 F, CR
rad/sec,

= 0.0002

F, CM=

0.01F,
= 2000

the

resonance
1/(*VW)

frequencies
= 0.346,

@L

cob=

320 rad/sec,@a

rad/sec,

1/Zs =

sCR= 0.002s,

= 0.000025s, Z4 = sLA= j/(coa2Ca)

Appendix

13

415

Z,\342\200\224

s*LLCLLBCB

+s2(LBCB

+LLCL
as

+CLLB) + 1'

Since I4Q
Z,=-

= l/coj2,

we can

express Za

)+

s2[l I wB

\\ +

CL /

+1 (CBcoB)]

or

z, =
61.035x10\026j4

'
+ 31.64s2

+ 106

This

function

is an

impedance
along

of a

losslesstwo-pole,

and

its zeros

0;

\302\261;400

and

poles

\302\261;184; \302\261/700 alternate

the;'co-axis.
in

in this case could be analyzed with SPICE; even need to do not be derived. However,for the expressions impedances of system design and integration, convenience in the plant model is worth building A13.30 shows the block model of the SIMULINK. Fig. plant dynamics diagram the approach described in Fig. 7.18(d) and (f). On the SIMULINK block following variables mechanical listed. are diagram, Fig. A13.29
the

The schematic diagram

for the

(a)

(b)

torque

on

mirror

shaft

Inport, driver output voltage

omega of mirror
Outport,

encoder output

(c)
model plant Fig. A13.30 (a) Laddernetwork control, (b) Block diagram model of the of the plant,

TeraHerz antenna attitude (c) SIMULINK model

416
Notice

Appendix

13

the diagrams (b) and (c) in Fig. A13.28 are very for convenient in the effects the series and branches and of (a): investigating parallel troubleshooting the input of a link pointing down replaces the related series two-pole by a disconnecting to a link pointing disconnects short and disconnecting the input the circuit, up,
that

corresponding
The
with

shunting

branch.
in

Bode diagram logspace(l,

Fig.

Al3.31

for the

plant

transfer

function

I/(ZM)/?s

is plotted

bode(A,B,C,D,l,w)

[A,B,C,D]
on

= linmod('mlsplan');
connection
nominal

3) ;

hold

% remove bode(A,B,C,D,l,w)

the

to the
of the

input of block
parameters,

Z2

for two infinitely

cases: for
massive

the

values

plant

and for Z2

= 0,

i.e., for

an

base.

\342\200\224-.

> ^,

e
\342\200\242\302\247-20

-s.

AC\\ '40

10

10

10

c
deg

Frequency (rad/sec)

8
8

Phase \342\200\224\302\246 ii\342\200\224

10'
A13.31

10'

10\"

Frequency (rad/sec)
Fig.

Bode diagram
attitude

for

the

control

plant of the loop

TeraHerz antenna

of the MLS GHz radiometer, single-mirror feasible. This device must be made with two a scanning mirror and a switching mirror. mechanisms, separate The two gain and phase responses in the picture are very close to each other. resonances of the laser and of the base do not constrain the Hence,the structural feedback bandwidth which can be therefore 30Hz. With an appropriate prefilter, a multiwindow command Section and this controller, 5.11) profiling (see shaping, loop

For

a much larger

primary

mirror

attitude-and-switching

control

is not

feedback
this

bandwidth

ensures

the required

accuracy
use

with

substantial

margins.

Based

on

analysis,

a decision

can be

made to

the

economic

option of a

single-mirror

mechanism.

Appendix

13
line

417

A13.13
System

Pathlength
description

control of an optical delay

of

interferometer (SIM) is placedin the path of the The separated optical elements called siderostats. is regulated to provide an interference on the focal plane where this is delay pattern light combined with the light from another siderostat. The delay line is positioned on a truss structure as shown in Fig. A13.32(a). A reaction wheel assembly is employed for the interferometer attitude control. The delay line includes two mirrors. The larger, sphericalmirror is actuated by a voice coil (VC) capable of a maximum displacement of 1 cm at low frequencies. The stroke of smaller, flat mirror is moved by a piezoactuator (PZT) with a maximum 30u.m. The light between the mirrors along the variable bouncing pathlength a controllable The must be controlled with better than experiences delay. pathlength 5 nm accuracy. The optical
light

delay line
from

the
the

stellar
widely

gathered

one of

TT
Truss

structure

Reaction

wheels

Fig. A13.32
The

Optical delay line

and applies

PZT
the

consists
countermass.

of

two

piezo

elements

a force between
supporting
bandwidth

the

smaller

mirror and

Since

the forces

applied to the

structure
in

balance loop is

out,
not

the

PZT

limited

by the

The VC is,
in

and the feedback not excite the structure, structural modes. the PZT. The VC de-saturates does

this

turn,

de-saturated

by placing

it

on not

a be

cart; the cart motor control discussed here.

loop
the The

will

mass

The voicecoil moves M = 0.5kg against

with mobility
Zst.

the

mirror

having
flexible

schematic diagrams for the VC in of the mirror are shown actuation Here, CM reflects the mass of Fig. A13.33. the mirror, and Lsusp and /?susp reflect the VC suspension, with the resonance at 5 Hz. The where rvc is VC Zvc = mobility the coil resistance, Zq is the driver amplifier output impedance, and k is the force/current

structure electrical

equivalent

Fig. A13.33
circuit

for the the

Equivalent electrical voice coil drive:

structure, (b) modified

(a) following

418
electromechanical
is substantially

Appendix

13

coefficient smaller than

(the

of
the

the

voice

mobility

Over the frequency range of of the contour it is in and does not

coil.

interest, IZstl
much

affect

the velocity

of the mirror

voltage

on CM).

Numerical design constrains

The

PZT

maximum
maximum

displacement
displacement

is 30 urn

over

the entire

frequency range of interest.

The VC

amplitude

is

With

the

VC

constant
/max

k=

0.3 N/A
frequency

and

the current
at

saturation
the VC

threshold

of

the VC

driver amplifier
amplitude

= 3

A, the

which

maximum displacement

equals

that

of the

PZT, Dmax

= 0.00003

m, is

large to reject the sufficiently 500 Hz, caused by the reaction wheels. The feedback must be at least 60 dB at 16 Hz. The disturbance forces' spectral so that the assumed to be flat over the 500 Hz bandwidth, are density responses to the of the vibration amplitudes are, on the average, square inversely proportional the and the maximum actuator both feedback output amplitude frequency. Therefore, can decrease inversely proportional to the square of the frequency. Hence, the loop gain
the

The feedback in

VC

and PZT

loops

must

be

vibrational

disturbances

over

the

bandwidth

up

to

slope must be close to -12 dB/oct. of the structure The available feedback in the VC loop is affected by the mobility as seen in Fig. A13.33. As can be estimated Zst, using an asymptotic Bode-step the VC loop bandwidth modes and their uncertainties prevent response, the structural from 100 Hz - if the loop is designed as stand-alone-stable. In this case, the exceeding 60 dB. gain in the VC loop at 16 Hz is only 26 dB, lessthan the required in this case, the Therefore, the VC loop has to be designedas stand-alone-unstable; increased. The loop can be substantially gain and the slope of the loop Bode diagram as described in Section 9.7. can be designed as a self-oscillating dithering system The sampling the PZT 5kHz. For the VC loop, the sampling for is frequency loop 1 can be chosen to be kHz. frequency

Higher-level
The

design objectives
system
The

control

pathlength.

In

addition

required or highly
\342\200\242 \342\200\242

index is the mean square error in the delay line performance design objective is to keep the mean square error below 5 nm. principle the to the principle design objective, characteristics are following
desirable:

system

robustness, output

and amplitudes, to commands of different shapes to disturbances that are neither responses large-amplitude vanishing in nor or duration, excessively large amplitude \342\200\242 a large disturbance/command of nonlinear if the triggering threshold phenomena, nonlinear are and violent and cannot be excluded phenomena responses prolonged in order that these nonlinear the design, by phenomena happen infrequently.
good

responses

\342\200\242 transient

Appendix

13

419

Design approach

The controller
to

for

this nonlinear,

flexible,
overly

and

uncertain

plant

must be
the

reasonably close
controller

the

best

achievable,

but

not

multiloop, high-order, and nonlinear, The conceptual design employing

We complicated. but not time variable

choose

to be

(i.e., not

adaptive).

Bode
the

diagrams should produce a solution invariable controller (the \"optimality\"

in here

objectives, according to the opinion design with making some reasonableassumptions The and the design begins translating a into set of lower-level The latter consists of the higher-level objectives guidelines. If possible, these objectives and design objectives and the design considerations. considerations should be formulated in a mutually (orthogonal) form to decoupled the This is more easily trade-offs and to speed up the design. system simplify
accomplished

and the Bode asymptotic of the timevicinity optimal globally best satisfaction of the higher-level means of the customers, i.e., system engineers).
integrals

using

frequency-domain

specifications.

Lower Level
The

Design Objectives
design objectives for following:
the

lower

level
as the

feedback

system

under consideration

can be
the

formulated

\342\200\242 To

effectively

loop
\342\200\242 To

reject the vibrational must exceed 50 dB at gain reject

600

disturbances 40 Hz

of rather

large amplitudes,
must

VC

and the

feedback

increase

toward

the

lower frequencies.
effectively
that

vibrations
the

at

higher

frequencies,

however

with

smaller
been

amplitudes, the feedbackin

calculated
\342\200\242 The \342\200\242 The

PZT
will

loop must have

suffice.

wide bandwidth;

it has

Hz bandwidth
the

transient system

response to must be globally

commands stable.

of different

amplitudes must be good.

\342\200\242 If the

the frequency of oscillationin VC loop is made unstable when stand-alone, in for as as order the of the limit-cycle amplitude loop should be high possible a nd in as small as not to overload the PZT. this to be oscillation possible loop
this are

The designconsiderations
\342\200\242 The

the following:
m.p.,

VC
the

and PZT
parallel

loops are nearly

must be

and

the combined a larger

loop

must

be

m.p.

For

this,
\342\200\242 At

channels

frequencies

below /cross= 40Hz the

at

shaped appropriately.
VC

provides

stroke and
actuator.
the

is therefore

the main actuator;

higher

frequencies,

PZT

is

the

main

Therefore,
loop

rejection of the large amplitude the VC loop and at/>/cross,

requirements for the

robustness.

VC

disturbances on the PZT and PZT loop gain

the

loop. Outside of
shaping

depends at/</cross on
these

ranges,

gain in the only

and

is the

provision of stability
Extra

(Generally,

loop

which

is

unnecessarily

therefore, this
\342\200\242 At

- but it not the main one does system performance consumes a part of the area specified by a related Bode integral; is not worth doing.)
not

making

loop

cross

at /cross is
hurt

not

necessary.

gain in the

the

of the frequency the VC suspension

5 Hz, the

VC

driver

resonance.At

output impedance should be small over 50 Hz, the impedance frequencies

to damp

can

be

420
higher, thus making \\ZWC\\ these frequencies to be lessaffected
made

Appendix

13

higher

in order

by the system

for the loop transfer structural modes.

function

at

Conventional designapproach
Most

commonly,

industrial
improving making

main-vernier
the

simple NDCs for globally stableby

When systems

systems do not include responses to the commands. loops

globally

NDCs Such

or only include systems are made

in

all stand-alone
and

stable.

the feedback are not

the sufficient,

the

disturbance

the

disturbance

that rejection rejection can be

and

are achievable
improved

such

at

the

price
however,

of

making
causes sluggish.

main-vernier

system

only

conditionally
complicated

stable [25,50]. This,

the command generator It also necessitates a

to be
procedure

to

recover
hardware.

which can normally

be

quite

violent
in

and damaging systems.

to

the

the reaction to the commands the system from the limit cycle For this reason, this option is

not used

industrial

The chosen
The

design options
design

chosen

options

for

the

system

with

an NDC
this

are the
the

following:

\342\200\242 The

VC

loop is
can

stand-alone-unstable. In
be

case

the slope

of the

Bode

diagram

of
the

loop steeper thus improving of disturbances. handling large-amplitude \342\200\242 An NDC provides global stability. \342\200\242 The PZT loop bandwidth is 600 Hz wide, with
made

the VC

disturbance

rejection

and

a Bode step response, with the Bode -10 dB/oct at 150 to 1200 -12 over the and dB/oct Hz, diagram slope frequencies 40 Hz. Hz in PZT is x to 150 At 40 the the therefore 12dB/oct range gain loop = + 20 43 down at dB. The gain may gradually roll lower frequencies. 150/40) Iog2( \342\200\242 choose the asymptotic Bode diagrams shown in Fig. A13.34(a), since for this We task the advantages of using the better particular design shaped diagrams exemplified in (b) do not justify higher complexity of the design. \342\200\242 The VC loop Bode diagram crossesthe PZT loop Bode diagram at 40 Hz.
at 40 Hz is approximately 40\302\260. loop phase margin to 20rad/sec, down and -6 dB/oct loop Bode diagram slope is -18 dB/oct below this frequency. The gain at 40Hz must be 43 dB, i.e., 141 times.From here, = 2.24xlO9. a = 141Bn40K 7Vc = a/[s(s + 20J] where \342\200\242 = 130\302\260. At 40 Hz, the phase difference between the is 270\302\260- 140\302\260 This loops
\342\200\242 The

PZT VC

\342\200\242 The

ensures
\342\200\242 To

minimum the

ensure

phase character of the system's global stability

will

total

loop
and

with
good
linear

50\302\260 safety

margin.

transient
block

responses
the

to

the

commands,

an NDC
the

be

included

in the

combined loop, with

the

dead

zone
PZT

equal to

threshold

loop transfer

of the PZT actuator. As function is employed.

of the

NDC, the

Appendix

13

421

dB

'vc

'VC

52
PZT
-18dB/oct

52
PZT

c10dB/oct Hz, log

c10dB/oct Hz, log 40

40

600s
\\
(a)

(b)

Fig.

A13.34

Asymptotic

Bode diagrams for (a) simpler and (b) higher

stand-alone performance

loop transfer

functions;

Block
The

diagram
asymptotic

with rational

transfer functions
responses
shown

(transcendental)
with

in

Fig.

A13.34(a)

need to be
certain

responses. approximated The frequency-normalized Bode-step-type (including loop response with function bostep (from the of sampling) is obtained MATLAB
rational

function

Bode

Step

n.p. lag toolbox)

and
This transfer

shifted

in

forms

with frequency the stand-alone

has been

x \\Q9/[s(s + 20J]. already defined as 2.24 PZT loops and for the VC and stand-alone The Bode diagrams with the are obtained Bode diagram following script: = 6.7e-6 -5.14ell 1.26el7 1.5e21 [2.33e-10 npzt = 6.5el7 1.684e21 2.83e5 7e9 9.18el3 [1 dpzt = [2.5e9]; dvc = [1 40 400 0]; nvc
function

Ip21p for the PZT loop transfer

crossover function.

frequency The

to be

stand-alone
the

27t600rad/sec. VC loop
summed

loop

9.5e24 1.2e28];
0

0];

ntotl
ntot2

conv(npzt,dvc);

ntot
w

adz = zerosA,length(ntotl)-length(ntot2)) = + [adz ntot2]; ntotl

= conv(dpzt,nvc);

dtot = conv(dvc,dpzt) ;
=

logspace(l,4.5);

bbode(npzt,dpzt,w);

hold

on

bode(nvc,dvc,w);

bode(ntot,dtot,w);

hold off
zoom

on

The

logarithmic toolbox:

plane

Nyquist

diagrams

are plotted

with nyqlog

from

the

Bode

Step

nyqlogC700,

hold on

nvc,dvc)

nyqlogC700, npzt,dpzt)

hold
hold

on

nyqlogC700,

ntot,dtot)
in Fig.

off
shown

The diagrams
operation

A13.35 indicate

that

the

system
rejection

is stable,

robust,

and provides 69 dB disturbance

in the linear at 16 Hz.

mode of

422

Appendix

13

200

Nyquist diagram, x marks

w = wb, + marks octaves

70 r

+
\302\246\302\246

50
-200

\\

+
\\
+

..

m
101

40

102

103

10*

10\"

Frequency

(rad/sec)

\\

r
\302\246 i

20

\\

\\

-180

\\\\
\\

s
-10

-270
10

10
Frequency

10
(rad/sec)

10

-20
10\" -270

-240
loop

-210
phase

-180 shift

In

-150 -120 degrees

-90

Fig.

A13.35

approximating
(The

combined

functions Bode and Nyquist for the rational transfer diagrams the asymptotic diagrams for the VC, the PZT, and the combined loop. and the intermediate one is the top one on the gain response, response on the phase response and the Nyquist diagram.) using

Fig.

The SIMULINK block is A13.36. The pathlength

diagram

these

transfer

functions
produced

is

shown

in

the sum

of

the

displacements

by the

PZT and

VC actuators.
2,5e9

velocity

s2+9s

vcc

0.1

Int

VC...POS

2.33e-10s6+6,7e-6s5-5,14e11s4+1,26e17s3+1,5e21s2+9.5e24s+1,2e28

s7+2.83e5s6+7e9s5+9.18e13s4+6.5e17s3+1.684e21s2+1.2e22s+2e22 c_pzt
|'\342\200\2243|\302\253J ndc_out matlab\\slm\\slmposc.m

dzO.0003

|3*
dz_ln spos

pathlength

BL Aug301998

Fig.

A13.36

Simplified

SIMULINK

block

diagram

of pathlength

control

dead

of the saturation, the block and in the simulations, the thresholds diagram the 10 times relative to the real and have been increased zone, signal amplitudes This increases t he of simulation. This numerical does system. scalingcertainly stability not affect the theory of operation and the responses' shapes, To simplify the VC is represented by a velocity source with velocity analysis, a VC not the detailed actuator model will character of saturation; change using principle
this

In

the results.

The feedback path

compensation

via

the

dead

(NDC). The

dead zone

equals

zone dzO.0003 implements nonlinear the PZT saturation threshold.

It

does

dynamic not

Appendix

13
system arid

423
performance the transient

pass small
state of

amplitude

signals
The

operation.

NDC

large amplitude

commands

and has no effect on the on the global stability will be discussed later.
effect without

in the linear

responses to

Self-oscillationin the
With

system

an NDC
is stable

frequency

responses
when

mode of operation
VC

both

shown in Fig. Al3.353, the system the PZT loop and the VC loop are
stable.
pulse 5 sec.

in the linear

closed. The stand-alone

Fig. A13.37 shows the The oscillation

loop
Without

is unstable.
an

NDC,

pathlength

oscillation
cycle

system is not globally triggered by a 30 msec, 3 mm

the
with

command.

approaches a limit
0.1

the period

longer than
2

X107

1.5 0.05

\\

/
1

1
1
~

\\

\\

/
\\

0.5

1
\\

-o.os

V \\

-0.5

\\

-1

\\ 1

\302\2460.1

/
a short

-1,5

(a)
Fig.

(b)

A13.37
the

Oscillation
VC output

NDC (a) of

triggered by pathlength component and

link

pulse command
(b)

in

the

system

without an
saturation

at the

input to the

with the amplitude of this oscillation, the PZT output is negligibly small. the a nonlinear saturation can be as the link, Therefore, system analyzed having single the function can be performed with in the VC actuator, and the analysis describing method. The accuracyof such analysis is sufficient since the VC loop is a low-pass and sinusoidal when to the saturation link becomes nearly the at the input signal the limit as seen in A13.37(b). cycle Fig. approaching to saturate the when the vibrations' amplitudes are large enough In other words, PZT, the VC loop is left alone and the system bursts into the limit cycle self-oscillation
Compared

at a low frequency frequency vibrations

with vanish

large and

limit cycle oscillation of the PZT is negligibly of the since the does not change substantially output amplitude the VC. with the small Thus, the limit cycle of the displacement generatedby compared as a whole. Largestand-alone VC loop is in fact also the limit cycle of the system of the limit cycle with substantial components frequency vanishing signals amplitude oscillation belong to the basin of attraction for the limit cycle. The system is
the

signal amplitude. no longer saturate

When
PZT,

the

high-amplitude

high-

the

conditionally

stable.

Limit

cycle of the

VC loop with

the

NDC
and

Since the

stand-alone VC loop is unstable

the

NDC dead

zone does not

pass

the

424

Appendix 13
amplitudes,

signals of small
is important

the stand-alone

VC loop is unstable
the

even

with
the

the NDC.

It

amplitude radically changes oscillation. The amplitude of the limit cycle oscillation is determined by the dead zone in the much zone describing NDC, since for signals larger than the dead zone, the dead function approaches 1, the system becomes close to linear, and such a system, as has is stable with sufficient stability oscillation can been shown Therefore, before, margins. take only place with amplitudes not much higher than the dead zone. the describing function stability Sincethe oscillation is small, during amplitude can be replaced link in the VC actuator by 1, and the system can analysis the saturation

to emphasize,

however, that

NDC

and

the frequency

of the

limit

cycle

in Fig. A13.38(a). This system's linear be viewed as that shown is, however, part for the conventional methods to be applicable, the diagram unstable; describing function to the diagram the dead zone with (b) by replacing (a) is transformed equivalently connection of a a saturation link with the threshold link and parallel unity equal to the zone. The stand-alone linear part of the latter (the dashed box) is stable this dead since connection is a feedback system with of VC and PZT loops. The transfer parallel function of the box is

'PZT

1 \"T
Notice

-*p
about

that the signal

the

loop

via the

saturation

is applied

in phase.

PZT

PZT \342\200\224I\342\200\224>

/\342\200\224'

rJ
i

VC 1

(a)
Fig.

(b)

A13.38

Equivalent
the

block diagrams for

linear part and

(a)

with

unstable
for

(b) with
shown

function describing the stable linear

in Fig.

analysis,

part is obtained
with

The Bode diagram

the

this transfer

function

A13.39

script

npzt
dpzt

1.2e28];
=

[2.33e-10

6.7e-6

-5.14ell

1.26el7 1.5e21 9.5e24 1.684e21

0

nvc

= 2.83e5 7e9 [1 = [2.5e9]; dvc = [1 conv(npzt,dvc);

9.18el3 6.5el7 40 400 0];

0];

nl
dl

dll
d2

= conv(dvc,dpzt);

= [0

nl]

dl;

deq = dll
%

= conv(dpzt,nvc);

+ [0

d2];

w = logspace@,4);
nyqlogA260,-nl,deq)

bbode(nl,deq,w)

Appendix 13

425

10

c
\302\246J3

N
\\ s

'''
/

0-10

-20
10\"

10'

10'

10*

10'

Frequency (rad/sec)
90

\302\2468 CD

N
\\

-90

-180
10\"

10\"

10' Frequency

10\302\260

10'

(rad/sec) describing
function

Fig. A13.39

Bodediagram

for the

oscillation

analysis

It is seen that the condition of oscillation (zero loopphase shift while the loop gain is positive) occurs at approximately 1600 rad/sec, or, approximately, at 250 Hz. The is 1.5. The oscillation loop gain at this frequency is 3.5 dB, i.e., the gain coefficient of the loop E can be found by equating the describing function to the inverse amplitude coefficient, i.e., using A1.8), gain

l.27(E/esyl
wherefromjE!

=0.00054.
the describing

1/1.5,

= l.8es
this

With than
stability
the

gain

and

function of the PZT equals 0.67, i.e., is only 3.5 dB less linear state of operation.Sincein the linear state of operation the is asymptotically safety margins of order of 10 dB are provided, the system
E,

in the

globally stable. commands,

actuator recovers from being saturated or by disturbances with the selfof delivering an output signal comparable of this signal makes the and the oscillation in the VC loop. Application stable, system dies down. in the VC oscillation asymptotically in this case is shown in Fig. A13.40, of the pathlength The time-history (a) without and (b) with saturation in the VC that limits the slew rate.

Therefore,when
it

the

PZT

is

capable

426

Appendix 13

3.5

x10~

2.5

2.5

\\

1.5

A
/
\\

1.5
0.5 0.5

\\

\\

\\
-0.5
0.02

/
0.04
0.06

V V V

vv Vv

-0.5

0.06

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

(a) Fig.

(b) after

A13.40

and

Pathlength
without

time-history

a pulse
without

command
limiting

in

a system

with the

NDC

a PZT

actuator,

(a)

the VC

velocity and

(b) with
Global

a \302\2610.1 m/sec

limiter

of the

VC velocity

stability

of a

system is
in

with

the

NDC
saturation

The dead-zone branch

parallel

branches equal a linear system with an extra

system
The transfer

branch

with

with the PZT the same transfer

in

branch.

These

function.

(Augmenting

two parallel a nonlinear

the

nonlinear

subsystem,
of

our

case

by the

dead zone, so that

total

properties
system function
input

are those

linear

system,

is sometimes

called exact

linearization.)
therefore of the
is 7Vc/(l

saturation
the script

link: the VC saturation. The only one nonlinear the VC to the VC linear from saturation link output equivalent with of this transfer function found + Tpzt)- The Bode diagram

includes

npzt
dpzt

= [2.33e-10
=

[1

2.83e5

nvc

= [2.5e9];
=

dvc = [1 40 400 0] ;

9.5e24 6.7e-6 -5.14ell 1.26el7 1.5e21 1.2e28]; 6.5el7 1.684e21 0 OJ ; 7e9 9.18el3

nl
dl

conv{nvc,dpzt);

= conv{dvc,dpzt);

d2 = conv(npzt,dvc);

deq
w

dl

[0 d2J;

logspace{l,4);

bode(nl,deq,w)

is plotted
the

in

system

A 13.41. Application of Fig. is asymptotically globally stable.

the

Popov

criterion

to this

system shows that

Appendix

13

427

20 .-\342\200\224\342\200\224 i... ~~.

-

% 10

a o

-10
10'

10*
Frequency

10*
(rad/sec)

I-360

-720

10'

10'
Frequency

10\302\260

(rad/sec)

Fig.

A13.41

Bode diagram

for

transfer

function

7vc/A + Tpzt)

Transient responses to commands

The

output

transient

response

to a

3 mm
in Fig.

pulse

command

in a

system, assuming

no

saturation

in the

VC actuator,

is shown

A13.42.
3.5 X10

x1Cf 3.5
3

2.5

2.5
I

1.5 1

1.5 1

0.5 0

0.5

Iflf
llll

nun
Iff

ft

fflfl
0.08

k
0.02

\\

-0.5

0.02 0.04

-0.5
0.06

0.04 (b)

0.08

0.08

(a)
transient

without ms, 3 mm pulse command, responses Pig. A13.42 Closed-loop saturation in the VC actuator; pathlength, upper curves, and PZT mirror displacement lower curves; (a) without PZT, ending in a small-amplitude250 Hz limit time-response, globally stable, rapidly settling cycle oscillation, and (b) with PZT, asymptotically
to 20 The

zoomed-on

parts of
the

the

responses

are

shown

in Fig.
the

A13.43.
signal,

After

the

PZT

becomes

desaturated, response coincides with down rapidly.

NDC the

dead

zone

stops passing

the
the

response

of the equivalent linear

system, and

pathlength error dies

428
X10

Appendix

13

x10
10

3.05

2.95

2.9
I

-5

0.01 0.0150.02
Fig. A13.43
The
Zoomed-on

/
0.025 pieces

0.03 of the
mm

0.035
transient

0.04
response

to a

20 ms, 3
to

closed-loop
command

pulse

output
in

transient

response

saturation
saturation

the

VC the
Fig.

limits

actuator slew rate

A13.42.

with

of

the

in a system a 50 ms pulse command in Fig. A13.44. threshold 0.01 is shown and in other aspects the responses output,

with

The
are

similar to

those in

X10

\302\246OS

0.12 (a)

-0.5
0.12

(b)

to 50 ms, 3 mm pulse with command, Fig. A13.44 Closed-loop transient responses saturation in the VC actuator; pathlength, solid lines, and PZT mirror displacement timedashed lines; (a) without PZT, response, ending in a small-amplitude 250 Hz limit cycle and (b) with PZT, asymptotically oscillation, globally stable, rapidly settling Settling

time to

high

accuracy

is that

of

the

linear

system.

The tail of

the

response

is

that of

a linear system.Fig.A13.45 shows of the equivalent linear system the responses of the real system (solidline). (dotted line) and the response

Appendix

13

429

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1 of the
system

0.12

Fig. A13.45 Transient

with

responses to

step

commands,
nonlinear

overshoots)

and the
demonstrate

main-vernier
the function

(with finit does

linear system (n-shaped slew rate)

it ensure
response

These figures
stability

of an NDC:
response

not

only

global
is,

but

also

it provides

good

transient

to large
in Fig.
the

signals.
the

In
integrator

the

large-signal

(nonlinear)

mode

of operation,
crossover,

loop

shown approximately, Tn/il+Tp^. This loop response

A13.41

response

over

the frequency range near

is close to a single from 1 Hz to 15 Hz.

in a single-pole closed loop transfer which Such a loop response results function is transient response (although not as good as known to produce a rather closed-loop good a higher-order Bessel filter so there remains some room for improvement). response, to the (a) small and (b) large shows the output Fig. A13.46 response step of 50 msec. The 75% overshoot in the small-signal commands applied at the instant from the stability margins are justifiably results that chosen (linear) mode of operation

reasonably
signal

narrow

(since

the plant

parameter
a prefilter

uncertainty

is small).

If needed,

the

small-

overshoot

can be

reducedby
values

not needed

because in
X10

absolute

the

command feedforward, but overshoot is small.

or a
0.035

these

are

1.8

1.6

0.03
1.4 1.2 1
If\" 0.025

0.02

0.8
0.6

0.015
0.01

0.4 0.2
0.02

0.005 0.04

0.06

0.08

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

(a)

(b)
responses

Fig. A13.46 Transient (a) 0.001m and

(b) larger

to step commands of amplitudes' commands

430
Robustness

Appendix

13

is exactly in the PZT saturation As long as the threshold equal to the dead zone in the NDC, the system is equivalent to a system with nonlinear one element, the VC only satisfies the criterion with conventional This actuator. system Popov stability margins, in the linear links' transfer and in the and is therefore robust against variations functions of the VC actuator. characteristic nonlinear of However, it would be desirable to make the dead zone wider than the threshold the PZT output die PZT saturation by 10 to 30% so as not to impair stroke. Therefore, the system must be also robust .3 of variations in the threshold 3.5 against the saturation in the PZT. To such

systems
nonlinear
not

including link,

more the

than

one

Popov

criterion Instead,

directly

applicable.

is we

When rely on computer simulations. the PZT saturation threshold is from 0.0003 to the 0.00015, changed stable remains and the system response
shown

to
in

the
Further

pulse
reduction

command
remains
of the

Fig. A13.47

-0.5

acceptable.
threshold
system amplitude shown

0.02

0.04

0.08

0.08

0.1

0.12
pulse

to

0.0001

unstable in Fig.

and causes oscillation similar

makes the a small

to
that

Fig. A13.47 Transient responsesto the command in the system with PZT saturation
threshold

A13.42.

0.00015

control having loop responses Bode with steps An appF^pmation to the theoretical loop response with Bode step describedin Section has been employed in precision SISO motor control systems for retroreflector 4.2.3
A13,14

MIMO

motor

carriage

motion

control

and for

gyroscope

attitude

control

of

an instrument
and
concrete

on

the

Chemistry

spacecraft.
jsijso

Jt was

employed drills:

for several for a

of robot mounted

for a device for taking environment. jes zero-gravity In these control systems the feedback bandwidths are limited by the MIMO loops' resonances. The same nominal was used in most rw\302\253rm.4 drjjl structural loop response i-th The was therefore \302\256f the eritica] defined fpedb^ck loops. loop response fully by the The trade-offs between the different crossover fp^ju\302\247ncy^. performance requirements the set of scalar numbers for fhe ioo\302\247sof J^ese MIh$O systenis was reduced to finding of the crossover provides good system performance. The iterative adjustments $>i that simulations and from the experiments frequencies wtiji computer converged rapidly. After the gontrpi becomes operational (at least in simulations), the loop system lower than /w can be reshaped following Bode relation response at frequencies much C.12). In most cases there was no reason to do this and it was not done, but in some cases the required of the control loop was able to be well satisfied with much accuracy lesser feedback, and the feedback at lower frequencies was reduced. Within the

station, for a
of a

rover to

less precise attitude, position, robot designed to take samplesof take of Mars rocks, and samples
an

motion

controls

in Chernobyl

comet or

asteroid

in nearly

Appendix
limitations

13
this

431
loop
transient

imposed

by

the Bode
and,
the

integrals,

gain reduction
responses.

was traded for

in

bigger phase stability

The
some

margins

therefore,
introduction

better

last design

step was
improved

of the

loops

that

the

transient

of nonlinear dynamic compensation commands responses to large amplitude

and disturbances.

A13.15
A

Mechanical
animated and

snake
mechanical

control
snake employed
mechanical
in

gigantic

the

movie
with

Anaconda
the

was

constructed of chain-connected
in

identical

pitch

yaw

directions.

response of a single link. However, were very oscillatory. The oscillation caused by the interference of mechanical waves along the snake. propagating

to bend Position feedback allowed transient achieving good transient of several such links in a chain responses
ability
was
Step Response

links, each

... ,......

To correct the

problem,

force

feedback

the methods detailed in was added and, using the mobilities of the 7, Chapter output The actuators were made dissipative. damping reduced the effects introduced into the system the transient of the waves' interference, of the of several links was chain response

A.

drastically
Fig.

improved
for
of
the

as

exemplified

in

A13.48

link

chain,

and

the Time

movements

the
very

entire mechanical snake

impressive. Fig. A13.48

(sec.)

becameagile and
This
JAS

was contributed by example La Crescenta, California, Company,

of 5 links

Transient responses
chain
with

in a

position

and force

feedback

<schier@compuserve.com>.

432
Appendix
The

Appendix

14

14
includes

Bode

Step toolbox
MATLAB functions:
frequency

toolbox

the following

1. NYQLOG

(Nyquist
Nyquist

2. BOLAGNYQ (Bode diagram

3. TFSH1FT

plot on logarithmic scale with for the gain and the lag
transform,

margin,

in octave marks) and the logarithmic

plot) frequency

4. BONYQAS
5. BOSTEP

(Frequency
(Asymptotic

de-normalization,
and

similar to
Nyquist

Ip21p)

Bode

diagram,

phase plot,

logarithmic

plot)

6.

BOCLOS

7. BOINTEGR

8. BOCOMP
9. NDCP

to optimal Bode step response) approximation for closed-loop low overshoot and fast settling) two parallel is into (Breaking compensator paths, one of which at low frequencies.) dominant
(Rational

function

(Prefilter

design

(Calculation

10. BNDCP
11. NDCB 12. BNDCB These
Bode the

function for a dc motor control) compensator for of NDC with parallel paths) functions (Nyquist plot describing for describing functions of NDC with parallel (Bode plot paths) for path) (Nyquist plot describing functions of NDC with feedback (Bode plot for describing functions of NDC with feedback path)
of the
functions

MATLAB

simplify prefilters.

optimal examples

loop responses and and the problems

linear/nonlinear servo loops with designing The m-functions (and MATLAB scriptsfor
the

page www. luriecontrol.

listed in com. The

book)

are available
do the

from the

author's

web

functions

following:

A. Plotting routines

1
marks

NYQLOG

plots

a Nyquist

diagram on

the

logarithmic

allow

reading

the slope

of the

Bode this

diagram

plane with octave marks. The without plotting it. The loop shaping

can

be performed
BOLAGNYQ

iteratively

using

plot

instead of the

Bode diagrams.
phase lag
octave
stability

of the gain and the frequency responses plots the on the logarithmic plane with margin, diagram Nyquist the plot Using plots' arrangement is convenient for loop shaping. where to only a small area of the allows one to pay attention plot crossesthe 0-dB level, and to read there the value of the guard-point
and plots
B.

marks.
lag

This
margin

of

the

the gain response phase lag margin.

Calculations
initially does

3 TFSHIFT de-normalizes an MATLAB function Ip21p but

instead of matrix answers for the example,

in

manipulation gain

in

and,

problems

sometimes, produces inaccurate answers).It 3 in Section 4.2.3. like that described in Example
diagrams, the system two tasks:

frequency response a by polynomial transform the f-domain (Ip21p gives complex

this

normalized

similarly

to

the

in

the

numbers
can

be

j-domain as the used, for

C. Plant modeling,asymptotic
4 BONYQAS simplifies accomplish the following

and

conceptual

design
In

conceptual

design.

particular,

it

helps

to

Appendix 14

433
when
the only

I. Calculating
II.

and

plotting

the phase
(since

shift

of

the plant

the

plant

been estimatedor measured time-consuming then the

Completing
diagrams. the

the

measurements function and

the conceptual
The phase

design of the
the Nyquist

measurements of the phase generates

of
shift).

plant

gain

gain has are often less

feedback

loop

linear Bode
calculates
the

using asymptotic

pieceand

the asymptotic

Bode

diagram

and plots

diagrams. It

allows

for easy

shaping of

responses

linear

by changing nonminimum phase

the

(the Type of
step can

loop)
used

be

further

the at the corner frequencies, the frequencies, gain at low frequencies slopes lag coefficient, and the asymptotic and at high The obtained parameters of the Bode frequencies. as the input file parameters for the BOSTEP function.

the corner

D. Feedback

loop design
a rational generates (or irrational, obtained margins,

5
for

BOSTEP

function
with

approximation
loop

to

the

theoretical

transcendental
specified

BONYQAS)

response

with a
feedback

Bode step
Type.

asymptotic

slope, non-minimum phase, and the

BOCLOS generates a normalized transfer function without and with a closed-loop and the of a 4th-order Bessel filter. Also, it generates the prefilter, frequency response It is usable for designing a prefilter a good closed-loop step response. rendering
6
transient

response.

BOINTEGR
functions,

converts
the

transfer

controller) and the rest. to improve the transient

E.

transfer function into a sum of two compensator one of a PID (a generalization of an integrator low-pass can be saturation into the introduced Then, path low-frequency and to provide globalstability. response
the

linear

Compensator

design
transfer
magnet

BOCOMP calculatesthe compensator Bode step of a servo with a dc permanent

function

motor.

transfer

generated

by

BOSTEP

and

with a function for the loop response The input file includes the loop load the dc motor and the inertial

parameters.

F. Nonlinear dynamic
9 NDCP
with

compensator

design
on includes

plots iso-e describingfunctions

paths,
the

parallel

one

of
link

which

the logarithmic Nyquist plane for an a variable or a nonlinear (typically,

NDC
a

saturation)

link. A series
loop
nonlinear

is also

included

that can imitate

with

the

rest

of the

feedback
describing

loop so that
function

Nyquist

of the

element

diagrams can be plotted, from 0 to 1.

the values

of

the

paths, one
series

10 BNDCP plots of which

link

iso-e

includes

functions describing a variable or

that

Bode diagrams for

an

nonlinear

link

(typically,

is also included

can

imitate
with

the rest
values

of the

feedback

with parallel a saturation). A loop so that the loop

NDC
function

Bode

can be plotted, diagrams nonlinear element from 0 to 1.

11NDCB
with

the

of the

describing

of

the

on the logarithmic plots iso-e describing functions Nyquist plane for an NDC or a nonlinear link (typically, a dead path which includes a variable the rest of the feedback loop so that zone). A series link is also included that can imitate a feedback

434

Appendix
diagrams

14
the

the loop
12

Nyquist

can

be plotted,
1.

with

values

of the

describing function

of

the nonlinear

element from 0 to plots iso-e

BNDCB

feedback

series link
Bode
nonlinear

path which includes a variable is also included that can imitate

describing functions
or with

diagrams
element

can be
from
HELP

plotted,

the

for an NDC with a diagrams a dead zone). A link (typically, the loop the rest of the feedback loop so that function of the values of the describing
Bode

a nonlinear

0 to

1.
plots
in Figs.

The functions' of the

function

is typed

files include default/demo that generate in without arguments. The plots are shown

when the A14.1-8

name
and

A14.9-12.
Nyquist

diagram,

x marks t

w = wb,

+ marks octaves

60

50
m

40

30

\\

o>

Q.

20

.2

10

0 -10
-20

_\342\200\224\342\200\224-

=F=

=d
^180 shift

-270

-240 -210
loop phase

-150 in degrees

-120

-90

Fig. A14.1

Default/demo

for

nyql

og and

bos tep

Appendix

14

435

.\302\247100

|
5>

50
1 0
BSSS

fL

i
y

-50 10

10'

10\"

10\"

10'

rad/sec

40

20

\\

0
-20 _-\342\200\224 \342\200\224I _\342\200\224\342\200\224\302\246 \342\200\224\"

.
-180

-270

-240

-210
x marks

phase, degr;
Fig. A14.2

wb, + mark

-150 -120 octaves from wb

bo lagnyq

-go

Default/demo

for

100

Bode diagram
\"

Nyquist

diagram

70 xv

50

60

|>

0
\0250

50
\\
\\

40

8
\\ i>

30

\302\2461-100

20

of-150

\\
\302\246

10

c
\302\247>-200

\\ -250

/
/

-10

-300

10*
frequency,

-20
10\"

10'
rad/sec

-270-240-210-180-150-120

-90

phaseshift,

degr

Fig.
phase.

A14.3

Circles

and plotting a band-pass plant Default/demo 1 for bonyqas, calculating mark the corner frequencies of the piece-linear on the gain response
approximation

436

Appendix

14

Bode

50

diagram
70

Nyquist

diagram

\302\246

60
0-

50

ir50 \302\246a
i-100

40

^ 30
\302\246S.-150 \"B -\342\200\224

\\ \\
X

20

CQ-200

10

a.
-300

-10
!

-350
10

-20

10'

10'

-90 -270-240-210-180-150-120

frequency, rad/sec Fig. A14.4 Default/demo 2 for Circles on the gain response mark
asymptotic

phase

shift, degr

Bode

diagram

bonyqas, loop response. asymptotic the corner frequencies of the piece-linear for loop response with Bode step

Dc motor
A

servo design
motor

dc

control
the

system (like

that

described

be designed
that

using following sequence First, with bonyqas, an asymptotic the feedback satisfies the disturbance

of

the

toolbox
diagram

in Example functions.
with

in

Section

4.2.3)

can

Bode

a Bode

rejection

requirements,

step is chosensuch and the attenuation in

modes

the feedback

loop is
with

sufficient

at

the

frequencies
An

of of

structural

to

guarantee

system
in Fig. Bode

stability

the chosen

stability margins.
the frequencies
the

example
the

of the

A14.4. The stability step, the asymptotic

during

margins,

beginning

diagram is shown and the end of the

system

slope,

nonminimum

phase

lag, and

the

Type

are

determined

this the

Second, with responseis obtained,

for the loop a rational function approximation function for the nominal single-integrator plant 1 in Section with a small nonminimum phase lag is calculated (as was done in Example i.e., the loop gain 4.2.3). The responses at mis point are normalized in frequency, in Fig. A14.1. has unity crossover frequency, like that shown response the the closed-loop frequency responseis plotted, Third, with the function boclos is plotted, like that with the prefilter is calculated, and the closed-loop response prefilter can be used to calculate the closed-loop function shown in Fig. A14.5. The MATLAB - or with one peak, and a low-pass with a prefilter comprising two notches, response of these. any subset
and

conceptual function bostep

feedback

loop design.

a compensator

Appendix

14

437
is a response

The goal for

normalized

the

closed-loop

response

Bessel

filter

response.

with the prefilter The de-normalized filter

logarithmic

response axis.

can be

close to a obtained

deby

shifting

the nominal

filter response along the

frequency

mm \302\246\302\246\"\302\246 \342\200\224\342\200\242\302\246\302\246MB

S?
CD D

N \\

l-20
\\

\\ \\

T3

\\
\\

\\

10\"

10'

rad/sec

1.5

0.5

10
time,

15

20

sec

several plots responses: an open-loop gain at low frequencies); closed-loop without a responses, a peak, prefilter (the one with a 7 dB hump) and with a prefilter that consists of a notch, and a 3rd-order Bessel filter (the response with the widest bandwidth); 4th-order Bessel filter response with nominal 1 rad/sec bandwidth that has 15 dB attenuation at this frequency. The phase responses (the lower three) are of the Bessel filter, of the closed a prefilter. The lower plot shows the loop with the prefilter, and of closed-loop without closed-loop transient response with the prefilter.
for

Fig. A14.5 Default/demo

response

boclos

(the

one

with

large

gain

Fourth,
functions

using

the

motor

and load

parameters,
bocomp,

the

compensator

and the
Fig.
function

plant

transfer

are calculated
function

and plotted
bointegr, the

with

as were

Fifth, with the

higher

the compensator
the

those in transfer
path

A14.6.
is split

into a

parallel connectionof
frequencies),

low-frequency
by

as exemplified

path and the plots in Fig.

second

(for the

medium and

A14.7.

438
100

Appendix

14

gain and phase

\"~\302\246 >

of

plant and

compensator

50 0
o>

\\

\\

-50 \302\246\302\260.
\342\200\242a

\302\24611

*\342\200\242

-100

-150

'N.

-200
10\"'

10\" rad/sec;

10' 10' phase plotted with dashed lines phase

control

10\"

Fig.

A14.6 Default/demo for bocomp, the gain and for the compensator and the plant of a dc motor

responses
system

60

m 40
tf

20
\"\302\246\302\253:\302\246

\302\247) 0

-20

-40
10

10'

10
rad/sec
III

10\"

10

O)

\302\260

\"-100

-200

10
Default/demo for
the

10'
bointegr,
for

10\"

10'

10'

Fig. A14.7

the gain

and phase
paths
built

responses
that

entire

compensator
the

and

its

two

parallel

of Next, a SIMULINKmodel must include Fig. 7.26. The model

system should flexible modes of

be
the

like

shown

in

load

and

the

nonlinear

elements in
the

in current and voltage), in the friction model, and in of in is introduced front the compensator (saturation low-frequency path of the to perform fine-tuned well over the With the the controller is model, compensator). the and of the variations, plant system performanceand range parameter specified
the

actuator

(saturation

robustness

are evaluated.

Appendix 14

439

NDCiso-E describing
The
Figs.

functions

iso-?
A14.9-12

DF values 0; 0.2;0.4;0.6; 0.8; the signal levels E/es= \302\260\302\260; 3; 2; 1.5; < 1 for the saturation 6.3;
with the

responses

for signal

paths

shown

in

Fig. A14.8

1.

are exemplified in
values

These

correspond

to

and E/eiz

< 1; 1.5;2; 3.5;

8;

\302\273 for

the dead

zone.
DF

ft.

e
ft

(a)

(b)
(a)

Fig. A14.8 NDCswith

70 60 50

parallel

paths and (b) with

a feedback

path

Myquist diagram, x marks

w = w1, + marks octaves

m40 \302\246a | 30

20

\\
\\

\\:

-10

-270

-240

-210

-180
bop

-150

-120

-90-60-30

phase shift in degrees

Fig.

A14.9

Default/demo

for

ndcp

1()

10

10 Frequency (rad/sec)

10

1C

120

150
_ w \302\246 180\302\246MM

/
'*'\302\246'\302\246

10\021

10\"

10'

10'

Frequency
Fig.

(rad/sec)

A14.10

Default/demo

for bndcp

440
Nyquist 70

Appendix 14
diagram,

x marks

w=wi,

+ marks

octaves

60
SO

\\ \\

40

S 30

\\

\\

\\

}/
-240 -210

sr1

Iv

-150 -120 -90 loop phase shift in degrees

-180

* -60 -30

Fig. A14.11
100

Default/demofor ndcb

10\"
Frequency

10'
(rad/sec)
for

10'
bndcb

Fig.

A14.12

Default/demo

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While concentrating on linear systems, the book develops design methods with applicable to practicalsystems large parameter uncertainties and with nonlinear those that has been found actuators, and abstains from discussing design approaches reader or inferior. When the becomes confused the book doesn't why non-practical follow up on some apparently attractive idea, why some theory is not further notations are not or, conversely, generalized simplified, or even why the employed what the reader would consider appropriate,he should be advised to suppress the to correct the classic do his and homework the reason of humbly urge finding why Bode did so. Someof these issues are clarified in [6,9] and in the present book. The book cannot be recommended as a first book on feedback systems, although the transparent and informative introductory is worth reading for everybody chapter interestedin feedback. But afterward, the difficulty since the book was rises steeply written on the basis of lectures Bode gave for his colleagues at The Bell
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References

Distortion
August

Reduction

in Amplifiers

using

Adaptive

Cancellation.

1997.

to

chapters
this

in References [2], [6],[9] and [9.113] are generic for those topics covered which are not conventionaly in contemporary textbooks. The references included earlier below exemplify and expand on selectedtopics,or indicate publications.

book
listed

Ch.1 1.7 [9.24]; 1. 9 [9.65] Ch.2 2.4[9.24, 2.6 2.7 [26, 36,53] 9.176, 55]; Ch.3 3. [41]; 3.9 [1,9,9.113,9.44,17,25,50] 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.12 [35]; [17]; [
[29-32];

9.99,

Ch.4 4.1[9.81, 33]; 4.2.3[34];4.5[9.99] Ch.6 6.6.2 [33]; [9.21,9.109] 7.1.1 [3, 38, 39], 7.4 [49,51]; 7.4.5 21, 29, 38,39,51];[29, [19, 9.122] 32]; 7.9.1.1 [37]; 7.9.1.3 [22];7.9.2 [28,
6.7.2 Ch.7 7.5

9.103,

9]; 3.13

[9.99,9.103,9.113]

30,31,

Ch.

Ch.

8 9

8.1[9.128, 9.71];
8.4 10.7

[9.69,9.71];

8.5 [47]

Ch.

10 10.3.1[9,9.105,9.113] 10.5[9,9.51,9.95,9.110,9.111, 9.118,9.119,

[9,9.111,41]

9.2 [54]; 9.7 [14,15,42]

Ch.

11

Ch.

Ch. 13 13 [23, 40,41]

12

9.120,]; 11.2 [9.57]; 11.3 [9, 9.113,9.162,9.158,9.108,9.102,9.126, 28];11.9 [30]; 11.3.2 11. [9,9.113]6,11.7,11.8
[9.113]

12.2

[9.86,

9.105,9.107,9.106];

12.5 [9.4,9.105,9.106,9.107]

NOTATION
A,

A(s)

- actuator

transfer

function,

- even part of A(/co) = Re6(/co)O4

A, A(s) A Ao AM

6(s),

74

system matrix, 249 maximum available value of

A

feedback, 106
functioh, 249 function function

at s

\302\253* 75 \302\253*,

fl, flE)

fl, B(s) - odd part fl control-input

fl@)
fl(oo)

- feedbackpath

transfer

of 80?),

74
with two with two

matrix, transfer transfer

feedbackpath
feedback path
382

specified nodesconnected, specified nodesdisconnected,

382

fl(/(o) = Im6(/co),74 - coefficients B\\, B% Bn

in

Laurent

nonminimal capacitance,

phase 76

expansion lag, 85-86

function, 1

of

75 \302\251(.$),

C, C(s) C

- compensator transfer
output

matrix, the

240

E
E\\ E2

emf of
amplitude

Ea
2?0\" E\\>' ?b\"

amplitude amplitude
amplitude

source, 212 fundamental at the input to a nonlinear link, at the input to NDC, 301 of the fundamental of the fundamental at the input to the actuator, 297 after the jump down, 325 of the fundamental
signal
of the

291

E E\\c>

amplitude amplitude amplitude

mean

of the of the of the

Eit

fundamental fundamental fundamental

after before before

the jump up, 325 the jump down, the jump

325

up, 325

square

thermal
of a

E&

Em-

values of
amplitude force,

noise amplitude, ITI = 1,301 Ejc&mmg subharmonic,

171

327

207,207

F&T+l-

F@)\\F\\,

return difference, 2
value

of return
return

difference
difference

when
when

two

specified

terminals

shorted,

381

F(\302\253\302\273)

value of

or

GO),
G

20 loglfl G - return
plant describing

- feedback,2 ratio of linear links

distribution
function,

two specified terminals 276

open, 381

in NDC,

H
H
Hm

~ -

noise

matrix, 254
287
254

measurement matrix, norm, 255

moment quadratic

J
J
K

of inertia, functional,

12,207-208
253
coefficient

K
K.%

closedloop transmission
gain

in voltage,
the

381
emf,

matrix,

249
ratio

closed loop

of the

output voltage to

source

381

445

446
Kb K\\

Notation

Kql
L
M

estimator gain matrix, closed loop transmission

open

254 coefficient

in current,
in

381
381

loop

system

transmission
ratio

coefficient
coefficient

voltage,

open loop
inductance,

system transmission
of the
77,207-208 body,

in current,

381
emf,

open loop system

output voltage to the

source

381

M
A?a

mass of a rigid =77F,4

coefficients

116, 204-205

M,N-

in bilinear
actuator

function,
input,

302

of a symmetrical Q - regulation regulator, 195 = of factor a resonance, 137 Q 1/BQ quality 253 matrix, Q weighting transfer 33 R, R(s) - prefilter function, R 253 matrix, weighting load resistance,212-213 RL -

P, P(s) Po, Po(s)

noise at the
plant

112 1

transfer

function,
function

transfer

of nominal

plant, 31,

Rj S
SH T

thermal sensitivity,

resistance, 17
sensitivity,

208

Horowitz
return

19

ratio,

2
209

T
T@)

absolutetemperature,
return

ratio

in a

381-382
T(\302\260\302\260)

system
two

with

the

two specified

nodes connected, 216,

- return

ratio

when

specified

nodes are

disconnected, 216,

381-382
7p

TE
Ts

return ratio about the plant, 276 in an equivalent system, 277 return ratio sampling
voltage,

U
U U, V

U\"

period, 147
212 324

threshold

Uun) V
V

amplitude of sinusoidal signal at the system'sinput, values of U causing jumps in E, 320-321 of nth harmonic at a system's output, 16 amplitude fundamental at the of of nonlinear output amplitude

link,

324

velocity,205,207-208
voltage,
transfer transfer

207-208
function, function

W(w) W@), -

or immitance, (immitance)
zero

194
regulator,

of a

194

V V

Z
Z'

W(\302\260\302\260) regulator functions with element w, 194 admittance, 77 admittance of a two-polethat impedance,

or infinite

values of the

regulating

is not

zero at infinite frequency,

77
77

76 that

Zl Zo

impedance of a two-pole

is not

zero

at

infinite

frequency,

load impedance,
impedance (mobility)

212,216 of a

system without

feedback, 216,381,383

Notation

447

2s
fli, b\\,

a2,... bz,...

e, e(t)ed

source impedance, 212 coefficients, 151-152 polynomial coefficients, 151-152 at the input to a nonlinear link, signal
polynomial -

323

es /
fb
fe fc

dead zone, 293

saturation frequency

threshold, in Hz,

293

frequency at

fi

fe
ft,

/p /s /T

which loop gain is 0 dB, 8 lowest frequency at which loop gain is -x dB, 98 central frequency of a segment of constant slope of at which loop gain is -x dB, 98 highest frequency lowest at which loop gain is X\\ dB, 109 frequency is x\\ dB, 109 at which loop gain highest frequency
frequency sampling unity frequency

a Bodediagram,

82

of

a pole,

132
148

frequency, gain

fz
Jfc k k &o &oe

bandwidth,
of a

170-171 zero, 132

gain coefficient, motor constant, spring coefficient coefficient

coefficient

294,303 223 stiffness coefficient, 207-208

of of
forward forward

propagation signal

in voltage,

koi
ke n n

propagation

relative

379, 381 to the

source

emf,

381

signal coupling coefficient, 120, 313 slope coefficient of an asymptotic transformation coefficient, 226

of forward

propagation, 381
Bode

diagram,

97, 131

Pi, Pi, \342\200\224 polynomial coefficients, 147 criterion 271-272 coefficient, Popov's q

1u 1z,
qx,

- coefficients
reference,

in modified

Popov criterion,

275

q%,...

s = a+j(o t time,
t& tT tt

polynomial coefficients,
249
operational

147

variable,

362

54

delay time, 54 rise time, 54 settling time, ca/a)c, 79 at

54
input,

= In \302\253
\302\253, u(t) \302\253\302\253,h

signal

system's

command,

320

control vector, 249 dead beat threshold,

298
integrator,
323

to trapezoid \302\253\342\200\236 signal sample at the input of a at nonlinear the link, v, v(i) signal output

147

v
vn

vector of

process
at

noise,
the

254
or transfer

w
w w w

signal sample

impedance, admittance,

amplifier width in octaves of a trapezium vector of sensor noise,254

147 of trapezoid integrator, coefficient of a variable element,194 in a feedback transfer immitance or coefficient system, 379

output

gain

response

segment,

82

448
wo

Notation

nominal value
lower vector upper

of variable
stability

element

in Bode

symmetrical

regulator,

195

x
x
xi
xE

displacement, 208,312
amplitude of

margin in dB,

64 65

state

variables,
stability

249
margin
63-64

amplitude

in dB,

state estimate, phase stability

output

254
margin,

y, or yn
y

vector,

249 312

y z
z~x A A Ao

y-axis, displacement along 254 measurements,

delay operator, 147-148 difference, 78 main determinant, 384 minor, 384

angular

?2

free ?2f 0, Q(s),9(/go) 0 - angle <|>

velocity, run

rad/sec,

207

angular - transfer
of rotation,

velocity, rad/sec, 213 function, 74 208 231

nonlinear
wave torque,

p
x
tb

function, 271
(mobility),
12

resistance

? = 1/B0 - damping
go <BC

brake torque, 213

coefficient,

137

frequency, frequency
denotes

rad/sec, 7 at
which

phase

shift

parallel

connection

of

79 impedances, e.g., Zj
is calculated,

INDEX

encoder, 234 Absolute processstability,

Absolute
Absolute

Bessel filter,
322-324

57-59,101
188-189

Bias,269
Bifilar

360 Accelerometer, 235, 308-309,

Acquisition

stability,
and

65,270-271
system,

coil,

Bifurcation
Bilinear

points, 269, 325-326

149,150,152,

tracking

function,

193,

324

194, 220,385
228-229
39-40

Active suspension(vibration
isolation),

206-207,

H.S.,17,35, 349 Black,

feedforward,

Biquad, 147,152
R. B.:
216,

Actuator, 1

35-36 382-384
40-43

main/vernier arrangement,
motor,

Blackman,
formula,

1-2, passim
coil,

piezoelectric, 40, 224-225

voice

40, 206-207 257-265

Block diagram transformation, Bode, H. W., 17, 396

cutoff,

Adaptation, direct and indirect, 257

Adaptive

106-107

system,

diagram,
integral

7, passim
of admittance,

Aliasing,

156-157
hydraulic,

77

Analogies:

electricalto
electrical

392 75-76, integral of feedback,

209-211
integral

of gain,

78-79
part

to thermal, 208-209

integral of imaginary
78,136,
integral integral

(phase),

205-208 electromechanical, feedbackto parallel channels,

237, 323

of real

372 part, 75, 372, 393

76-77

of resistance,

feedback to connection
of

phase-gain relation, 79-81,

two-poles,

237,271,

324
Brake

Analyzer, signal, 197-199,357,361

Antenna,

373-375,392 step,97-100,139-143
(stall)

1,4,11-12,19,153

torque,

213

Approximation:

Bridge:

of constant slope Bodediagram,

133-134

balanced, 220, 386

Wheatstone,

219,

386

of describing
Asymptote,

function, 296
97, 98
131-133,

Bridged T-circuit, 175

Burst

high-frequency,

of periodic

signal, 317

Asymptotic Bode diagram,

passim

Causal system, 79,371

270 global stability, level control, 19-20

Asymptotic
Automatic

Cauer.W.:
two-pole

implementation,

179-180

Chart:

Backemf, 104,223,228
Backlash,

Nichols, 10, 25,246,327

Z?C-impedance,

297-298

183

Balanced
Bandwidth:

bridge

feedback, 220, 385

111

Clegg

Integrator,

310
function,

Closed-loop transfer feedback, 111

feedback, 268

3, 14,

functional,

passim

of closed-loop
of

Coil, bifilar,
Cold

188-189

open-loop

110

controller

Bang-bang control, 299

switching, 335
116-119,232,

Collocated control,
260

Basin of

attraction,

449

450

Index
Delay, transport,
31-32
function, Describing

Command, 1, passim
Command

85,113-114
291-292

feedforward,

Commander,

33,44

approximate

formulas
293-295

296

Compensator, 1, lag, 135-136,174-175,

lead,

of dead zone,
of hysteresis,

297
relations 294-295

135,154,

174,175,182

inverse, 292
phase-gain

switched
Conditional

capacitor, 184-186
stability,

for, 387

Compoundfeedback,218,383
270
291

of

saturation,

of three

Conjecture of filter,
Control:

96-97, 151,398 Designsequence,

Diagram:

position relay, 294-295

bang-bang,
fuzzy-logic,

299
331

asymptotic

Bode,
239

131-133,

232,260 collocated, 116-119,

input

passim

Bode, 7, passim
Ince-Strutt,

matrix,

249
333-347

loading,
for

213
unstable

modern, 95, 253

multiwindow,

Nyquist, 9-10, passim

plant,

67-69

non-collocated,

115,119,232-234

Differentiator, 171-172

time-optimal, 341-342

11-12, Disturbances, passim

Dither,

vector,249

262-264,418

Controller:

Dominant
multiwindow,

poles

and

zeros,

367

composite

333-347

Drift, 173,
Dynamic

235
247

fuzzy logic, 332

PID (proportional-integralderivative),

Driver, 1, passim
nonlinearity,

20,143,

186,

Dynamic
Electromotive

range, 137-139, 146, 173

force

190-192, 337-338, 394

TID (tilt-integral-derivative),
192-193

(emf),

212

backemf, 132
Encoder,

104, 223,228
234

Corner

frequency,

223,

Coulomb friction,
Coupling,

227

Equation,
Error,

Mathieu's, 238
34
matrix,
426

43-45, passim
61-62

Criterion:
Nyquist,

feedforward,

static (steady state),54, 73

70
Estimator

Nyquist-Bode,

gain
linearization,

254

Popov, 271-275

Exact 8
Falling

Criticalpoint,
Crossover

63

frequency,

branch,

269, 325-327

Cross-sectioned feedbackcircuit, 362 Current feedback, 25,218, 312, 382

Current

2 Feedback,
balanced

Fano R., 392

bridge,

regulator,

25-26

220,

386
111

Cycle,

limit, 268

bandwidth (range)

Damping coefficient,137,367
Dashpot,

of closed-loop feedback,
functional,

111

143,

207
299

of open-loop feedback,110
common,

Dead band, dead beat band, Dead zone, 16, passim

37-38

Decade,55
Decoupling

compound,
matrix,

218, 382
25,

44-45,185

current,

218,312,

381

Index

451
Four-port

error, 1
foil-state,

network, 379
velocity,

251,254

Free run

213

integral

of, 75-76

large, 4

Frequency:

crossover, 8
Nyquist,

local, 37-38
maximization,

148

96,394,394

response,
sampling,

7, 360-361,
147-153

passim

multiloop,

36-37

parallel,217,382
positive,

negative 3,76,97
3,58,

Friction:

Coulomb,
Full-state

227
251,254

65-66,76,97

viscous, 226-227
feedback,

path, 1

rate, 217
voltage,

Function:

series, 218,381-382
217,

all-pass, 86

382

bilinear 149, 150,152, 193-194,

Feedforward,
command,

31-36
lossless

Black's, 35-36
31-33,412

220,385

impedance,

117-118,

229-231,371

error,

34

minimum phase, 74-75,79, 87

Filter:

active RC:
multiple

333, 391,394-395
positive feedback,

real,
363

87,272,

323, 371

176

transfer,

176 state variable, 177

Sallen-Key,
switched

Furnace,
Fuzzy

351, 399
logic

controller,
249

332

capacitor,

184-186

Bessel (Thompson), 57-59,101

Butterworth,

antialiasing,

157
56-57

Gain
Gain

matrix,

scheduling,
chart,

259
225-226

Gear, flow
Generator:

Chebyshev,
filter

56-57
339-340

conjecture of, 291

fork,

saw-tooth, 199, 298-299

198-199 sweep,
Global

Kalman,
transversal,

262

linear phase,
Flexible
plant,

57
modes, parts,
77, 96,115, 215

Goldfarb, L. S., 291

Ground,

stability,

270,

315-316

264

186-187

(appendages,
structures),

Guard-point

stability

margin, 67

234, 262,405 Gyroscope,

HM

116-119, passim
Floating

capacitor,

Flux, 218, 271

method,

255-256

Follower,5, 172-173
Fourier:

Hard oscillation,
Harmonic

328
289-291

313-314 Harmonics,
balance,

formulas,

291

law, 208

Heater, 209,351,
Homing

399
12, passim

Force: analogy to current,

analogy Foster,

system,

205-207

to voltage,

208
104,223,228

back electromotive,
R.: theorem,
two-pole,
canonical

180, 230
180

Horowitz, I. M., IV, 18, 245,441 sensitivity, 18-19 Hot controller switching, 335 Hydraulic systems, 209-211

Hysteresis, 297
negative,

310

452

Index

phase lag
Impedance,

of, 297

nonminimum

phase,

74, 85-86, 363-366

113,394
207-208

Laplace transfer

function,

229-230

Laplace transform, 362

load, 212-213,381

Laserinterferometer,
118,

234

of losslesssystem,
mechanical,

Lead

compensator,
cycle,

135-136,154,

206
Limit

174-175, 182
268

RC, 180

source,212
wave

Line, transmission,
231

231
253-255

(characteristic),

LinearQuadratic Linearsystems,
time
1

Gaussian,

Incremental
Initial

encoder, 234
and

Linear Quadratic Regulator, variable

9-10

253-254

value

final-value

theorems, 362

(LTV), 158,238-239

Inner loop, 33
Integral

Links, 1, 352-353
I-plane,

of

admittance,

77

LMI, 256

feedback, 75-76 gain, 78-79

Load:

cell, 206-207,228-229
effect

phase,78 resistance,76-77
Instrumentation

on

feedback,

219-220

amplifier,

188
Loading

213 resistance,
diagram,

impedance, 212-213
213 199, 264

Integrator

discretetrapezoidal,
half-integrator

Clegg, 310-311
146-149

Loading
Logarithmic

line, 213
amplifier,

approximation,

Loop:

134
link,

common, 37,311-312

12,

passim

38-39 crossed,
gain,

op-amp
Interferometer:

184 switched-capacitor,
laser,

implementation, 171-172

inner,

33
and

local, 37-38,311-312
234
main

vernier,

39-40,405-406,

orbiting
Intermodulation,

stellar, 40,417
314-315

417

nested, 38
outer,

Internal

feedback,

68
292

33

Inverse describingfunction, ho-f, iso-E, iso-w lines and

phase
tangent,

shift, 7
41

responses,300-306
Johnson

Loop

transfer

recovery, 255
structure,

(Nyquist)

noise,

171

Losslessdistributed Lurie, A. I., 271

LVDT,

230-231

Jump-resonance,
Junction

324-327
211-212
267

233-234

of

links,

Lyapunov,

A. M. First method, 269-270

Kinematic
Kochenburger,

nonlinearity,

Second method,
Main-vernier

270

R., 291 system,

39-40,405-406,

Ladder
Lag:

network,

75,

86-87
Margins

417

compensator, 135-136,

174,175,

stability,

63-67,

390, 394-396

Index

453
based channels

safety, 123-124,186,193,302
Mason's

rule,

41-42,277

on DF, with parallel 305-306,337-340,

Mathieu's
Matching,

equation, 238
231
\302\256 commands

344-347

based on DF, with

and

local

feedback,

MATLAB

306-309,

338, 340-347,
between

program

listings: 7-9,13-14,60,

405
Nonlinear

100-104,117-118,133,

interaction

local 17
74,

280, 228,251,
376-378

140-141,150, 180-181,
364,

and common loops,311-312

Nonlinear

product

coefficient,
(lag),

Nonminimum phase shift 249

254
quadratic,

Matrix:

85-86,113,341,394

control-input,
estimator

Norm:

decoupling, 44-45,185
gain,

tf.,,255
254

gain, 249

measurement, 254
output,

Norton's
Nyquist,

theorem,
H.,

212

17,

249

plant
MEMO

noise distribution,
43-46,
246

254

criterion,
for

61-62,70
unstable

system, 249
system,

diagram, 9-10,passim
plant,

67-69

passim

Minimum performance boundary,

Minimum

frequency, 148

noise, 171
stability,

phase function,
206,

74-75, 79,

64-65,

374

87, 333,341,394
Mobility,

Octave,
214On-off

55
control,

passim
plant

effect on

Offset voltage, 173

299

uncertainty,

215

Motor, 1-2, passim

linear,

Op-amp,

170-174
188

instrumentation,

206,213

permanent

magnet,

213
36-37

inverting,
174

171

series, 218
Multiloop

non-inverting, 172-174
pinout,

feedback

system,

Multiwindow controller, 333-347

Nichols

unity-gain

frequency,
94-96

170-171

Optical encoder,223,234
Optimality,

chart,

10,25,246,327
112-113

Noise:

Overshoot,

15,54,59,
functions,

passim
332

at actuator
process,

input,

254

Participation

of resistance,
254 sensor,

171
99,111-112 115,119,

Participation
Phase

rules, 332
253

Payload,351,359
plane,

at system's

output,
31,114-115

Nominal

Phase-gain

relation, 79
20,143-145,186,

plant,

PID controller,

Non-collocated

control,

232-234 Nonlinear distortions, 16-17

Nonlinear

190-192,337-338,387,

394

Piezoactuator, 40,224-225,417-430

dynamic

compensator:

based on
276-286

absolute stability,

Pilot signal, 259-260,262

Plant,

collocated,

116-118,232,260

454

Index

flexible, 105, 110,115, 116-119,

143-145, 120-121,
257-261
matrix,

load, 213 thermal, 208

passim

Resolver,233
Return

identification,

difference,
ratio,

2,95,

380
1

noise distribution
nominal,

254

Return

2, 380

31,115

non-collocated,
template,

116, 119,

Return signal Rise time, 54

(fed back signal),

232-233
245

Root locus, 59-60,247-249,

392-393
114415,
RTI

tolerances

(uncertainty),

(real

time

interrupt),

154

213-214 unstable, 67-69, 119-120

Rules:

Poleplacement,
Popov,

277 Masons',41-42,
participation,

247-248

329

V. M.,

271
criterion,

for time-domain 271-275

Popovstability
Port, 216

domain conversion, 362 54-55,

Safety

to frequency

Prefilter, 33-34,96-97, 101-102

Pre-warping,

margins,
filter,

123-124,
176

302

150

Sallen-Key 322
Sample
Sampling

Process

Proof mass,235,360
PSPICE

instability,
145 \302\256,

and hold,
frequency

156
and period,

147-153 modulation),
Saturation,

PWM

(pulse-width

16,
and

178-179,266,
common

293
loops,

299, 399

in local

QFT, 245-247
Quality

311-312 with frequency depended

137,186
threshold,

factor,

296

Schmitt

trigger,
17-18

298
18-19

Rate gyro,

234,405
feedback,

Sensitivity,

rate Rate-stabilized,

153,

Horowitz,

217

Sensor noise,

111-113
218,

Rate limiter, 179

Series feedback,
Series, Laurent,
183

381-382

Rate sensor,234
i?C-impedance

372
2

chart,

Servo,servomotor,
Servomechanism,
Settling

Redundancy,
Regulator:

36, 45

1, 2
54

Reference,5, 19,249,264
Bode

time,

Shaker,
variable

345
ratio,

symmetrical,

Siderostat, 416
Signal-to-noise

195-196
current,

236

25-26

Single-loop

generic system, 379

\302\256, 222,

Linear

Quadratic 253-255

(LQR), 253-254
Gaussian

SBVIULINK

227-229,

250

LinearQuadratic
(LQG),

Source impedance, 212

Spacecraft,

passim

voltage, 5-6, passim

Relay:

Specifications,

105
11-13

Spectral
three

density,

position,

266, 293

SPICE

models

Resistance:
integral

two-position, 299
of,

or program listings,
89-90,

144-145,

303-304,

309, 320-321
76-77

Index
Stability:

455
Tachometer, 234
212

absolute,

270-271

Thevenin's

theorem,

asymptotic,
global,

270
315-317

Three-valued

function, 325-326
192-193

conditional, 270
270,

Thrusters, 343-345

TID controller,
Time

local, 269

margins, 63-67,390, 394

guard

54 delay, rise, settling, control, 343-345 Time-optimal

point,

67

Time-response to stepcommand,
passim

15,

322 verification, 315-317

of process,
Stall

Torque,
Tracking,

brake (stall), 213

4-5,58,
function,

torque,

213

340-342,
363

388

Star tracker,

234,262
254

Transfer
Transform:

Stateestimate,
State Static

variable attractor,

filter, 177
249

Laplace,
Tustin,

362
149-151

Statevariables,
Static nonlinearity,
Static

268
267

Transformer:

balanced-to-unbalanced,
flowchart,

189

error, 54,73
inductance,

225-226

Stiffness coefficient, 207,208

Stray

Transmission

line, 231
accelerometer,

capacitance,

Transport delay (lag), 85,113-114

Tunnel

stiffness,
Structural

mass, 97
46,96,
circuits,

effect

308-309,

design,

211-212
Tustin

347
A.,

Subharmonics, 327-329

149,291

Switchedcapacitor
Symmetrical

184-186

transform

149-151

regulator, 195-196
stable,

Two-pole network:
Cauer,

System:
absolutely

180-181

270-271

Foster,
Two-position

180-181
relay,

asymptotically

globally stable,

Two-port, 220
299
2 systems,

270
homing,

12,59,99,185,279,

Type 0,

Type 1, Type
plant,

72-74

282

linear time-variable

238-239
main-vernier,

(LTV), 158,

Unstable
Vanishing

67-69,119-120

39-40,405-406,417

signals, 270
212

matrix,

249
multi-output

multi-input
(MIMO),

Variables, at links' junction,

passim
state-space,

43-46,

249
2,268

multiloop, 36-37, passim

Nyquist-stable,

VCO (voltage controlled oscillator),

Velocity,
Vernier

64-65,108-109,

316,405,

passim

free running,
actuator,

213

single-input
(SISO),

single-output

39-40,405-406,417

Vibration 1
Voice

suppression (isolation),

single-loop,

207,228-229
coil,

tracking, 4-5
with
with

40,206,228-229,416-419 5-6,406

Type 0,1, 2 systems,

distributed
unstable

72-74

Voltage
Voltage

feedback, 217, 382

regulator,

parameters, 230
plant,

67-69, Wave impedance,

119-120

231

456
Weight
Weighting

Index

function,
matrix,

79-80, 255
253-254

Yo-yo, 343

Whetstone
Wind
Wind

bridge, 219, 385

12

Zames,G.,255
^-transform (Tustin, bilinear):
C-code,
tables,

disturbance,
up:

152-153
152

antiwindup controllers, 191,

278-279,

336-338

phenomenum, 336
Windows:

H-analysis and

u-synthesis,

255

nonlinear, 178-179
in

multiwindow

controllers,

333-334