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VOLUME
p. L.
RICE,
A.G.
LONGLEY, K.A.NORTON,
AND
A. P.
BARSIS
U.
S.
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
maximum
of Standards is a principal focal point in the Federal Government for assuring application of the physical and engineering sciences to the advancement of technology in
industry and commerce. Its responsibilities include development and maintenance of the national standards of measurement, and the provisions of means for making measurements consistent with those standards; determination of physical constants and properties of materials; development of methods for testing materials, mechanisms, and structures, and making such tests as may be necessary, particularly for government agencies; cooperation in the establishment of standard practices for incorporation in codes and specifications; advisory service to government agencies on scientific and technical problems; invention and development of devices to serve special needs of the Government; assistance to industry, business, and consumers in the development and acceptance of commercial standards and simplified trade practice recommendations; administration of programs in cooperation with United States business groups and standards organizations for the development of international standards of practice; and maintenance of a clearinghouse for the collection and dissemination of scientific, technical, and engineering information. The scope of the Bureau's activities is suggested in the following listing of its four Institutes and their organizational units.
Electricity. Metrology. Heat. Radiation Physics. Mechanics. ApAtomic Physics. Physical Chemistry. Laboratory Astrophysics.* Radio Standards Laboratory: Radio Standards Physics; Radio Standards Engineering.** OflSce of Standard Ref-
erence Data.
Institute for Materials Research. Analytical Chemistry. Polymers. Metallurgy. Inorganic Materials. Reactor Radiations. Cryogenics.** OflBce of Standard Reference Materials.
Central Radio Propagation Laboratory.** Ionosphere Research and Propagation. Troposphere and Space Telecommunications. Radio Systems. Upper Atmosphere and Space Physics.
Institute for
Applied Technology.
Textiles
Industrial Equipment.
and Apparel Technology Center. Building Research. Performance Test Development. Instrumentation. Office of Weights and Measures. Office of Engineer-
* NBS Group, Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics at the University of Colorado. ** Located at Boulder, Colorado.
May
7,
1965
designed to supplement the Buregular publications program. They provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes may be listed or referred to in the open literature.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402
Price:
$1.00
National
Bureau of Standards
AUG
5
'
1965
FOREWORD
A
methods were
Note will permit the reader
to
150,SSg
QOlOOJJSlS'd
short history of the development of the prediction methods in this Technical
Some
of these of
Further development
atmosphere led
to
NBS
report and in
of
NBS
The methods
Technical Note 15
of
another xinpublished
NBS
preliminary draft
to the
of the
current
in 1962.
CCIR
both a graphical method and formulas suitable for a digital computer are presented.
include simple and comprehensive formulas for computing diffraction over smooth earth and
over irregular terrain, as well as methods for estimating diffraction over an isolated rounded
obstacle.
made
available to NBS.
the
of
many
of the calculations
ming.
The new nnaterial on time availability and service probability in several climatic re-
gions should prove valuable for areas other than the U.S.A.
Note:
This Technical Note consists of two volumes as indicated in the Table of Contents.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume
1.
1
PAGE NO.
INTRODUCTION
1-1
2.
THE CONCEPTS OF SYSTEM LOSS, TRANSMISSION LOSS, PATH ANTENNA GAIN, AND PATH ANTENNA POWER GAIN
2,
1
2-1
2-1
2.2
2.3
2-3
2-6
2-8
2.4
2. 5
Path Loss, Basic Transmission Loss, Path Antenna Gain, and Attenuation Relative to Free Space
Propagation Loss and Field Strength
2-10
2. 6
2-13
3-1
3-1
3.
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION
3,
1
3.2
3.3
3. 4
Sky-Noise Temperature
Attenuation by Rain Attenuation in Clouds
3-3
3-4 3-6
4-1
4.
5.
HORIZON PATHS
5.
1
5-1
5-1
curve-fit to terrain
o",
.\
...
5-5
5-6
5,2
5.
1.2
................
Terrain
6.
5-7
6-1
6-1
6-3
6, 3
6-4
6.4
7,
6-5
7-1 7-1 7-3
No Ground Reflections
Ground Reflections
7.2
PAGE NO.
7.3
No Ground Reflections
Ground Reflections
7-4
7.4
8.
7-6
8-1
8-1 8-i
8.Z
d
st
,
=d sr
8-4 8-4
8-5
9-1
8.2,2
8.3
9.
FORWARD SCATTER
9.
1
F(ed)
9-2
9-3
9.2
9.3
H
F
9-5
9.4
9.5
10.
Expected Values
of
....
9-6
9-7
10-1
d
e
10-7
e
)
10.2
10.3
and Y(p, d
10-8
10-9
10.4
10.5
10-12
10-13
10.6
11. 12.
10-13
11-1
REFERENCES
LIST OF
12-1
IV
4 8 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume
2
PAGE NO.
ANNEX
I:
I-l I-l
I. 1
1.2
1-2
ANNEX
n.
n.
n:
IIII-
II. 3
......
n-6
II-
n. 4
n.5
n. 6
II. 7
11-10
............
....
11-12
11-15
n.8
Conclusions
n-23
ANNEX
in:
III. 1
m-1 m-2
in-15
in- 17
III- 23
III. 2
ni.3
ni.4
ni. 5
Parameters K and b
for
Forward
Scatter
in-24
in-37
m. 6 m.
7
Transmission Loss with Antenna Beams Elevated or Directed Out of the Great Circle Plane
in-44
m-45
in- 50
in. 7.2
To mix distributions
m.
Examples
III. 8. 1 III.
in-69
Line of oight predictions
Transinission loss prediction for a rounded isolated
obstacle
III- 73
.
Ill-
69
8.2
III.
8.3
III- 77
PAGE
NO.
ANNEX ANNEX
V,
IV:
FORWARD SCATTER
PHASE INTERFERENCE FADING AND SERVICE PROBABILITY
The Two Components
of
.
IV-
V:
1
V-1
Fading
V-3
V.2
V.3
V-5
V-11 V-13
of
V.4
V.
5
Interference-Limited Service
of
Several Sources
Interference Present
V-17
V-18
V. V.
6
7
The System Equation for Noise -Limited Service The Time Availability
of
Interference-Limited Service
V-ZO V-21
V.8
V. 9
The Estimation
of
Prediction Error
for a
Given Time
V-23
V. 10
Optimum Use
of the
V-Z9
VI
1.
INTRODUCTION
of
termine how well proposed radio systems will meet requirements for satisfactory service,
free
ef-
The need
for
clearly demonstrated
number
of
In figures
to
I.
4 of annex
I,
more
The ex-
of these data is
path and time variations must be carefully considered, particularly in cases of possible in-
in the radio
frequency range 40 to
10,000
MHz
A
to
em-
Esti-
mates
of
and periods
including
Predictions of transmission loss for paths within the radio horizon are based on geometricoptics ray theory.
theory
is
applied and extended to predict diffraction attenuation over isolated rounded obstacles.
that extend only slightly
of the
for
computing
1-1
used.
var-
mechan-
com-
Annex
showing attenuation below free space for earth space communications, prepared using the
methods described
I.
1
in the report.
to 1.4,
may serve
may
Annex
II
of
given in section
tion,
antenna
beam
orientation,
polariza-
Annex
for
III
elevated,
circle plane.
com-
attention to the
mechanisms
of
to
some
of the
work
Annex V presents
term power
fading",
a discussion
service in the presence of noise and/ or interfering signals, and includes a brief
of
summary
ways
to
Figures are placed at the end of each section, and those which are not vertical
should be turned counter-clockwise.
if
the usual
Previous
to 103,
describe tropo1961],
spheric propagation phenomena and siting problems [Kirby, Rice, and Maloney,
1961],
Mc Gavin,
1962],
determination
for
of
system parameters
links [Barsis,
et al,
1962],
perfornnance predictions
communication
[
I96I],
teristics
Barghaufen,
1963]
1-2
2.
THE CONCEPTS OF SYSTEM LOSS, TRANSMISSION LOSS, PATH ANTENNA GAIN, AND PATH ANTENNA POWER GAIN
Definitions have been given in
CCIR Recommendation
L
.
L
s
trans-
mission
loss,
L, propagation loss,
1959,
Wait 1959].
here differs slightly from that used in Recommendation 341 and in Report 112 [CCIR 1963a, b].
For
system
loss,
gation loss can be considered equal with negligible error in almost all cases,
because antenna
gains and antenna circuit resistances are essentially those encountered in free space.
\>
2.1
of a
medium
is
Pl/p'>
where
p'
p'
is
power input
and
is the
resultant radio frequency signal power available at the terminals of the receiving
antenna.
is
L
s
:=
db
(2.1)
Throughout
this
The inclusion
in
pro-
In propagation studies,
however,
it is
convenient to deal with related quantities such as transmission loss and basic
transmission loss which can be derived only from theoretical estimates of radiated power and
available power for various hypothetical situations.
In this report,
expressed
in
db,
dbu,
or
For instance,
in (2. 1),
dbw corresponds
to
p'
in watts.
p,
Transmission loss
total
/p
of
where p
is the
band
is
loss-free antenna.
= 10 log (p /p
t
= P^ t
L
s
et
er
db
(2.2)
et
= 10 log
et
er
=10
log
er
(2.3)
2-1
where
/i
et
and
IjH
er
and antenna heights usually considered for tropospheric communication circuits, these efficiencies are nearly unity and the difference between L and L is negligible. With antennas a fraction of a wavelength above ground, as they usually are at lower frequencies, and
especially when horizontal polarization
is
used,
and L
influenced substantially by the presence of the ground and other nearby portions of the an-
tenna environment.
From
Transmitter Output
Power
Input to
Total
Available Power
at
Radiated
Loss-Free
Power
Antenna
Power
Receiving Antenna
Available Power
at
Recei'ver Input
^ir
P|_
are conceptually different. Since P and r J r ^ ^ represent the power observed at the transmitter and at the transmitting antenna, respecIt
L^ it
and L
tively,
L
t
mismatch
losses.
Since
P'
represent available power at the receiving antenna and at the receiver, mismatch losses must
be accounted for separately, since L
includes only the transmission line loss between the
air
and P
2-2
I
2. 2
Available
Power
The above definitions of system loss and transmission loss depend upon the concept
of available
power, the power that would be delivered to the receiving antenna load
to the receiving
,
if its
antenna impedance.
in hertz,
let
and
actual lossy antenna in its actual environment, and an equivalent loss-free antenna, respectively:
c
"iv^
"iv
+
iv
(2.4a)
(2.4b)
Z
V
::
r
V
+ ix
(2.4c)
where
Let p.
,
rep-
resent the power delivered to the receiving antei.na load and write
for the available
of the
and p
respectivt
power
at the
v'
is
r.m.s,
V ,2 r
V
Piv=77- z' + z^
'
iv
(^-^J
iv'
When
r,
the load
V
that
= z'
or
iv
= r'
and x,
p'
(2.5)
the
power
av
P^v-iT^
V
('-'^
Note that the available power from an antenna depends only upon the characteristics of the
antenna,
its
open-circuit voltage
v'
r'
and
is
2-3
impedance.
Comparing
^l^^X^Ji
^iv
P'
r'
I
+ r
^\)
Y+ ^x'
\.
+ X, ^"Z
(2
7)
4 r' r V iv
to a
load equals
i
p'
av
/i
mv
When
the load
impedance coniu^
-^
= value of unity, and p ^ mv ^iv For any other load impedance, somewhat less than the available power is delivered to
has
its
minimum
the load.
is
Pa V
(2.8)
where v
is
p'
at the
av
p'
erv
av
same location as
p
-2
r*
erw
..=-:f^=-^^^i p' i2
V
V
(2.9)
v'
same as
the open
must be considered
individually.
p'
Similarly, for the transmitting antenna, the ratio of the total power
the antenna at a frequency
v
delivered to
v:
is
times the
total
power p
^ .
etv
P'
^tw
/p. tv
(2.10) ^
'
The concept
of available
is
power from
mitting antenna
However,
the
magnitude
of this ratio
can
be obtained by calculation or
measurement by
i
General discussions
of
i
1
[Geneva 1963c].
was successfully
2-4
determined
in one
mitting antenna and calculating the transmission loss between the target transmitting antenna
There appears
to
or
without calculating
some
loss.
rhombic terminated
2
in its characteristic
impedance,
the received
power
some
is
dissipated in the
ground.
and arrays
rhombics.
The ratio
of
power lost
3
in the
db.
For
tors
to
it is
er
and L
as follows:
at
p
- 10 log
m
(d
P,,/dv) dv
er
db
(d
'^i
(2.11)
p;^/dv) dv
p
_ 10 log
et
m
(d
P^/dv) dv
(2.12)
j-j
(d Pt,/dv)
"i
dv
The limits
and
is
chosen
to be sufficiently
large and
tion emanating
from
the
2-5
2. 3
if:
radiates a total of
its
center, and
radiates
g p
/{4Tr)
r.
in the direction
is
if:
,
the
it
power input
to the
antenna terminals
= I
and
r.
radiates
g'p'/(4Tr)
g'
is
simply as a result
It
et
follows that
G^(r) = G'(f
+ L^^
(2.13a)
expressed
gain G'(f)
t
in decibels
is
of
an isotropic radiator.
G
t
(r)
by the amount L
.
where
the
independent
of the
it is
direction r
an antenna
is the
same whether
(r)
G^{f) = G^(r) +
{2.13b)
The remainder
of this
report will deal with directive gains, since the power gains
mav
or
in
The
II,
maximum
it is
value of a directive
to divide
gain G(f
is
designated simply as
G.
As noted
Annex
sometimes useful
5
components.
An
expressed
x
percent
in radians,
of its
may
be
assumed
to radiate
Tr5
power radiated
gain g
main beam
is
equal to
2
).
xp /(100it6
2
)
maximum
g =
One
lOdb
may assume
beam
x
2
= 56
.
2.24/6
The
maximum
in decibels
10 log g = 3. 50 - 20 log 6
db
(2. 14)
2-6
If
25
\v
and
25
are different:
z
w 5z
(2.15)
is
useful.
For example,
the
maximum
ameter D
is the ratio of 56
percent
of its
area
to the effective
tropic radiator:
= 10 log
Q.
56ttD^/4
= 20 log
+ 20 log
f -
42. 10
db
(2.16)
X^/4u
where D and
Equations
their
X.
is the
MHz,
(2. 14)
and
(2. 16)
are useful for determining the gains of actual antennas only when
beam
solid angle efficiencies or aperture efficiencies are known, and these can be de-
termined accurately only by measurement. With a dipole feed, for instance, and 10 < D/X. <
lowing emipirical formiula to be superior to
(2. 16):
25,
fol-
G
where D
= 23.3 log
+ 23.3 log
f -
55.
db
(2.17)
is
expressed
[
in
meters and
in
MHz.
for determining paraboloidal
Cozzens
nomograph
maximum
commonly-
Discussions
I960]
of a variety of
.
Jasik,
1961; Thourel,
Much more
Most
is
known about
maximum
An
For
purpose
it is
terms, the
an antenna
in
multipath components
this subject.
of
may
be expected.
Appendix
II is
devoted
to
r
V
at
assumed independent
of their
environment, or
else the immediate environment is considered part of the antenna, as in the case of an
2-7
'
2.4
It is
sometimes necessary
minimize
a single
source by way
number
waves arriving
the
polarization components of each wave, as well as the relative phase response of the receiving
at the an-
tenna terminals to nnake proper allowance for this amplitude and phase information.
In
Annex
II it is
and
may
be used to represent
transmitting and receiving antenna radiation and reception patterns which will contain amplitude, polarization, and phase information [Kales,
\, e
,
A
e
bar
c
is
may
if it
were
the transmitter
p(r)^7/\^
J-r)
=7/g\
(2.18)
+ie cr e+ie,e=e pr p
c
(2.19)
^1^
= e^ +
e^
c
1^
1^
e^ + e^ cr pr
(2.20)
The sense
is
is
positive or negative:
= e c
/e
(2.21)
= e and linear if e =0, c c p principal polarization direction defined by the unit vector e
is
The polarization
circular
if
where
= e e
is in
the
P P
may
be written as
= s(r)
a (-r)
|p
watts
(2.22)
2-i
s{r) = |e|
r 12
l{Zr\
)
watts /km
(2.23)
ag(-?) - g^(-?)
X^/(4Tr)]
km^
(2. 24)
where
s(r)
is the total
mean power
is
the ef-
and
Ip
is the
|
po-
larization efficiency for a transfer of energy in free space and at a single radio frequency.
is
L^p
-10 log
g".
p^P
15)
db
(2.25)
In
4*
terms
and a
defined by
e
(II.
and
(11.
17)
and
may
be
written as
cos
2
ij*
(a
lp.pl'=
"^
II
2
1)
+ sin
2
4^
(a
+ a
2
)
P
, ,
"
"^
(2.26)
(a^-Hl)(a^^+l)
This
is the
same as
(11.29).
Annex
explains
how these
tended to the general case where antennas are not in free space.
There
is a
rnaximum transfer
of
if
same sense,
is
completely
if
tricity is the
cident wave.
would result
in the
complete rejection
an unwanted
-f
Small values
of
g (-r)
plane wave
is incident
may
beam
of
orientation, polari-
mismatch losses. A
statistical
is
average
same as
defined in the
may
annex
II.
2-9
2.5
Path Loss, Basic Transmission Loss, Path Antenna Gain, and Attenuation Relative
to
Free Space
Observations of transmission loss are often normalized to values of "path loss"
subtracting the
by-
sum
of the
maximum
is
from
the
transmission loss, L.
Path loss
defined as
G
t
db.
r
(2.27)
'
Basic transmission
at the
is
the
system loss for a situation where the actual antennas are replaced
same
Isotropic, so that
tion directions,
r.
(r) =
db and
G
L
(-f) =
db for
all
important propaga-
(2)
(3)
Loss-free, so that
Free
db and
et
so that
L
,
cp
is
db
Corresponding
to this
same
if
defined as the
same
defined by {2.
2):
L
where P
P
t
db
dbw
is
the total
dbw
is
the
otherwise equiva-
at the
same
locations, with no
the
same
represent the resulting available power at the terminals of the hypothetical ab the path antenna gain isotropic receiving antenna. Then the basic transmission loss L
and
let
Gp'
G
pp
P,
t
L^
P P P
ab
^ =
G
p
db
(2. 28)
G
p
ab
= L,
L L
db
(2. 29a)
pp
P' a
ab
^ 3
L^
db
s
(2.
29b)
2-10
^a
^t ^ ^t^^^ ^ ^r<-^^
"
^cp
+ ^ ^S
(~4^
dbw
^^^
<2. 30a)
P A
s
ab
P
t
+ 20 log
f^ 4iTr
V
"^
'
3( ((2. ^
special symbol,
is
in free
pa c e
L
where
equals
20 log
(^J^
r
is
32.45 + 20 log
+ 20 log r
db
(2.31)
expressed
in
X.
in
megahertz.
When low
UHF equipment
in direct
in the
VHF
Fixed
point-to-point communications links usually employ high-gain antennas at each terminal, and
for a given antenna size
more
gain
is
realized at
than com-
Comparing
space,
(2. 28),
(2. 29),
and
(2. 30),
it is
.,
is
pf
G
t
(f)
(-f)
r
cp
db
(2,32)
^
'
this is well
approximated by G + G
t
the
sum
of the
maximum G
.
.
antenna gains.
it is
often desirable to
minimize
(r)
and
(-?)
maximize L
transmission loss
is
The concepts
of basic
transmission loss and path antenna gain are also useful for normalizing
in free space.
Defining an "equiva-
as
2-11
note that
path.
unless this
is
It is
A,
or
the basic transmission loss relative to that in free space, defined here as
"^^^-^f = ^-^f
This definition, with
terrain has
(2, 34),
^^
(^=35)
makes A independent
of the path
it is
antenna gain,
G
P
Where
little effect
sometimes desirable
to study
Although G
it is
customary
to
Hartman,
G
and L
pm
= L,
bm (50)
m (50)
of
(2,36)
where
L,
bm (50)
m (50)
L, b
and L.
is
defined as the
equal to the
sum
of the
maximum
gains of the transmitting and receiving antennas minus the path antenna gain:
L
gp
L^
G
t
G
r
G
p
db
(2 371 ^'^^'1
The loss
in
beam
orientathat
may
power
lines.
2-12
2, 6
This subsection defines terms that are most useful at radio frequencies lower than
those where tropospheric propagation effects are dominant.
of
and
r'
parameter
r
t.r
r'
t,
= r
fr
r,
ft,
^r -
where subscripts
tively.
and
Next define
L^^=
L^^=
10 log (r'/r^),
L^^ =
10 log
(rVr^)
(2.38)
10 log (r;/r^^),
(2.39)
L^^=10
1og(r^/r^^) =
L^^-L^^
(2.40a)
\^
[Actually, (2.11) and (2.12) define
L^^
(2.
40b)
and L
and
given
r'
and
r'
r-'
is
defined by the
CCIR
L
p
L
s
L
ft
L
fr
rt
L rr
db
f2 V-^o^J-;
4n
is
is the
same as
defined by
(2. 31).
is
L^,
L^,
A, propa-
gation loss
Lp,
general require a
theoretical calculation of
in
^^ and/or
L^^^^
2-13
E.R. P.
and an equivalent plane wave field strength are not reconnmended for reporting propagation data.
A
equal to
1.64p
/(4-n-r
watts /km
(2.43)
at a distance
kilometers in
1.64,
its
is
equal to
its
maximum
antenna.
value
or
2.15 db.
The
s
at a point
in free
(r)=p
g {r)/(47rr
watts /km
(2.44)
as explained in annex
II.
In
r
.
(2.44),
(r) is the principal polarization direcP similar relation holds for the field intensity s ( r ) associated
r =
rr
and
and
is
determined by comparing
s
as
P
measured using
E.R. P.
=P t +10
1og(s /s ) p o
P
t
+Gpt (rj
1
2.15
dbw
(2.45)
where
is the
This ambiguity in definition, with the difficulties which sometimes arise in attempting
to separate characteristics of
of its
radiated power
E. R. P.
power
determined from
may
power output ^ ^
tion efficiency
P
it
when transmission
1/i
line
L,
it
et
are known:
P,
it
=P t +L et =P'+L, it t
discussed in annex
+ L,
it
dbw
(2.46)
The electromagnetic
field
II is
in space
required to describe
E, which
field,
it,
rather than to
corresponds
r.m.
s.
electromagnetic
2-14
of
in
dbu
to
estimates of
or
estimates of
power
may
be use-
P
it
E E
+ L,
it
+ L,
ft
G
t
L,
pb
20 logf
*
107.22
dbw
dbw
(2. 47) ^
'
L
ir
ir
L, +
fr
Gr
ir
- L,
gp
-
20 logf
'^
107.22
(2.
48)
P,
ir
= P'
L,
er
L,
ir
dbw
(2.49)
In
terms
in
or basic
transmission loss
Ll
may
+
Ls
= 139.37
et
+ L^
fr
-G
p +
+ G^
t
Gpt (r J 1
+ 20 log
f -
ikw
,
db
(2.50)
Lpb ^
L,
= 139.37 -
rt
Gt
G (r) 1
pt
+ 20 logf
E
E
ikw
, ,
db
(2. 51)
= 139.37
+L rr +Gt
Gpt J? 1 J
+ 20 log
f -
ikw
db
(2.52)
provided that estimates are available for all of the terms in these equations. For an antenna whose radiation resistance is unaffected by the proximity
vironment,
rr tant for frequencies less than
rt
of its en-
=0
db,
L,
ft
L
et
and L^
fr
In other cases,
especially imporit
er
30
db,
MHz
L
ft
commonly
L^
fr =
used,
is often
as-
sumed
to the
that
rt
rr
3.01
L
et
+ 3.01 db,
and
er
+ 3.01 db,
corresponding
assumption
et
HF
may
er ft be given in
L,
and L,
fr
may
of
be very large.
or
I_
Propagation
it is
terms
L
p
pb
so that
not
necessary
to specify
and
et
er
Naturally,
it is
better to
measure
L L
s
,
it
using
(2.50).
It
may
L
p
L,
or
is
K, L
>
A,
or
E.
field strength
E P
t
in
=
of effective
is
obtained by ^ substituting ^
P,
it
^
E. R. P.
dbw,
G
t
I
2.15 db,
db,
and
L, pb
= L, ^
bf
in
(2.45) ^
(2.47), '
where
L,
bf
is given
by (2.31): 1
(2.53)
106.92
20 log d
dbu/kw
where
in
(2.31)
in
(2.53).
Thus
is
224.3
millivolts
2-15
E^,
I
is the
same
as
If
r
t
and
r r
and
E
1
kw
and
with
Gpt^(rj 1'
G
t
= 139.37
+ 20 logf
- L,
dbu/kw
(2. 54)
infinite plane,
with
E.R. P.
= 30
G A^ .)
- 1- 76 db.
Then from
E,
I
= 3.
db From
(2. 45)
30.39 dbw,
since
E+L, +L rr rt o
mv/m
109.54
20 log d
dbu/kw
corresponding to
300
at one kilometer, or
e
is
= 186.4
mv/m
at one mile.
In
between
and
L^
given by (2.52) as
E,
ikw
142.38+ 20 logf
- L,
dbu/kw
(2.56) *
'
field
(P
t
rt
Gt )+
20 log d + 74.77
dbu
(2.57)
E^
I
rt
rr
dbu
(2. 58)
Note that
antenna in
nition of
L
its
in
(2.57)
is
The defi-
may be
- L,
restated as
= L,
bf
L,
f
E^
I
db
(2. 59)
it
some-
times
is)
A
t
pb
L,
bf
.-
--
rt
rr
db
(2.60)
differ
by as much as
2-16
50
MHz,
L^^ +
L,
L_^^
is
is negligible,
if
antenna gain
not negligible.
"equivalei
L^
2-17
3.
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION
2
At frequencies above
GHz
may
seriously
microwave relay
1
links,
communication via
the total radio
satellites,
At frequencies below
GHz
Absorption by
but
from
2 to 3
GHz,
may
be quite
For frequencies up
to 100
GHz, and
Aa
of radio
waves by oxygen
1957
],
[
Bussey
1959
] ,
1950
],
1956
] ,
1954
],
] ,
I960
1961
1952
],
1943
],
Perlat and
I960
],
1957
1951].
3. 1
GHz
Figure
derived from a critical appraisal of the above references, shows the differential absorp-
and V in decibels per kilometer for both oxygen and water vapor, as deter Y wo 'oo mined for standard conditions of temperature and pressure and for a surface value of
tion
Assembly
is
of the
CCIR by
7.5
Group IV
1963d
there taken to be
g/m
3
.
of absolute
is
db/km
approx-
The
is
total
atmospheric absorption
in one of
kilometers
commonly expressed
^(r)
of the differential
absorp-
tion
dr
Jq
dr Y(r) ^
db
(3.
1)
r(r)
10 log
exp
r(r) dr
-
=4.343
\
*^
r(r) dr
db
(3.2)
^0
3-1
The argument
of the
logarithm in
(3. 2) is the
amount
of radiov/ave
energy that
is not
absorbed
The
total
gaseous absorption
A
r
kilometers
is
A
cL
dr [y (h) + Y (h)] O W
db
(3.3)
where h
is the
from
measured
2A
db.
a
absorption
is
may
be
Aa
where
r
= Y
oo eo
+ y
wo ew
db
(3.4)
are effective distances obtained by integrating and r eo ew over the ray path.
y /y o oo
and y
^v
/y
wo
9=0,
.
and r are plotted versus ew eo 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, L and tt/
r
r
radians in figures
d,
2-3. 4.
Figure
values
3. 5
for these
of
may
I.
21 to
r
I.
26 of annex
I,
to free space.
A,
is
plotted versus
the ray
f,
and
or
of section 6.
The
d
of
and d
values
from
The
total absorption
Aa
sum
A at
+
and
A ar
A
where
A at
A ar
(3.5)
i^
at
(f,
dj,
1
ot
ar
Aa
(f,
d^)
2
or
9 ot
0.
1
=9
-
or
=0, and A
=
a
10
GHz,
a figure 3. 6 shov/s
2A
(f,
0,
d/2).
For trans-
plotted versus
3^2
3.2
Sky-Noise Temperature
source
of
is a
same properties as
T
s
has as an absorber.
may
be de-
T multiplied by
radiated power that is not absorbed in passing through the atmosphere to the antenna:
(K) =
T(r)r(r) exp r.
L
r(r')dr'[dr
(3.6)
where
stance,
r(r)
2)
For
in-
assuming
T(r) = (288 - 6. 5h) "K
for
h < 12 km,
and
T(r) = 210K
for
h > 12 km,
figures.? shows the sky-noise temperature due to oxygen and water vapor for various angles
of elevation
0.
3-3
3.3
Attenuation by Rain
The attenuation
the
of
Water droplets
radio waves in
compared
wavelength or
comparable
to the
wavelength.
much more
cipitation rate,
the drops, the latter in turn depending on the size of the drops.
that rain with a
There
is little
evidence
of
known
problem
is quite
Total absorption
can be estimated by
integrating the differential rain absorption y (r)dr along the direct path between two intervisible antennas,
A
Fitting an arbitrary
=
r
V
^r
{r)dr
decibels
Jq
(3.7)
1959] and
may
in
V
r
KR* r
db/km
(3.8)
GHz.
The fmictions
K(f
and
0!()
and
3.9,
where
is the
K=
a
[3(f^-
2)^ -
(3.9a)
[1.14
3.5)
exp(-0.006 f^)
(3.9b)
An examination
form
\/\g
exp(-0.2 h^)
(3.10)
3-4
where R
rs
is the
Then
'rs
er
db.
(3.11)
\s
where
v
'r s
KR^^ db/km,
rs
r_ er
dr exp
(- 0. 2
ah
km
(3.12)
is the
er
is
an "effective
o
rainbearine ^ distance".
er
versus
and
a.
some
statistics
1950],
who
tribution of instantaneous path average rainfall rates for 25, 50, and 100-kilometer paths,
respectively, with the cumulative distributions for a single rain gauge of half-hour, one-hour,
and two-hour
mean
rainfall rates,
The
total
is
from region
to region,
of a path (with or
in
of
rates,
Rr
depends on how
Rr
varies with elevation above the surface and upon the cor-
Figure
3. 14
provides estimates
0. 1,
1,
of the
and
percent
of the
year as a function
of r
er
and normalized to a
in (3.12)with
annual rainfall
3.
of 100
cm.
To obtain A
from
(3. 11),
replace
from figure
by Bussey
given by
fall rate
with height, as
of
(3. 10)and
of r
surface rain-
3-5
Cloud droplets are regarded here as those water or ice particles having radii smaller
than 100 microns or 0.01 cm.
more
drop-size distribution.
Reliable
measurements
of the
of both
parameters
of a
it
is
possible to
water content, M,
of
pressure,
is
mass
it is
mixed.
A
where A
K M
db
(3. 13)
is
K
1
is
an attenuation coefficient,
and
is the liquid
measured
in
The amount
of precipitable
M,
in a given
of
K from
table 3.1
it is
The increase
in attenuation
of
clearly shown.
magnitude
from 10
to 30
GHz
GHz.
The data
These
presented here also show that attenuation increases with decreasing temperature.
relations are a reflection of the dependence of the refractive index on both wavelength and
temperature.
of
difference in attenuation.
magnitude smaller
of the
same water
content.
TABLE
One -Way Attenuation Coefficient,
Temperature
(C) 33
3.1
in
db/km/gm/m
GHz,
17
0.
Frequency,
24
0.
9.4
0. 0483 0.0630 0.0858
Water
Cloud
J
20
10
311
0.
128 179
0.
0.267 34
(extrapolated)
Ice
8.
0. 112 (extrapolated)
74X
10"^
6.
4.
36
10""^
2.46 X
8.
lO"'^
Cloud
10
2. 11
10"
-3
-3
1.46 X 10"^
1.0
19 X 10"^
20
X 10"^
1.45 X
10"
lO"'^
5.
63X 10"^
3-6
SURFACE VALUES Xoo AND Xwo OF ABSORPTION BY OXYGEN AND WATER VAPOR
PRESSURE 760mm Hg TEMPERATURE 20<C WATER VAPOR DENSITY I0g/m3
O
UJ Q.
m o UJ a
a. a:
o en
CO
<
LU
0.0005
0.0002
0.0001
''
"
EFFECTIVE DISTANCES
Tqq
AND
rg^
0.02
DUU
tt>-u
A.
-nni
R9A
-nnp
AQr\
Af\f\
^'
^
.
'-
...=
--
--
__
__
__^j
^ T,
oil
7
7
lCf\
^^ ,2 ^'^
.i
I-,Z^'
-'^
-
a]
_
7/^
ion
z; ^ ,^^ :'
^-- ^
-''
ji
-
280 /
^?<777
-,?2=^
-:
^''
;:; =
,^
$;?2^
S2i'
Zll-^''=
-- = -'D.2
T"
2^~L
...s
= = = = =
210
*7^^ ^^%-^-
7^J
'''"' = --=^=^
5nn
/^V^-y
'Aiyxy,^'
^ <^''' '
A'/y
y-\^^
"j,:-i'
-<:::. -'j
""C^-r-' '"
.,__,
-Jki^^ '
icn
/yyj^.-^
Tf
J i 55
= =
=== = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
==== =
=== = = = =
= = =LL
M
RT
f-r
/^
-7^g^?fei
'^S^^'^^''''' --''
^ -.^%
|S
'^
-"""
L- --=
:._.5 =--->3
:^=^ = =
li!U
g^--
-Z--=;:--::- = -^=
3^ = "'
:-
::__::__=:__|to
9^
80
zt*
sis
Ar\
7
7
z*
J'
a^
^
40
80
120
160
<
00
240
280
320
360
400
440
To
48 3
520
560
600
640
680
720
760
800
840
880
RAY PATH
IN
KILOMETERS
ou
fiO
L-J-l.
1
Ir ,1-100
Tf""
40
9o
60=0.01
60 = 0.02
^
.^
20
'
^
_. I. ._ __
If
RECJUENCY IN G c/s J
00 LJ
O z < (V)
X
80
/
..-
|0!-ionL
_.
,.
__
7^
60
/
^.---'
Q UJ > Io
,/
20
'j^
^ ^ <^
40
,''
''
-^
.^ -^
_.,
1 I-IOO
20
60
80
100
120
140
180
200
220
240
260
280
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
Figure 3.2
3-8
'
EFFECTIVE DISTANCES
r^^
AND
r^^
WATER VAPOR
1 1
0.05.
0.1,
.2
e=o.c
80
e--oi
/
/
[01
G<-/='
1
p^
9=0.2
60
40
20
//
//
//
/
//
/
y
FREQUENCY
IN Gc/s|
|0 2|
A /x/
1
00
80
/ A A^
y
/^.'
'
^^
v^
^ -rr
^
rr
^
Gc/5'
Jrv?L pi
60
40
4 ^ A
^$. .._.J^ i^r"1
V / ^?^
^rt=>
1
/^
j<
^r
^
S
^
:d
0.1
.
^ "^^
'
'
_ ~
M ^
1
r~
I2J.H5I
L.
-'
1
rri ss.1'.:
g^r:
r -- -- ._ .-. -- M Gc/s - .-- |02 __ - -- - ^- ._. - :[2] ^ " ... "~ " ""?
-|
Tw
[E
-'>IOt
20
Si" rn
\^\
^>inL i^
Ti
180
20
40
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
RAY PATH
IN
KILOMETERS
).05
So-<
50
EQUENCY
;
IN
Gc/s^
|oi-ioo|
1
^-
0.1-10 TJ
^,>^\
^^^
^r
yC\ J^ 2
- -"
"
L
0.1-100
4
6
3
IC
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 3.3
3-9
EFFECTIVE DISTANCES
Teo
AND
r^^
00 =0.5.
^,
10
12
14
16
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
RAY PATH
en
Tq
in
KILOMETERS
00=0.5
0 = 7r/2
D.I-IOUl
1
(J
CO
LlJ
Q >
\i^
/- -^
/^
>'^ ^
"^
;.i-iu
ipPFOllFMrV
rJ
IM nr/cl
^^-
=
3
"
1 l-IO(
II
^
13 14
12
10
12
15
16
17
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Figure 3.4
3-10
'
d, IN
KILOMETERS
"~
::::::inir;T;::::
CL
V^ 5s
I"
\^
ll>
's
^.
^
^
^
T^l
o~"
1
S X.
:
^ _-
^ J
'
-Ps-_ _ ^^'
ISIP
_5
'
^Mi-^
"
V
:-
^^T
J iw
H
....
'
^m
I^^W
^
I
;E!;;i!;;;;:
:::
=i
sl
"^
.^1
> -<
3)
II
iiz^\\u\\-w\
:;S;;::!i::;;
;;;;
e^
ii;
:i;4>s^S^^
'It'
^^fl
::
Hi
J
'
==^
33-'
^fc^
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1
iU-~
ij
CO
m
H I
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'
m!
^'''^^S
!'
T^sij I
*
=; ->
HiiNJ.
j|lii[>
"
l\t'-i
:r
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>
X\
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T lu I ii:; I I
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k \s A ? k
s^
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1
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v
i;^ jL.m
\3 V
t
-n
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6^
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TJ
SSp kl5
!~ --
::::::pr::^!a :::::::g-p;:i
liLLl
X. ^ \
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^,-^hS 'i
;
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it
m
en OJ
<
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S
fl-
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i::;;;;::::;
O
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A
=1
Bffl
^Sljlj,
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rr-j
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Oi
en
n o s m H m Zl w
II
___
Nl
MMM SI
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:V:::::i:i--=^:
::::i::::::::::::::;;;:!
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1
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1
:::::: ::::::::
\
1 , 1
lur
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1
J
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Al
\i
i
il'il
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P "i
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H > 2 m
TV
11
4* :::
::
:
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ii El
iliWlW
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S"'
lift
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i
ri
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=
[lull
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:::::::::
:
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IJJlIj.
....
(ji
::|ttH||iH
111
ili fffa
-Jf:
.-:
:
IL+
-
^^ ir^
P :g^; '^W
IB
ii
3-1!
IN
DECIBELS
IW
1
\ \^
1\
I
% \^ s^ \, ^ \C\ \ \ \\ A \^ \ \ w \ .\ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \
\,
\\\
H
> H m o
-n -n
o
CO
O ^ m o
t>
> z
c,
\
\
\
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\
\
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KILOMETERS
Figure 3.14
3-20
4.
R.ADIUS
is
The bending
radio ray as
it
largely determined
to
order
represent radio
rays as straight lines, at least within the first kilometer above the surface, an "effective
earth's radius"
is
AN,
or of the surface
N
s
= (n
s
1)
X 10
(4. 1)
where n
s
is the
the
mean N
s
AN
AN/km
(4.2)
Germany and
in the
e]
paper values of
during periods of
minimum
field strength.
nortnern temperate
and values
of
reach minimum
N
where h
s
N so
=
exp(-0. 1057 h
s
(4.3)
is the
mean
refractivity
map shown
in figure 4.
Ozanich
I960]
of the refraction of a radio
Most
to
determine
most important
horizon paths,
terminal, and
OS
and h
to the
it is
appropriate
geometry
propagation path.
As
is is
No
and and
are determined at the radio horizons along the great circle path between the antennas,
is the
if
N
and
average
of the
is
(4. 3).
its
An exception
to this latter
rule occurs
an antenna
more than
h
s
No
a=a
)l"'^
(4,4)
4-1
where
is
Figure 1.2
plotted versus
The
total
which
is
elevated
which passes
of
all the
way through
satellite
the earth's
For studies
earth-
At higher angles
it
may
often
Large values
is
of
AN
of
and
usually important for part of the time over most paths, especially in maritime climates.
1953a, b]
Bean
[
1959],
Booker
[
1946],
Booker
and Walkinshaw
and Belkina
[
1946],
1963], Button
19 52]
,
19 58],
[
Friend
1945]
Ikegami
1959]
[
Kitchen, Joy,
,
and Richards
1958],
1955]
1957]
Pekeris
1947]
Schunemann
1953]
4-2
4-3
EFFECTIVE
11600
EARTH'S
RADIUS, Q,
VERSUS
SURFACE REFRACTIVITY, Ng
11200
<
UJ
9200
8400
7600
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
N.
Figure
4.2
4-4
5.
of
Some
[1959,
of the results
were presented
CCIR Atlases
[
19 55,
19 59]
I960,
1963]
distinction is
the roughness
of radio
accounted for by
fitting a straight
curve
to the terrain.
A
surfaces
is
comprehensive discussion
given in a recent book by
of the scattering of
1963]
Studies of reflection
hills,
[
and
man-made
1958],
made by Beckmann
[
1957], Biot
1957a, b]
[
Kalinin
,
1957,
19 59]
1946]
McPetrie
and Saxton
.workers.
1955],
1955], and
many
in
other
papers by
1956], and
Beard
1961]
in section 4,
geometric
the great circle path terrain visible to both antennas will support a substantial
amount
of
it is
reasonable to
fit
Reflections from hillsides or obstacles off the great circle path between
Discrimination
may reduce
antenna beams
may
be directed away from the great circle path in order to increase the signal
of
time, over
some
somewhat smaller or
much
greater values of line-of- sight attenuation than the long-term median values predicted
methods
of this section.
antenna
r
,
is
made
up to two components, one associated with a direct ray having a path length
associated with a ray reflected from a point on the surface, with equal grazing angles
reflected ray has a path length
differs
r^ + r^.
The
ray
The
from
which
is
a function of the
5-1
Ar
= r
+ r
illustrated in figure
5. 1.
c),
of the reflecting
surface, as well as upon the ratio of the products of antenna gain patterns in the directions of
Let
the other,
^oi
and
g
02
matched.
Similar factors
g
ri
and
g
r2
are
defined for each antenna in the direction of the point of ground reflection.
reflection coefficient
The effective
is
then
y^
e
1-0
cr,
= e
DR
01 02
exp
sin
d;\
(5.1)
where
surface, and
may
be approximated as
2d d
%
2
a d tan
(5.2)
ij^
An expression
R
wave from
c
given conducis
tivity
most cases
may
very nearly
III.
unity.
A
of
notable exception for vertical polarization over sea water is discussed in annex
Values
R and
vs
ij;
III. 1
to
III. 8
polarization over good, average, and poor ground, and over sea water.
ijj
d, 5.
defined in section
1.2,
wave
length,
The exponent
(cr
sin
ij")/)^
Rayleigh's
criterion of roughness.
If
the product
DR
exp(-0.6
cr,
sini]j/\)
is
less than
*/sln
4i ,
and
is
less than
0.5,
groimd reflection
may
is
then expressed as
%
R
ri
oi
r2
sinLJJ
(5.3)
02
D,
R and
cr
are ignored.
The factor
to
r2
g
02
in (5.
3)
makes
01
5-2
reflection,
may
be ob-
from
the general
formula
r
A-G =-10
db
(5.4)
where
may
sum
of the
maximum
antenna gains.
At frequencies above
in
GHz
(3.4)
should be added to
as computed by
(5.4)
or
(5.5).
1
Over a smooth
perfectly-conducting surface,
and
g
),
c = 0,
Ascuming also
that
10 log(g
A
Exact formulas for computing
given in (5.9) to
(5.4)
(5. 13)
= - 6 - 10 log sin
(tr
Ar/X)
db
(5. 5)
Ar
III.
suffice for
Ar
is less
than 0. 12X
may underestimate
Section
5.1.1
of section 5.2
should be used.
and
above a plane
4"
then defined by
tanip = hj/d^ =
h^/d^
d
(5.6)
where heights
ajid
and
d-
d^+d^^d,
The distances
heights heights
d^ = d(l +h^/h'^)"-^
d^ = d(l +h'^/h^)"-^
(5.7)
d h
and
may
and
and
h'
in
(5. 7).
Then these
may
be calculated as
h'^
h^
- d^^/(2a)
h^
h^
d^ l{2a.)
(5. 8)
a,
to obtain
improved estimates
of
and
Iterating between
(5.7)
and (5.8),
may
be
obtained.
5-3
The path length difference between direct and groiond reflected rays
is
Ar
= ^^ d^
+ (h; + h^)^
\|
dS (h;
h'J^ -
2 h- h-
/d
(5. 9)
where
the approximation in
(5=9)
is
Referring to
(5. 5)
for
which
is
zero,
(assuming that
(5,9)
occurs when
Ar
= \/6.
From
Ar S 2h'h'/d;
12 h'
1
hl/X
Z
(5, 10a)
This equation
solving
(5. 8)
may
for
d
o
h'
(5, 10a).
a,
the
may
Ar
be obtained as follows:
= \/6 =
^- [h
dio
-
d ^/(8a)l
2h^/d
ooo
-
hd
/(2a) + d ^/(32a^)
where
d, 3 d^ = d/2,
h, = h- = h
and
h' =
d ^/(8a)
For
the angle
ij^
where
p h
a,
may
be defined as
tan
qj
2h/d
d/(4a)
(5. 11a)
and
Ar
d(sec
iJj
- 1) =
+ tan
i|j
- 1
(5.11b)
Let
9,
of the direct
ray
assume
that
< < h
< < 9a
ijj
grazing angle,
i|'>
is
small;
Ar ^ 2h
sin^J
2
'
h^j
L
,,
+4h/(3a)
+ e
(5.12)
whether
is
positive or negative.
For
=0,
'i-,
= 2h
/(34j),
5-4
Two very
Ar
are
Ar
^[1
d d /d
^ 2h
sin
\\i
kilometers
(5. 13)
in electrical radians
and
degrees are
ZirAr/X = 41,917
h'h'/d
41.917
f L^^
dd./d ^
42
h sin
4;
radians
(5.14a)
360Ar/\
2401.7
f h'Ji'
/d
2401.7
^^
^I'^J^ -
^"^^^ ^ ^i ^^^"^
degrees
(5.
14b)
where
is the
radio frequency in
MHz,
and
all
h
1
is
involves neglecting
/(2a)
(5. 5),
relative to
in
(5.8)
=
15 db
d.
As noted following
Ar > 0.06
X.
With
this criterion,
and assuming
= 1,
the attenuation
is
for
the corresponding
minimum
grazing angle
4j
mS
^y
A comparison
= 0)
with the
CCIR
Atlas of smooth-earth
diffraction curves shows that the attenuation relative to free space varies
from
10
to
20
(9 = 0,
il'
Figure
5.
la shows
5.
how rays
will
a
o
=63 70
kilo-
lb shows the
and h
5. 1. 1.
and
h'
defined in
two circumstances:
the
to the
sea level, and straight rays above an effective earth overestimate the ray bending at high elevations.
is
insignificant unless
is large.
5. 1.
A Curve -Fit
to
Terrain
It is
smooth curve
h'^
is fitted to
used
to define an-
tenna heights
and ray
h^,
where
the angle
of incidence of a
r^
is
in figure 5,1.
This
curve
in
is
of terrain heights
h'
used in computing
0.16 \
for the
(5,1).
h'
and
should exceed
5-5
h.(x.)
above
'
sea level,
and
x. /(2a)
is
1/a
fitted to
illustrated in figure
6.4.
h(x)
21 equidistant values of
the transmitting antenma.
to either antenna
for terrain
between
and
x. =
and
x. =
kilometers from
The points
not visible
which
is
from
the other:
h(x) = h +
m(x
- x)
(5. 15a)
20 20
17
h.(i-lO)
lyK..
;=^^^. r.-^S^
(5.15b,
which
is
from
to
= d,
The heights
h'^ -
h^^ - h{0)
(5. 17)
If
h'
or
h'
is
Ah,
defined by
(6. 12)
(5.17).
Where terrain
single curve,
it is
o-
is
so irregular that
is
large and
= 0,
irregular.
may
be
5.1.2
(r
in
(5.1)
is the
root-mean-square deviation of
(5..
relative to the
16),
within the
The outline
of a first
is
^ll+^21
where
r
"l+"2+'^/2
from a point on
the
+ r
is the
+ r
is the
1947
in
annex
III
and
x,
from
where
A sample
calculation of
o"
is
given in Example
5-6
of
Annex
III.
5. 2
Where ray
may sometimes
be
made by one
of the following
methods:
1.
If
where ray
optics formulas
may
be used, then
9 =
A may
is
fit to
given by
Domb
and Pryce
5. 1,
1947]
terrain as in
in
some cases
the
method may
terrain is so irregular
may
be applicable.
may
may
be useful.
of figures 1,1
values of attenuation relative to free space vary with distance and frequency for a large
sample
ures
I. 1
of
in fig-
-1.4 correspond
more
hills,
and man-made
is
a receiving installation is
low or
surrounded
by obstacles.
Absorption
of radio
energy
is
factors except in cases where the only path for radio energy
directly through
some
build-
ing material or where a radio path extends for a long distance through trees.
Studies
made
at 3000
MHz
MHz
centimeter thick dry brick wall was 12 db and increased to 46 db when the wall was thoroughly soaked with water.
a wet one were usual values.
of less than 10 db at
3000
MHz
huts.
were
thin screens of leafless branches, the tr\ink of a single tree at a distance exceeding
30 meters,
wood-framed windows,
tile
wooden
when a
6
Loss through a
thin
exceed
6 db if the transmitting
is the
5-7
of attenuation in
19 55
A^=
where
f
d(0.244 log
f -
0.442)
decibels
(f
(5. 18)
A,^
is the
meters
frequency
megahertz.
The situation with a high and a low antenna in which the low antenna
distance
is
located a small
from and
at a
is quite
different
from
the
may
imately
500
MHz show
],
from
woods
[Head, I960
Expressing
this
A^=52-12 1ogd c
'^
decibels
(5.19)
where
A^,
is the
depression
is
some
of the in the
work
of
tions to
may
be used to establish an optimum antenna height for protection against long-term power fading,
minimum
Then
is
20 db
atmosphere with
the
maximum
expected to be encountered.
formulas
db protection against
of
multipath from direct and ground- reflected components throughout the entire range
tivity gradients expected.
In general, the refractive
refrac-
GEOMETRY
Figure
5.1
5-9
6.
is the
illustrated in figure 6.1, and upon the bending of radio rays in the atmosphere.
Figure 6.1
of the
If
n,
which implies
meter above
the
Atmospheric refractivity
N
to
= (n-
1)
10
assumed
decay exponen-
To calculate
horizons.
6,
one must first plot the great circle path and determine the radio
6.1
For distances less than 70 kilometers, the great circle path can be approximated by
a
rhumb
line,
which
is a line
same
angle.
map
to
study
is illustrated
on figure 6.2.
map
show
Segments
of the actual great circle path are later plotted on these detailed
maps.
is
The spherical triangle used for the computation of points on a great circle path
shown on figure
inals,
6.3,
where
PAB
is
and
the antenna
term-
and
B has
A, and
is in the
same hemisphere.
is for the
may
readily be
B'
from
to
B,
PAB'
and $
is the
,
while
and
tude between
and
B and A and
B', respectively.
and
(6.1)
,
to
],
(6.4)
T. and T.
1956
from true
tan
cot
(6.1)
6-1
tan
Y + X
cot
$_
r
[{''
A\
Y-X
(6.2)
Y+X^Y-X +
5
5
^, Y
and
jY+X
(6.3)
Z,
is
given by
tan
S
^
tan
Y + X
Y-X
(6.4)
ixnits of
length, the
used, based on a
mean sea
d,
6370
km:
(6.5)
km
111.18 Z
when
minutes apart, so that straight lines between points will adequately approximate a great
circle path.
C:
cos Y' = sin
X sinC
= sin
sin $
A
.
cos
cos
(6.6)
cos
^-r,,
cos $
/sin Y'
(6.7)
for a
cos $
/cos
(6.8)
cot
C -
tan
Y' -
X ^
cos
B'
B'
(6.9)
Where
may
be used.
6-2
6. 2
Plotting a Terrain Profile and Determining the Location of Radio Horizon Obstacles
how
to
d^ Lt, r
from an
antenna to
level.
its
of this obstacle
(d
Xjt
, )
above
j
mean sea
)
These points
may
may
is in
When
the difference
is
necessary
].
their distances
x.
from
shoiiLd include
plotted on linear
average curvature
of
y.
any point
h.
from
the transmitter along a great circle path is its height above a plane
which
is
111
(6. 10)
where
a,
.
(4.4), or is
read
(4. 3),
is
obtained from
N is estimated from the map on figure 4.1, A plot of y. versus x. on linear graph paper
is the
Figure
6.4
bottom
of the figure
km).
horizon
6.5
common
6.6.
to both antennas
and for a path with two radio horizons are shown in figures
of these three figures are
and
s\afficiently detailed
from
where vertical
On a cartesian plot
ray from each antenna
horizon elevations
is
of
y.
versus
x.,
as illustrated in figures
6,4,
6,5,
and
6,6, the
Procedures
where
6-3
6. 3
If
an antenna
cliff
or mountainside, the
To obtain
h
of the central 80
horizon
is
determined.
h
may
be used to compute
for
for
= 0,
1,
2,
.... 30,
where
h
t30
=
h h
is the
:
height
above sea level of the ^ ground below the transmitting ^ antenna, and,
27
Lrt
h
t
TT-r
25
, '
h = h
t
h
t
for
h <
t
Z7
ti
ts
h ^
to
(6. '
\
Ua) -i
i=3
otherwise
h
t
=h ts
h to
(6.11b)
where
is
is the
mean sea
level.
The height h
similarly defined.
If
h
t
or
as defined above
r
is
h
te
= h
t
or
6.7,
re
is
r to
used
or
h
r
to the value
te
or
re
h
te
h
t
Ah{h
t
Ns
re
h
r
Ah(h
Ns
The correction
1959
].
corresponding
h
t
.
to a
is
Over a smooth
<
km
km,
the following
approximate relationship
\e
If
<t/('^)
'
\e
is
4r/(^^)
from
^'' '^^^
between antennas
substantially different
arc distance
a[sec(d
XjU
/a)-
1]
TQ
= a[
sec(d
jT
/a) -
1 ]
(6.13b)
6-4
9,
is
minimum
beams are
in
elevated.
annex
9
III.
et
and
er
by
as
to the horizontal at
each antenna,
shown on figure
6.1.
measured
d9
in kilometers,
is less
When
the product
than
2,
9=9 oo
where
"a"
in
(6. 14)
d/a +
0+9 er et
(6. 14)
is the effective
elevation angles
and
may
or determined directly
from
or
6.6, but
are
h^
9
h
_
=
et
-i^iJi
d^
Lt
-^ 2a
d,
=_i;L^_ er d,
Lr
h
ts
,
h^
d^
LL
2a
(6.15)
where
all
h^
Lt
h^
Lr
is
above
mean sea
horizon obstacle
or (h of a id. Lr Lt Lr Lt determined from the terrain profile by using (6.15) to test all possible
(h
) )
As
rs d ,
horizon locations.
er nearest zero.
et
^
is
or
is
a maximtim.
When
maximum
is the
value
9
et,
er
-/Th
te,
re
7a
for
te,re
<
km
of a
:
horizon ray,
9
ot
or
or
is
er
ot
= 9
et
+ dT^/aLt
nr
=0 er
+ d
Lr
/a
(6.16) *
'
If
9 ot
and
or
= D /a s
where
s
Figure "
6,8, valid only ^ for
9
= ^ -
^Lt
^Lr
^
9
(^- 1^)
ot
+9 or
= 0,
'
is a
graph of ^
-versus
Ds
surface refractivity,
6-5
and
(3
shown
in figure
J_
2a
h
+
9
h
(6.18a)
oo
+
et
-il_^f
d
=^+e GO 2a
8
h
er
h
(6.18b)
-ZlJ^
d
To allow
a
p
oo
and
oo
Aa
and
AS "^o
to give
and
whose sura
s;
is the
angular distance,
9,
path
asymmetry
factor
= a
oo
+ Aor
(6. 19a)
= P + P '^o oo
'
Ap
'^o
e = a
+ p
s =
Of
'^O
/p 0*^0
The corrections
and of the distances
rays.
Aa
A 0*^0
and
d
6
ot
and
or
d
St
and
sr
crossover of horizon
=dp oo /9 oo -d Lt
is the
sr
= dor
oo
/9
oo
-d Lr
(6.20)
'
'
The Slim of
(6.17).
and
distance
s
.
st
=d sr
D s /2
Figure
Similarly, '
6.9,
is
drawn
for
Ns
= 301,
shows
Aa
as a function of
and
ot
st
Ap '^o
other than
from
For values of
C(N
Aa (N
OS
C(N
s
Aa
(301)
Ap (N
o
C(N
so
)
Ap
(301)
(6.21a)
'
(N^) = (1,3
N^
60 N^)
X 10"^
(6.21b)
For instance,
shows
C(250) = 0.66,
plotted versus
C(301) = 1.0,
C(350) =
1. 38,
and
C(400) = l,84.
Figure
6. 10
C(N
s
N
s
6-6
'
'
For small
^^^^
no correction
\a
or^p
is
..
100
Km. When
both
\a
and
^p
e = 9
St, r
less than
are negligible:
=
oo
oo
+ S
'
oo
which
is the
same as
(6, 14).
If
or
ot
or
d'
is
negative, compute
= d
st
I '
a 9
ot
St
or
d'
sr
= d
sr
|a9
'
or
(6.23)
substitute
If
d'
for
9
d
st
or or
9
d'
st
sr
is
9
for
sr'
6.9, using
9
ot, r
=0.
radian,
either
ot
or
for
0.9
determine
Aa o
or
=0,1
ot
Ns
The bending
the
(9.97
cot 9
ot, r
[ -
exp(0.05 d ^
st, r'
X lO"
radians
more than
less than
0.9
way through
the
atmosphere
is
may
be neglected.
Many
where
a
of the p
a fp
<
1,
and
and
(6, 19b).
It is
the transmission loss is independent of the actual direction of transmission, to denote as the
make
Alter-
may
be replaced by
1/s
and
may
be interchanged
some
of the
6-7
PATH
GEOMETRY
SCATTER
VOLUME
IN
KILOMETERS
ALONG
_d_
Figure
6.1
6-8
> O> H OS X H d m H <^ i> O O Ol I m uu _?_ < m UJ. ,n-^^ S !^ o 00 (jJOJ. _| > Nl
l- rl\l
'
j:=.
III
(>J
o
c
ID
rvi
H ^S m
=
-^ IM
6-9
6-10
LINE-OF-SIGHTPATH
20
30
40
6-11
y,
KILOMETERS
o o
31
m o m
>
CO
H > o m
-z.
o
m
CM
n
C
0) Ol
^
:^
o
:^3
Tl
o m H m
C/)
o o
1
IT
U. n
r-
OL
II
O.
T\
+
n -n
Q.
N 2
U
J>
6-12
KILOMETERS
o
m o m
>
CO
H o J> 2 O m
-p
o
m
Tl
-r\
X
-~~
to
c
CD
-z.
CT> <=>
01
7^
o
o o
O)
o m H m
:d CO
OO C3
cz DD
m X o N o
I
Tl
6-13
REDUCTION OF ANTENNA HEIGHT FOR VERY HIGH ANTENNAS
1000
500
// /. ^ /'/
'
/ / /// r /' / / / / / /
,
'
//
/
/
200
100
/
/
///
/
'
/ / '/
/
/ V/
/
//
/
,
50
n
^
.^/^/
20
/ / / // / / //
/ ?r / ./
/ / /
/
/
/'
/
/
VV
/
YP //
^v
f
CO
o
i
/ /, /, /
/ / \/
//
f
y
'
/ /
'
J
/
y
1
05
/
/
/
// '/ /
f
/ /
/
h,5
h,-Ah
/ //
/
/ /
0.2
/ />
0.1
// V
f
'
^^\\
^>..
a
\
/
0.05
/
/
/A 7/ /
/
//
1
/
/a
0.02
1
1
\i
0.01
I
7
/
//
/
/
1 1
,
II
/
1
0.005
/'/
I
1
0.002
1
/
r
10
20
50
100
200
500
1000
2000
5000
10000
HEIGHT, h^,
IN
KILOMETERS
Figure 6.7
6-14
ANGULAR DISTANCE,
9,
IN
RADIANS
O
CO -i
> z o m
O)
m H m m o JO M o z
00
<e > in o ^ CO
m H
Q5
y)
CO
o
2
t-
O m H m
:a Ui
om
33
6-15
Nj
301
20
40
50
60
90
100
0o,^r
IN
MILLIRADIANS
Figure 6.9
6-16
Figure 6.10
6-17
7.
DIFFRACTION OVER A SINGLE ISOLATED OBSTACLE common horizon for both terminals may be
In
considered as
some cases,
reflection
in other cases,
III.
common
horizon
may
be a mountain ridge
[
sometimes referred
Bar sis
and Kir by, 1961; Dickson, Egli, Herbstreit and Wickizer, 19 53; Furutsu, 1956, 1959, 1963;
Kirby, Dougherty and McQuate,
not provide an ideal knife edge.
[
1955;
Rider,
1953; Ugai,
of
1963]
The theory
[
"rounded obstacles"
[
discussed by Bachynski
,
Maloney
I960]
1959]
Furutsu
1962a] have recently developed tractable expressions for multiple knife-edge diffraction.
relatively
the sea,
the
common
horizon
may
be the
8.
This situation
is
discussed in section
No Ground Reflections
is
A
A(v,
0) is
where
7.1
the
wedge
shown on figure
and
is
from
Burrows,
defined as
v = 2'4~KtJ\
(7. la)
or in terms of frequency in
MHz:
v
= 2.583 e\/Td~^'d^d'
{7.1b)
all in
The distance
Ar =
r, + r, - r
1
<i
=9
and
d d^/(2d)
12
d
is
discussed in section
5,
d.
from
same
6,
d.
The angles
a
o
and
are defined in
section
(3
are required.
= d = 0, A a or and si'ice d no corrections Lr' o St sr For the line-of-sight situation, shown in figure 7,1 and discussed in
Lt
= h^
section 5,2,
the angles
a a
and and
(3
are both negative, and the parameter are both positive and
is
negative.
is
positive.
7-1
If
is
greater than
3,
A(v,
0)
may
be expressed by:
A(v,
0)
12.
953 + 20 log v
db
(7.2)
L, jj
^^ot
is
given by
space loss:
db
Hd
where
^^^' ^bf +
(7.3)
L
bf
is
given by
(3
.
(2. 31).
GHz, an estimate
of the loss
due to absorption
If
1)
should be added
and (7,4).
the angles
and
|3
diffraction path
may
be written as
L
which, however,
= 30
+ 10 log p
+53.644
db
(7.4)
is
accurate only
if
v >
3,
d >>\,
is
and
(d/X.)
tan a
tan 6
> 4
(7.3),
and
(7.4),
For a number
was
about 10 to 20 db.
is
double knife-edge case, where diffraction occurs over two ridges, a simple technique
may
be used.
The path
is
considered as though
it
(a)
trans-
and
(b)
first
The diffrac-
A(v, 0)
is
of these paths,
When
the
parameter
resiilts.
small for both parts of the path, this method gives excellent
imating theoretical values of multiple knife-edge diffraction have been developed by Wilkerson
[
1964]
7-2
7,2
Ground Reflections
may
be increased by as
much
as
db due to enhance
may
Re
may
When an
isolated knif.e
edge forms a
common
may
be
estimated as:
A
where
= A(v, 0)
G(h^)
G(h2)
db
(7.5)
h,
1
2.2325 B^(K,b)
(f^ /a
J3 hte ^
s
5.
74 (f^/a,
'
) 3
h
te
(7.6a)
h^ = 2,2325 B^CK.b") (f^/aj^ ^
2
2
re
5,
74 (f^/aj^ h
Z
re
C^-^b)
)
a,
1
= d
Lt
/(2h
te"
),
a, = d, /(2h
2
Lr'^
re'
in subsection 8.1.
0) is
the function
[19551 is
-'
h
re
re
d^
Lt
Lr
is the
radio frequency in
MHz.
_
The function G(h
represents the effects of reflection between the obstacle and the
its
and
if
antenna and
used.
its
horizon
is
0.5(Xd
Xjt
kilometers,
G(h,)
2
G(h
1
should be
determines when
should be used.
When
used
G(h
1.
),
0,5(\d
%
Lt,
should be
Lr
>
|h
'
Lt,
Lr
kilometers.
When
tennas
is
the reflecting surface between the diffracting knife-edge and either or both an-
more
than the depth of a first Fresnel zone below the radio ray, and where geoapplicable, the four ray knife-edge theory described in annex
III
metric optics
to
is
may
be used
This method
is
of
may
received field
may
7-3
7. 3
No Ground
Reflections
1964
space for an isolated, perfectly conducting, rounded knife edge. considered to be isolated from the surrounding terrain when
j_
is
where
= 2tt/\,
is the
is the
[{d
+ r
2/^
)
- r
and
[(d
2 ^2
i"
- r ],
The diffraction loss for an isolated roxuided obstacle and irregular terrain
shown
in
A{v, p) = A{v,
0)
+ A(0,p)
+qvp)
db
(7.7)
where
is the
(7, 1)
and
is
a dimensionless
in kilometers,
of the
rp
= 1.746 e(fr)^
y^
^''^^
(7.9)
where,
r
is the
radio frequency in
MHz,
For
is the
,r
shown
in figure 7.3
respectively to
by
r
,
the
may
be replaced
d d
for a
Where
the
is the
broad crest
of a hill,
symmetrical path
r =
D s /e
(7. 10)
where
Ds
d,
Lt
9
- d^
Lr
is the
kilometers, and
is the
Where
the ratio
a /p
a
r
terms
of the
harmonic mean
of radii
a
t
and
defined
and shown
in figure
2
8. 7:
D
s
r =
St sr^
^
^^^^^^
eld
\ St
^+d sr
In
(7,7), the
term A(v,
7.1.
0)
is the
(r = 0),
and
is
The term
p
A(0,
p)
is the
magnitude
7.4.
(v = 0)
and
is
is
shown on figure
U(vp)
is a
vp
and
shown on figure
7.5.
7-4
III,
programming
the
method
for a digital
computer.
A(v, p)
as given by
or vertically polarized radio waves over irregular terrain provided that the following conditions are met:
(a) (b)
the distances
d,
and
are
much
larger than \,
the extent of the obstacle transverse to the path is at least as great as the width
of a first
Fresnel zone:
^^^d;--TTTd^,7d)
(c)
the
components
and
of the angle
(d)
In applying this
method
to
be expected.
of
error
estimating the radius of curvature of the roxinded obstacle, because the crests of hills
UHF
than at
VHF.
7-5
7.
If
from
the antennas,
(7o7)
may-
neglect important effects of diffraction or reflection by terrain features between each anteaona
and
its
horizon.
may
to
(7o7)
The effect
is
of this
10 db
for
to
)
db
for
G(h
1> ^
terms
discussed in section 72
may
be used
more than
between an antenna
and
its
A
where
A(v, p)
7,2.
is
db
(7.12)
defined by (7.7),
by
(7.6),
G(h
_)
are shown
on figure
When
more than
below
the radio ray, the geometric optics four -ray theory described in annex
may
be appli-
cable.
field
to the free
space
must be considered
$(v, p)
$(v, p) =
90v
(j)(v,
0)
(t)(0,
p)
ct)(vp)
degrees
(7.13a)
(j)(v,0),
(J'C^jP)'
s^-'^^
(^(^p)
= 0,
^''^^
shown on figures
7.1,
7.4,
and
7.5,
$(v, 0) = 90 v^ +
4)(v, 0)
for v >
(7.13b)
and
$(v,
0)
(|)(v,
0)
for v
<
(7.13c)
7-6
KNIFE
C/5
UJ UJ (T
O UJ Q
Figure
7.1
1-1
G(hi_2)
^"""T " ~" ~
35
""
~~"
i\
"T"
k
~~~
p-
~"
" r- - -
^ u
^
ff
'
^ Ty
!
_ 7: -
~i' r
- ?;
^^ s ^ L
L
b b
aID
1
-_
t -| cr E - U"
b 2
~ [ ^ ^ S, L
^
-Ju
u
=
E
0(D
_J
=i
11 1 1 1
"~1
-J
= =
=
'
ts>
:
1
^
"''
E
1
-i
1
=:
5
:
=
z:
ID
i 1
11
II 1 1 1 1
1 111
= ID
^ 00 ? E
;
--:
^^
;.=
:
=t=:
1 R-^
E
!--::-:^
-j
-i--;
.;
;::..!
^ ^ V
te
-:
;
rt
=^
:V v=^ N
\
1
I
i1 i
==
-
ii^i S
T.-r:
\ \
\
W
1 1 ^ = i= li 1 1 i i i = = = =E = = s s s = P p H_i^ = = = = = ^^ = = = = = 3
\
^
s,
\ \
>
*
V
1
V \
X m
JO
==
=
= E
m
CO
==
1 11 1
-)
=E
=r= =
i
1
^ i=
1 1 1^
i
lA
c >
1
1 1!M
111111
----tz^
7^ lA
II
i1
= ^ i
i
X m
I ==
1
1
1 ji
'
I H
O" CD
II
no
<0
^
> ^
-r\
.<:i
___ 1
____
00
= = =
1
1
II
r^
=
1 i
~T~ _]_
1 1
1
11
= E
1 1 =
C Z H
11
1
1
1
1
= 11
li
II
11
r
7"
" 11
g 1 1 =
1
11
1
j
1
o
1
1 !
1
111 ^
11
1
1
1 11
W\
1
ll
1 11 1 i 1 1 ^1 1111
=
ll
1
1
1 1
/
f
:^
=]
rr ^=
a
j
-_
r:z- r r
^ q- J= r- J r
~
:- = - - = = z = - - ~ :r
---
1
n4^^^
:3~:^!-h_
=
=^
e| =
i\
1 11
i|
11
1i
:.
._L,..,^_---
. .
^- -i
-
='
'
"t~
~^: ;
11 11 ^ ~j " ^u :^ :^ ^ ~ j
i
i 1
li
^ f_
11
B^ i ^
,
1 -^ ~^
!
==
]^ E
L^:
_.:_.
--
::-.
!
Mi/
^y!
.-
"
-^
=
r^
_1
/
;/:
1
44^
i
^ p^i
IT ^
^
.i=
,.1
,-
'
:.:
'Ill
-4/^
"'
'-j
;
;
'
':T:!=
irr^ii^;;^
fe3=fe=
-^rj
r-
N=^=^iEH=
m^^i^^^m^^ ^.._:
^^nH"-- -I^MM^
=iEa??4^
7-8
DIFFRACTION LOSS,
A(v,/o),
Figure 7.3
7-9
UJ
cc
LlI
o UJ Q
bJ to
< X
<
O
Figure
7.4
7-10
en _i LJ
m o UJ
Q
>
>
-e-
Figure 7.5
7-11
8.
Diffraction attenuation over an isolated ridge or hill has been discussed in section
to
where
the dif-
may
minimum
some
term
of the series
even
A
cal
simplified graphical method for determining ground wave attenuation over a spheriin this far diffraction region
[
homogeneous earth
1964],
1941]
is
applicable to either
horizontal or vertical polarization, and takes account of the effective earth's radius, ground
constants, and radio frequency.
In section 8.2, a modification of the
method
for
computing
diffraction attenuation over irregular terrain is described, and section 8,3 considers the
special case of a
common
horizon which
is
1000 MHz,
See
(3. 1)
and figure
3. 6.
Smooth Earth
may
two represent the dependence on antenna heights, and the fourth one
depends on electromagnetic ground constants, the earth's radius, and the radio frequency:
A
where
x
G(Xq)
F(x^)
Fix^) -C^(K,b)
db
(8.1)
X, = d^
1
Lt
X.,
= d^
Lr
B
-
(8.2a) ^ '
= f^
B(K,b),
(8497/a)^
' '
(8.2b)
The distances
in sections 4 and 6,
d,
f
Lt
is
d^
Lr
o
a,
and
The parameters
K
and
and
e,
depend on polarization
tr
,
wave
and the
8.1
o-
and conductivity,
of the ground.
Figures
e
and
show curves
of
and
corre-
8.1
shows
for
km.
K(a) =
K(8497)
(8. 3)
K
III.
and
annex
The parameter
8.3.
is
shown as a function
of
and
in figure
- 1.607
for
K
in
(8.1) is
may
polarization.
The parameter
C (K,b)
shown
The function
G{x
in
(8.1)
is
shown on figures
8.5
and
8.6,
and
is
defined as
G(Xq) = 0.05751 Xq
10 log
Xq
(8.4)
F(x
1,
^
,
8.5
and
of
or
x
is
this
method
term
it is
is
1.5 db;
x^
x^(Ax^) x^(Ax^)
for
B
B
= 1.607,
(K<0.01)
(8.5a)
for
0.700, (K
>
10)
(8. 5b)
For values
of
A(x)
curves of figure
minimum
values in (8.5)
range of validity of
(8.1).
x^-x^A(x^,B)-X2A(x^B)
where
X
>x^^
(8.6)
mm
.
335
242.6(1.607 -B)
(8.7a)
A(x,B)
= A(x, 1.607)
+ 1.103(1.607 -B)
A(x, 0.700)
A(x, 1.607)]
(8.7b)
A(x, 0.700)
and
A(x, 1.607)
are the values read from the upper and lower curves of
Ax
in
figure
8.6.
L. j*
is
defined by
(2. 31),
8-2
8, 2
To compute diffraction attenuation over irregular terrain, the single effective earth's
radius,
radii
a,
used in (8.2)
a_
Li
is
The
a
t
a,
L
and
of the terrain
and
of the terrain
defined by
^
%
The distances
h
re
,
<t/<2^e)'
^2^<r/(^^e)
(' >
s V^^'^sr)'
^
d^
,
^s^sr/(9V
the effective antenna heights
6.
,
^^'^^
D s'
,
d
St
>
d^
te
and
Four values
spending to
of
of
,
C
,
C
02
C
ot
and C
or
corre-
and
respectively.
in
(8.3)
to obtain values
K-
K.
is then:
A
where
G(Xq)
F(x^)
F(^^)
C^ (K^
^)
A^
(8. 10)
A
1
is the
(3.1),
and
is
less than
GHz,
(K
is the
weighted average of
G (K
and
C, (K
b)
S^^l,2^
X,
1
(8.11)
=B,C oi2
1
f^d^
Lit
X,
2 =B_C 2 02
f^
d^
Lr
(8.12) ^
X
o
B C
t
f ot
d
St
or
sry
f'
+ X, + x^
1
(8. 13)
C
01
,
^ 02, ot,
or
=(8497/a,
, ^ r l,2,t,
)'
K,
, ^ l,2,t,r
or
K(8497)
^l,2,t,r
This method
^(^l,2,t,r'^)
is
terrain for both vertical and horizontal polarization for transhorizon paths.
be somewhat simplified for two special cases: diffraction over paths where
is
used.
i-3
8. 2.
where
d
St
sr
and
may
x^
OS
f^
Ds +x 1 +x^ 2
C
OS
=
(8.14) ^ '
D=2d St =2d sr
s
a=D/9, s s
K(8497)
,
(8497/a
s
)^
K S =C OS
B
s
=B{K,b)
s
(8.15b)
where
using
x^
and
x^
are defined by
(8. 12).
is
then computed
(8. 10).
8. 2, 2
<
0.001,
=
the
parameter
B(K,b)
B w
and
C.(K,b)
20.03 db.
Assuming
= 1.607
20,03,
be computed as follows:
G(x
i
F(x
2
F(x^)
20.03
db
X, = 669
1
f
x
d^
Xjt
/a^
1
x, = 669
^
f^ d^
^2
/a,
JLjr
L.
(8. 16a)
(8.16b)
1
=
669
f^ e^
D str
+ X, + x^
1
where
str
= (d
st sr
)M\ d St
^
1/1 + d
l^ / ^ ^ /(d + d sr )* sr// st
The parameter
D str
is
shown
d
st
=
in figure 8. 8
,
as a function of
d
st
and
sr
sr
x
"
669
f^ (9
D s )^
+ X ,+ X.
1
(8. 16d)
8-4
8. 3
In
common
horizon may-
is just the
sum
of
d
L,t
and
d^
Lr
and in
method described
The para-
meters
is
x^
and
x^
^q
"^
^1
"*
^2
'
this
over a niimber of paths in the United Kingdom and the United States where the
common
horizon
is
not isolated.
of short to
medium
length,
when
it is
not
known whether
mechanism, both
to
combine the two computed values when they are nearly equal.
8-5
"
"
'
'
CARRIER FREQUENCY
IN
MHz
o o
C3
V O o ^
l>
"
^
ffi
---.
^^^
"
^^
C3 C3 ro
'<=>
qm
C3
m 5 O m
q/ft
<
o O o ^ o 30 o
r\3
q
-
-- ^
-"
^-'
t^
DO J>
qm gr\3
,
3)
^
*
.^
,,--^
,.^00''^
-"'
'''
p b O
p rr O o^ o b""
^
1
^-^
"^^^
^,^.*'^
^^
^
^
^.^
^^ -^ ^
o o
C3
<=>
L *
'
^
.i*'^^
_ ,,,,*'^
^^***^
^^ o ro
\,
\
"T .^
\
^^
-^^
,<.^
-*
^
--
*"
'
^-
V"-^ ^
C=9
^^ ^'
-^
.^"^'^
,
'
u
II
c m
C3 cn
^
*
-<
\
^ ,-^
'
00
-fc>
<^
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\
^ "^
,
-rf*
Pi**.
A
\
GO
10
->l
*'
5r
3
c> ro
^- ^'
^
-*
-'
'
---
"' *'
\ \
\
,,
\
\
"
'^
t
r^^
\ /^
y
C3 Ol
r' ^ _,y
y
^^' ,^ ^-^
,^'
^
/'
\
\
POOR
\
1
GOOD
\
AVERAGE
y
4
/
> f'
y
GROUND
z^'
q e
0=15
a e
=25
=0.02
<=> r\3
X /
4
'1
C/)
O o o
=4
=0.005
/
/
^'
cn
or
(AIR
IN
m
33
)
=1
IRTICAL
Tihos/meter
o
cn
DRIZONTAL
/
/'
8-6
1
b
IN
DEGREES
1 1
H w
1 1
df
jjf
l\
\
\
1
1
jj \
\
M.I.
II
1
1
\ \
X m
\
\
\
q
^
n\
q
0.001
(T\
O
DR //
/
7
>
4
\
\
)
\
>
\
\
7
/
\
-r\
o
-n
X m c m H O -< 2
1 1 1
\
\
\
\
/'
\
1
S
i
mhos/meter
ground
//
^
7
/,
/ /
/
\
\i
1
/
t\
\
V
\ L
d"
4
1
^i >r \
,
//
\
CO
"0
S
">v
/
\
\
Yt
A
/
\
>
7
\
a> ro
q
15
0.005
^
:rage
^ A
\
q m
" "
\
\^
\
>
'
/
/
15
0.005
^ m
RAGE
6
\
\
\
1
ground
\
k
/
/
/ /
/
mhos/meter
/
(
/s
^
ground
I CD m o o c > o m > m D
mhos/meter
I
1
s
\
\ \
\
ll
\i
\
\
u
\
1
)
\
no
q
7;
iTN
11
CO rn
o
8 3
g o i
1
J
J
/
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5 \) 1
T> 1>
rj "''=' CD
0"=
o
e
=
SEA
o
t r
5i
1
WATER
XI
II
\
II
11
5
mhos/mete
8l
\ \
>
S ^
/
ll
11
1
"
\|
\
\
l! 1'
1
/
y
-
/
1 1
/
/ /
/
^
III
VERTICAL
/
\
\
HORIZONTAL
II
/
/
/
POLARIZATION
\
\
/
\
\ i
1 1
POLARIZATION
II
1
1
\
\
...
1
1
1
8-7
iiljhiil;:-!^
0.1
0.2
0.5
10
Figure 8.3
8-8
Ci(K,b)
"
I\3
O b
C>1
i
[
\\
//
/
11
\ '
yj y ^
<^\.
X m
T)
\
c K^
CO
rr
^^v.
11
\^
^v^
/ / /
N.
> > m H m
zi
^X N
Vc y^
\\
/
'
o
o
\
\
\
1
Vi \ \\
\\\
1
'* ""
11
1
1
1
1
1
8-9
THE FUNCTIONS
E^
FCxj.Xg)
FOR LARGE
70
x:
GCXq),
m o a
0.6
Xq.Xi
OR *2
'N
KILOMETERS
Figure 8.5
8-10
;:
"
F{X2)
AND
I
GIXq)
<K<
_
I.
r^;
-
zn
2)- i-nrv.D:,
d|_2(km)=4 I225^/h|,2
20
(m)/Co' ,CoS(4/3k)'''
^r
E: EH e:
L
.
1
;
b=0 b=90
.
bP=
180
-1
10
i
2
'
-
e;:
e:e'e; :e-;
;
;"
n
-
i'^
'
E
F
r ; ;
-
::e
-^r:
-'
-
^ / 9
_
f/j
^r
E-.
H
:
f/l
i
E
"'
:E'
;
E E;
:-
E;H E:
- -_
If
'-
r:
:,
E
-10
r^ V^:\i:
^'
EEJEt
.-
E'
rl\
Er Ei
K=
1
E;
;,
^
(^ !?
/^
"'-^
-;::
--V:
'
r\K
=
=--:::
=:;;:
" ~ ~*
1
"
G(o'
_4_
<i.\0
-20
i ,
0.5
-~ >-
*
-
^y
^-:
>
^ / ^ /
^
Bi
-30
-. U.3
1
EE
, ,
E:
-
.:---
,,,,
-."
_
^
_J
s^
'-.
:-
S;
^
,
EE
^
--*+.
T-'
;i-;
K
-
0.2
-^--"i
^^
.::;
-^
^\ y.
"
=E;;r ::E1
= rr_. rrrii
^^
E
--
^
r.
--
^
.
= 0.l
^
:yy
~-
^
'y
^r
'i
\0^
.-:
E-
/
\
^:-
E;^lt
i
^">
E; ^=
-
z <
CM
;?Ef
;e
/(^
)'
^^=-_-;-_-
^'
r-_
S
1l
-50
eee:
-^:-,
"--""
^^
r
"
K = 0.0l
.*
y 'A y
y v/
]':"'
'
/.
^ ^
^ ^ -
'y^yf
--
:;
-60
^^^E
-.
:r
E^'^^:
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y
^-
^ i_
l(
50
10 00
0,
1,
^0^0
'/3
^MHz do.|,2(km)
Figure 8.6
8-11
Figure 8.7
8-12
'sU
m
5 > m m
JO
00 00
cz>
c^oc^*:
8-13
9.
FORWARD SCATTER
A method
is
This section gives methods for calculating reference values of long-term median radio
transmission loss over paths that extend well beyond the horizon,
bining diffraction and scatter transmission loss estimates
given for
com-
where
this is appropriate.
The
methods
Em-
eral climatic regions and periods of time are given in section 10 and annex
the propagation
mechanism
is
rare.
more
The examination
of
some period
for
and inten[
sities is available
1958]
atmosphere
The
,
first viewpoint is
developed
1957],
papers by Pekeris
[
1947]
1950a, b]
Megaw[1950,
[
1954,
Millington
1956,
Weisskopf
is
1955], Voge
1953,
1955], and
[
Wheelon
I960,
1957,
1957,
,
196la, b]
19 57]
19 58]
and
Voge
19 56, i960]
The general prediction methods described here are for the most part con-
median values
IV.
Annex
L,
bsr
of
to for-
ward
scatter is
L,
bsr
= 30 log
20 log d + F(9d) -
ox
00a
+
db
(9.
1)
first three
terms
of (9.
1)
L,
bsr
MHz, and d
is the
mean
meters.
term F
gain function
defined by
(3,
H
1)
Atmospheric absorption,
A
be
in-
may
may
more
creasing frequency.
d,
To estimate transmission
where
is
much
9-1
should be added to the reference value L, Annex III contains a discussion of transmission bsr loss expected when antenna beams are elevated above the horizon, or directed away from the
.
is the
minus
L
gP
when
Section 9.4 shows hov7 to estimate the loss in path p there is a loss in antenna gain due to scatter. Section 9. 5 shows
.
how
9.
The attenuation function F(9d) depends upon the most important features
path and upon the surface refractivity,
to data available in the
propagation
may
is
plotted versus
and 250.
kilometers and
1
in radians.
of
For values
are valid
s.
may
from 0.7
to unity.
greater than
use 1/s
in
to
III.
14 of
annex
III
Annex
III
<
and 400.
= 301,
the reference
mission loss
is
For 9d s
10:
L,
bsr
s 135.8 + 30 log o
(9.2a)
For
10 < 9d
50:
L^
bsr
s 131.4 + 30 log
(9.2b)
Reference values
may
of
N
s
The approximations
of
transmission
MHz
the approximations
in (9.2) give
good results.
For
should be added.
tends to cancel the direct ray and the approximation in (9.2) will underestimate the transmission
loss.
9-2
9.2
It is
H
of
assumed
that
if
doubles the power incident on scatterers visible to both antennas, and again doubles the power
scattered to the receiver.
As
/k and
re
/\ in wavelengths
to cancel direct-ray
is
scattering efficiency
greatest.
The
in (9. 1) is
of the
This function first decreases rapidly with increasing distance and then approaches a
constant value.
of
For h
re
te
/\ > 4 a/d
and h
is
re
o
fk > 4a/d,
6 +
is
negligible
:3
as h
te
and h
approach zero
H ^
of
db,
o
where A
uation
9=0. For
frequencies up to 10 GHz,
may
o
CCIR Atlas
in
terms
of
wave
asymmetry, and
the
parameter
T]
=0.5696h
+ (0.031
2.32
N
-
x 10
x lO"
)]
{9.3a)
sde/(l + s)^
{9.3b)
The parameters
and
are defined as
r,
1
=4-n-9h
te
/\,
r^ = 4119 h
2
re
/k
(9.4a)
where
the
is the
same
wave
length,
X.
In
terms
of
frequency
and
may
are in re be written
r,
1
=41.92efh
te
r^=41.929fh
2
re
(9.4b)
where
is in
radians,
in
MHz,
and h
are in kilometers.
s
is
0. 7
<s <
III.
The
with a
may
be seen in figures
III.
15 to
19,
which have been computed for the special case where effective transmitting and receiving antenna heights are equal.
9-3
a)
For
ri
1:
Read H
and
(r.)
Z
from figure
9.3; then H. is o
H
where
[H
"
(r,) +
1
(r,)]/2
o
2
-^
+AH o
(9.5)
aH
6(0.6
log
r|
)log
log
q.
If
T|
-n
= 4,
s =
SOS
s
a /p
o
q = r /sr
d
L
>
the value of
1
for
ti
= 5
is
used.
AH o
is
zero for
1,
t)
or q =
and reaches a
of
paths
when
=1.
The value
for highly
asymmetrical
nomogram,
figure 9.4.
marked
,
ri
AH
in
determining
AH
1.
s
s
> <
10 or
0.
1
q > 10,
use
1,
= 10
or q = 10.
1
or q s 0.
(r
use
s = 0.
or q = 0.
If
If
AH AH o
o^olJ
> [H
1:
H 02-' (rjl H
o
/2,
use
would make
negative,
H =H(rJ oi o use H = 0.
o
+ H(r,).
o2
b)
For
ri
less than
s
First obtain
H
is
for
ti
's
for
ri
=0 from
figure 9.
5,
's
found by interpolation:
The case
r\
of a
case
s
A H
1,
special case,
re
r
1
= r
2
occurs frequently
1
systems design.
r;
For
5
this
in figures III.
5 to III. 19 for
= 1,
is
2,
3,
4,
and for
= 0.
0. 5,
0.75 and
1.
of
r|
and
is
s,
H
=0)
No correction term
9. 3
required.
For
is
<
the value
9. 5
OS
(ti
= 1)
is
with
r
1
= r 2
and
(n
as before.
9-4
9.3
F
where
and h
= 1.086{ti
/h )(h
s
h
1
h
J-it
h
J-ir
db
(9.7)
r|
3)
and h
is
defined as
h^
is
n
sD
9/(1 + s)^,
D
S
= d
d_
JljZ
d^
i-iX
(9.8)
The heights
in section 6.
of the
h and the horizon distdncies d, ^ Lt Lr Lit, All heights and distances are expressed in kilometers.
horizon obstacles,
d^
l,r
are defined
exceeds
2 3
exceeds h
by
more
than
kilometers.
9-5
Methods
1955],
1955], Staras
1959]
1959]
As explained
in section 2,
G
p
G
t
L
gp
db
(9.9)
where G
and G
of
to
an isotropic radiator.
The influence
This section shows how to estimate only that component of the loss in path antenna gain
which
is
due
to
phase incoherence
9. 6
of the
forward scattered
r|
,
fields.
(9. 5),
This quantity
is
readily ap-
as a function of
defined by
If
Q/H, where
= 25 =
t
is the effective
,
the antenna
ii
ii
and
if
s = 1,
may
When
f2 t r
power beamwidth K
was given by
G
where
= 3. 50 - 20 log 5 = 9. 52 - 20 log
f2
db
and
fl
are in radians.
efficiencies for both antennas,
+G
)]
(9.10)
where
is the
Section be computed as
shows
:
(2. 16)
G
where D
is the
= 20 log
+ 20 log
f
f -
42. 10
db
diameter
of the dish in
meters and
is the
frequency in MHz.
< 25,
10 <
:
D/\
an empirical correction
(2. 17)
= 23. 3 log
+ 23, 3 log
f -
55.
db
9-6
r|
/2,
S
|i
= 6
r
/5^
t
:<
(9.11)
1,
For
sii
>
1,
n = a /6^.
o
t
For
S(i
n =
(3
/6
(9.12a)
fi
(n+ 0.03v)/f(v)
(9.12b)
+ 0.36
exp(-0.56v)r^
r
(9. 13)
where
r\
a
o
and
5
t
and
beamwidths
(9. 13) is
of the transmitting
as defined by
gP instead of sn
of the ^ product
sn
For
six h-
<
read
9. 5
Combination
of Diffraction
may
be neglected.
Conversely,
may
mech-
anisms have
which depends on
the difference
between the
)
dif-
determine R(0.
5)
(L
in decibels,
from
the relation
L
the difference
cr
dr
R(0.5)
(9.14)
If
between the diffracted and the scattered transmission loss values exceeds
this is the
smaller value.
will be equal to L if it is smaller than L or to L * cr dr sr sr In general, for most paths having an angular distance greater
, ,
may
cr
= L.
sr
9-7
IS IN
RADIANS
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20 50
100
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
10
9d
Figure
9.1
9-8
THE PARAMETER
T^glho),
USED TO COMPUTE
H^
y
7
y r
/
T^s
\
ho
6
Sd/(i +
S)
km
,.
>
5
/ f
A '^X
/
r
/
-
\ s77s =0.5696 ho
/
jt
./ f
f
^J
^75
/ A // A
1/ 'A tjT
.
/ ^A 7 / A A/
f
/^
//,
J
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j^'
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'~~~^
Ns
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1
350
301
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^ ^
250
10
12
13
hQ
IN
KILOMETERS
Figure 9.2
9-9
.''2
Figure 9.3
9-10
O
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I I I I I I I I I I I I
C3 en
I I I I I
oo
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CO CD
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mil
III
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0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
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(0.7<S<
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0.2 0.5
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0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
Figure 9.5
9-12
IN ANTENNA GAIN, Lgp assuming equal free space gains G^ and Gr at the terminals of a symmetrical path
LOSS
D.^ =Cl^
,s =
P^"
0.1
0.2
0.5
5
to
10
20
50
100
half-power antenna
beamwidth, XI
Figure 9.6
9-13
Hv)
m o o H > q
31
c a
C/)
9-14
LOSS
60
56
IN
vs
ft
52
1
/
/
CO _J LU go
48
7
/
s^-/-V/'
44 40
S/J,=
o Q
s/z=2~~
<
36
32
7 \
'/
w
J r
\
LU h-
<
I-
28
I
T\ /
/
//
< a.
CO
(7)
24
t
20
1
/ A /
\
1
o
Q.
16
t
12
^ ^ ^^^
0.1
^ i^
I
4 V
i
//
0.2
0.5
10
20
50
100
A n
Figure 9.8
9-15
P.{0.5)
IN
DECIBELS
-D l
C/)
m m m
>
31
r-
c
(0
Q.
1
O m o CD m
rco
:o
Ul
C/)
-z.
C/5
-^ in
T)
:d
>
n
CD
T) H H in m n (J |
<;:
m
r~
-n
H X
9-16
10.
The variability
of
modes
of propagation,
is
discussed
in
annex V.
The effects
pected within an hour are allowed for by determining an hourly median rms- carrier-to- rmsnoise ratio which defines the grade of service that will be provided.
identified with the variability of hourly
Long-term power
is
fading,
median values
of
transmission loss,
of
usually due to
atmospheric stratification,
An estimate
tant
to
of the
to
is
impor-
fering fields
may
The basis
for the
dictions of long-term variability given here needs to be well understood in order to appreciate
their value as well as their limitations.
An increase
scatter fields but
in
may
Increased turbu-
may
loss depending on the geometry of a particular path and on the dominance of various propagation
mechanisms.
may
Just beyond radio line- of- sight, fading rate and fading range depend in a very complex
manner on
mechanisms.
During periods
of
layering and ducting in the atmosphere, transmission loss shows a tendency to go into relatively
to
more than an
hour.
at all,
of relatively short
deep.
A tropospheric forward
scatter signal, on the other hand, exhibits the rapid and severe
An intermediate
when
power
is
time
is
ionospheric
to defocusing of
some regions
of
10-1
signal
enhancement
in other
may correspond
to
the
summer months;
they are
more frequent
at
UHF
in
than at
VHF, and
19621.
Or-
dinary space diversity does not appear to be helpful in overcoming this type of fading.
ing periods of uniform refractive- index lapse rates, prolonged fadeouts are
Dur-
much
less in-
Sometimes those
which arrive
in
The
overcome
in
of the
,
time fading
[
VHF
and
UHF
[
1950]
du Castel
1957a]
Chernov
[
1958]
Krasil'nikov
of the
1949]
1961]
Silverman
1957]
discusses some
theory
of the
short-term fading
of scatter signals,
Bremmer
related depolari-
zation phenomena.
of
is
1956,
1961],
1957]
b,
du Gastel and
c,
Misme
1957]
more
meteor-
ological information has been used to distinguish between climatic regions, while radio data
are depended on to predict long-term variability about the computed long-term median value
in
each
of these regions.
more than
a thousandpropagation paths.
distances extend from within line-of- sight to about 1000 kilometers, and frequencies range
from 40
MHz
to 10
GHz.
is
As more
cur-
Allowances should
sometimes be made
reflections
for predictable
long-term variations
in
from aircraft or
satellites,
Micro-
10-2
GHz
of
desired.
For instance,
of
of profile
inance of various propagation miechanisms, and this in turn depends on climate, season,
may
(1)
by geographic areas
of
on a map,
(2)
by the predominance
various
propagation mechanisms or
by averages
of available data.
mechanisms may be
of a reof
dominant.
For example,
in a continental
may
morning hours
May
to
improvement
of
is the
enough
percentage of time such phenomena are likely to be important for a given region, time
or season, and radio frequency.
day
When
it
becomes possible
inhomo-
more
adequately,
of
of
CCIR
1963f
"climates."
temperate climates.
available from continental temperate and maritime Other climatic regions, where few data are available, are discussed in
is
annex
III,
is
of
same
as meteorological climates
Haurwitz
of the
atmospheric stratification.
The
is
10-3
N
to
dry
warm
The
form ducts
VHF
and
UHF
commiinication.
sharp moisture discontinuity bends the radio rays, which then tend
interface.
to follow the
dry-moist air
The phenomenon
of
ducts close to the surface of the earth, is essentially a fine weather phenomenon.
is
most noticeable
at night.
Over
the
warm
to
40
Elevated ducts are usually less important for tropospheric propagation than those
World maps
monthly mean
of
figure 4.
1,
figure
31,
may
some cases
it
may
is
time
mean N
of about
3 20
N-
mean N
of
of 20 to 40 N-units.
continental climate
to
pected
to
occur.
On
N^ may be as
much
masses
about
mean N^
of 20 to 30
N-units.
Such
to 50
These where prevailing winds, unobstructed by mountains, carry moist maritime air inland. North America and Europe conditions are typical of the United Kingdom, the west coasts of
and the northern coastal areas
of Africa.
10-4
of
Japan
lie
of
monthly mean
is
Kingdom although
probably more
the annual
mean N
Climate
is
area.
Ducting
may
Maritime Temperate Oversea coastal and oversea areas with the same general
2.
is that a
used.
in
rather
common between
the United
Kingdom and
the
summer
of
S
about
3 70
mean N
of 30 to 60 N-units,
Such climates
may
to 30
Where
may
be present
is the
northwest coast
of
of
Africa,
mean N
of
monthly mean N
may
be from 20 to
mean N
of about 360
N-\inits
20
to 30 N-units,
Such climates
may
be observed from 20
S latitude and are characterized by monotonous heavy rains and high average
N to summer
temperatures.
Africa.
8.
Typical equatorial climates occur along the Ivory Coast and in the Congo of
nual
mean N
This is a hot
summer
from
to 40
latitude
10-5
may
also be defined.
is
moderate
all
year round.
Ns
about 310 N-
mean N
of 10 to 40 N-units.
which
nn.ay
Long-
of
to
cr
It is difficult to
predict the percentage of time that high fields due to ducting condi-
tions
may
be expected to occur.
[
Some
of the
of
super-refraction
listed by
Booker
1946] are:
a)
summer months;
Mediterrean Sea
Sea, Gulf of Aden,
b)
c) d)
Red
Persian Gulf
of Australia,
New
New Zealand
Chesapeake Bay
e)
f)
all year;
a) b)
especially
marked
in
summer
west coast
of India
west monsoon
c)
northern part
of the
season
d)
west monsoon
It is
is
torial) climate,
most
the world.
N
s
of
Australia with
its
much
as 50 to 70 N-units
may
be inter-
and
6.
of
sections
to 9,
takes advantage of theory in allowing for the effects of path geometry and
Meteorological information
of data available in
of a
is
used to disregions
is
Median values
each
of these
)
parameter V(50,d
which
defined below.
the
median
For regions
where
a large
amount
of
data
is
show frequency-related
effects.
climate.
10-6
10.
d
e
,
Empirical estimates
of
distance between actual horizons, or distance between theoretical horizons over a smooth
earth.
The effective distance make allowance for effective antenna heights and some allow-
loss are approximately equal over a smooth earth of effective radius define d
si
and
as 9000 9
SI
Then:
J
d
SI
65(100/f)3
km
(10. 1)
The value
of d
SI
is
compared with
the
smooth-earth distance, d
so
so
^ d-3\l Zh. te
3^^Zh.
re
km
(10.2)
where the
in
and h
in
MHz.
is
greatest on
is
=130/fl+(d
-d
si
so
)/dl
-'
km,
for d
so
<d SI
(10.3a)
d
e
= 130 + d
SO
(10.3b)
10-7
10.2
and Y{p, d
e
(50),
cr
(50)
=L cr
(50, d
db
(10.4)
where
(50) is the predicted transmission loss exceeded by 50 percent of all' hourly medians n in a given climatic region. V (50, d ) is shown on figure 10. 1 for several climates as a
L,
.
For
and L(50)
.In
all
other cases,
L,
(50) for
in the scatter
The
term V(50,
all
is
L
where Y
For
d
(p) =
(50)
(p,
d
e
db
(10. 5)
(p,
is
the variability of
(p)
median value L
(50).
a specified climatic region and a given effective distance, the cumulative distribution of
transmission loss
may
5).
In a continental
mission loss
is
much
mechanisms
of diffraction
When
a propagation path in a
maritime
temperate climate
is
may
L(99.9), but considerably higher fields are expected for small percentages of time when
10-8
10.3
long-term
predicting Data from the U.S.A., West Germany, and France provide the basis for power fading in a continental temperate climate. More than half a million hourly
of
median values
10 Fieure o
(p)
of variability in a continental
climate.
of all
hours
of the
and
all
"winter" from
f)
November through
April.
factor" g(p,
shown
predicted variability to
Y(p) = YJp,d^)g(p,f)
(10.6)
The function
100
2
g(p,
f)
in variability as
frequency
is
increased above
values at
f)
1
MHz
to a
maximum
400 to 500
MHz
till
or
GHz are
MHz.
of
g(p,
should not
be regarded as an estimate
dependence
many
effects,
some
of
The apparent
frequency dependence
is
mechan-
For example,
low altitude
path will usually show greater variability than that observed over a treeless high altitude
prairie, and this effect is frequency sensitive.
is
An allowance
f).
et al
varies
to
within each
year and
from year
Y(p)
is
cluded in g(p,
f).
Estimates
10.6).
of
Y(10) and Y(90) are obtained from figures 10.2, 10.3 and from equation
to obtain a predicted
lowing ratios:
Y(O.Ol) = 3.33 Y(10)
Y(O.l)
Y(l)
Y(99.99)
Y(99.9)
Y{99)
2.90 Y(90)
(10.7)
=2.73Y(10)
=2.41Y(90)
= 1. 82
=2.00Y(10)
Y(90)
10-9
100
MHz,
d
e
a predicted reference
median
= 1.9 db, (figure 10.1), Y (10, d ) = IbO db, so that V(50,d basic transmission loss, L, o e e bcr = -5.8 db, (figure 10.2), g(10, f) = g(90,f) = 1.05 (figure 10.3). Then = 8 db, and Y (90, d
)
Y(10) =
1.
05
(10) = 8. 5 db,
=
and Y(90)
=
= 1.
05
(90)
=-6.1
db.
Y(O.Ol)
28.3, Y(0.1)
=
23.2,
-
Y(99.99)
-17.7, Y(99. 9) =
is
14. 7,
= -6.
1.
(50)=
bcr
V(50) = 178.
db
of basic
transmission loss
=
is;
149.8, L(O.l)
=
154.9, L(l)
161.1, L(10)
169.6, L(50)
=
178.1,
184.2, L(99)
189.2, L(99.9)
= 192. 8
and L(99.99)
of
19 5.8 db.
p,
time availability,
of
com-
expected.
f(9,
)
This
is
is
f(9,
discussed in
annex
III.
For
is
exceeds
0.
15 radians.
may
For example,
at
microwave frequencies
is
Let Y
Y
p..
each
of
these
i
of variability,
and
let
be the correlation
to
sources
and
Then
approximated as:
Y^(P)
^
i=l
Y^^p) +
^
i,j = l
Y.Y.p..
(10.8)
where Y(p)
percent.
is
Section
shows how
to
estimate
(p)
and Y
(p)
Let
p
la
be the correlation
between variations
of available data
and variations
10-10
Let
ar
Y and Y
Assuming
that
= 1,
= 0. 5,
ir
and
=0,
Y^(p) = (Y + Y
)^ +
Y^
r
YY
r
(10.9)
of rainfall at
I.
frequencies above
I,
GHz,
for 99
of all
hours in figures
I.
6 to
11 of
annex
Figures
function of d
e
10. 5 to 10. 10
MHz.
The curves on
the figures
in
show predicted
These me-
median frequency
each group.
MHz
for data
recorded
in a continental
temperate climate.
curves in figures 10.
Equation (10.6) and figures 10.2 and 10.3 were used to obtain the
5 to 10. 10.
)
An
annex
III.
and Y
(P.
is
given in
Diurnal and seasonal variations are also discussed and functions listed to pre-
10-11
made
in the United
temperate regions were therefore classified as overland and oversea, where oversea paths
are categorized as having the coastal boundaries within their radio horizons.
tend over a mixture of land and sea are included with the overland paths.
into
I
Bands
and
(40-100 MHz)
{
Band
III
50-250 MHz)
Bands IV and V
(450- 1000
MHz)
median value
is
Long-term
shown as
each percentage
that
it is
of
time
p = 0.01, 0.1,
1,
10,
Figures 10,11
show
for the
maritime temperate
,
Y/Y
is
not independent of d
e
as
it is
in the
o
of
The importance
time climate
is
frequency
fields noted at
UHF
of
cases
of
tances over water the fields approach free space values for small percentages of time.
Curves
have been drawn for those distance ranges where data permitted reasonable estimates.
curve
is
Each
solid
where
it is
is
of its
length.
10-12
10. 5
Other Climates
A
1963f
]
limited amount of data available from other climatic regions has been studied, [CCIR
.
shown
in
annex
III,
III.
25 to lU. 29.
At times
may
if
of variability
are based on
whatever
is
known about
a small
amount
of
of
radio data
is
available, this
may
In this
way
may
is
known.
The variability
of
common
The variability
of
of this sec-
db
db
would be
be the
sum
of
plus
To obtain
and V
may
be
Assuming
is the
that
and
cumulative distribution
of the variable
of
may
be obtained by selecting
butions of
cumulative distribution
12
(p)
and V
(p)
sums V
=V
li
2J
of all
values
V,
Another method
ordering
for
of only
n, instead of
2
,
values of V.
As before V
.(p)
and
(p)
are obtained
to the other of these
Then one
set is
so that the
sums V
= V.
V
.
and
If
the distribution of
is
convolution of
and -V
10-13
V(50,de)
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11.
REFERENCES
The references given below include only selected papers referred to in the text of this report. A comprehensive survey of work in the field of tropospheric propagation, and an extensive bibliography will be found in the following report:
Shkarofsky, I. P. (March 1958), Tropospheric scatter propagation. Res. Rpt. No. 7-200-1, RCA Victor Co., Ltd. Res. Labs, Montreal, Canada.
NBS
Tech.
and E. R. Westwater (Dec. 1961), Bibliography of Abbott, R. L. sions by atmospheric gases. Private Communication.
,
Nupen, Wilhelin. (1964), Bibliography on propagation of radio waves through the troposphere, NBS Tech. Note No. 304.
Dougherty, H. T. (Aug. 1964), Bibliography of fading on microwave line-of-sight tropospheric propagation paths and associated subjects, NBS Tech. Note No. 302,
Anderson, L.
and E. E. Gossard (Oct. 1953a), The effect of the oceanic duct on microJ. wave propagation, Am. Geophys. Union Trans. 34, No. 5, 695-700.
,
Anderson, L.
effect on
J.
its
Arons, L. D. (Oct. 19 56), An analysis of radio-wave scattering in the diffraction region, Cornell University E. E. Report 312.
Artman,
and J. P. Gordon (Dec. 1954), Absorption of microwaves by oxygen in the J. O. millimeter wavelength region, Phys. Rev. 96, No. 5, 1237-1245.
,
RCA
Review
20,
Bachynski, M. P. (July-Aug. I960), Propagation at oblique incidence over cylindrical obstacles, J. Res. NBS 64D (Radio Prop. ), No. 4, 311-315.
Bachynski, M. P. (March 1963), Scale model investigations of electromagnetic wave propagation over natural obstacles, RCA Review 24, No. 1, 105-144.
Barghausen, A. F.
1963),
F. O. Giraud, R. E. McGavin, S. Murahata, and R. W. Wilber (Jan. Equipment characteristics and their relation to system performance for tropospheric communication circuits, NBS Tech. Note 103.
,
Barsis, A. P., and M. E. Johnson (Nov. - Dec. 1962), Prolonged space -wave fade-outs in tropospheric propagation, J. Res. NBS 66D (Radio Prop. ), No. 6, 681-694. Barsis, A. P., and R. S. Kirby (Sept. - Oct. 1961), observed on a long knife-edge diffraction path, 437-448.
VHF
J.
and UHF signal characteristics Res. NBS 65D (Radio Prop. ), No.
5,
Barsis, A. P., K. A. Norton, P. L. Rice, and P. H. Elder (Aug. 1961), Performance predictions for single tropospheric communication links and for several links in tandem, NBS Tech. Note 102. (See also IRE Transactions on C ommunication Systems CS-10, No. 1, 2-22, March 1962).
11-1
Batchelor, G. K. (1947), Kolmogoroff's theory of locally isotropic turbulence, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 43, 533-559.
Batchelor, G. K. (1953), Press).
Bean, B. R. (May 1954), Prolonged space-wave fadeouts at 1,046 Cheyenne Mountain propagation program, Proc, IRE 42, No. Bean, B. R. (1956), Some meteorological effects on scatteied Trans. Comm. Syst. CS4(1) 32-38.
, ,
Mc observed
5,
in
848-853.
VHF
radio waves,
IRE
Bean, B. R. (July-Aug. 1959), Climatology of ground-based radio ducts, (Radio Prop. ), No. 1, 29-34.
J.
Res.
NBS 63D ~
Bean, B. R. (1961), Concerning the bi-exponential nature of the tropospheric radio refractive index, Beitrage zur Physik der Atmosphare 34, No. 1/2, 81-91.
Beaji, B. R. , and R. L. Abbott (1957), Oxygen and water vapor absorption of radio the atmosphere, Geofisica Pura e Applicata - Milano 37, 127-134.
waves
in
Bean, B. R. and B. A. Cahoon (Nov. 1957), The use of surface observations to predict the total atmospheric bending of radio rays at small elevation angles, Proc. IRE 45, No. 11, 1545-1546.
,
Bean, B. R.
J.
D. Horn, and
A. M. Ozanich, Jr.
(Nov.
I960), Climatic charts and data and the world, NBS Monograph No. 22.
NBS
Bean, B. R.
index,
Models
of the
Beard, C.
ocean,
I.
microwaves from
the
Beard, C.
I., I. Katz, and L. M. Spetner (April 19 56), Phenomenological vector model of microwave reflection from the ocean, IRE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-4, No. 2, 162-167.
Beckmann,
Acta,
P. (1957),
A new
approach
,
to the
problem
of reflection
from
rough surface.
Beckmann, P.
(I960), A generalized Rayleigh distribution and its application to tropospheric propagation, Electromagnetic Wave Propagation, (Symposium, Liege, 19 58), (Academic Press, London, 445-449).
Beckmann,
P. (1961a), The statistical distribution of the amplitude and phase of a multiply scattered field, Inst. Rad. Eng. andElec, Czechoslovak Akad. Sci. Paper No. 18, See also NBS Jour, Res. 66D (Radio Propagation), pp, 231-240, 1962.
, ,
of
electromagnetic waves scattered from rough Czechoslovak Akad, Sci,, Paper No. 19,
its
Beckmann, P, (September 1964), Rayleigh distribution and Res, 68D (Radio Science), No. 9, pp. 927-932.
,
generalization,
NBS
Jour,
The scattering of Electromagnetic waves from 1963) rough surfaces, International Series of Monographs on Electromagnetic Waves, Vol, (Pergamon Press, New York, N, Y.).
(
,
4,
11-2
Biot,
M. A. (Dec. 1957a), Some new aspects of the reflection of electromagnetic a rough surface, J. Appl. Phys. 28, No. 12, 1455-1463. M. A. (Nov. 1957b),
J.
waves on
Biot,
Acoust. .Soc.
Am. Z%
from an acoustic
point source,
Booker, H. G. (1946), Elements of radio meteorology: How weather and climate cause \inorthodox radar vision beyond the geometrical horizon, J. Inst. Elec. Engrs. (London) 1, 69-78. 9_3. Pt. in-A, No. Booker, H. G. and J. T. de Bettencourt (Mar. 1955), tropospheric scattering using very narrow beams,
,
Booker, H. G. and W. E. Gordon (Sept. 1950a), the troposphere, J. Geophys. Res. 55, No.
,
3,
Outline of a theory of radio scattering in 241-246; see also Proc. IRE 38, No. 4,
401, (April,
,
1950b).
Booker, H. G. and W. Walkinshaw (April 1946), The mode theory of tropospheric refraction and its relation to waveguides and diffraction. Report on Conference on Meteorological Factors in Radio Wave Propagation (The Phys. Soc. and the Royal Met. Soc.
,
London),
80-127.
Bray, W.
F. Hopkins, A. Kitchen, and J. A. Saxton (Jan. 1955), Review of longJ. distance radio-wave propagation above 30 Mc/s, Proc. lEE, Paper No. 1782R, Pt. B, 102 , 87-95.
,
Bremmer,
Co.
,
H. (1949),
(Elsevier Publishing
Bremmer,
IS,
1957),
Phillips
Telecomm. Rev.
No.
H.
137-154.
1959),
Bremmer,
(May
On
im-
1950),
VHF
38,
No.
1,
27-32.
1955),
10,
Bullington, K. (Oct.
Bussey, H. E. (July 1950), Microwave attenuation statistics estimated from rainfall and water vapor statistics, Proc. IRE 38, No. 7, 781-785.
CCIR
CCIR
(1955), Atlas of ground wave propagation curves for frequencies between 30 300 Mc/s, ITU, Geneva. (1959),
Mc/s and
Atlas of ground wave propagation curves for frequencies between 30 and 000 Mc/s (Vertical polarization only; prepared by the Radio Research Laboratories, Ministry of Postal Services, Tokyo, Japan, January 1958), ITU, Geneva.
10,
CCIR
(1963a),
the Xth
The concept of transmission loss in studies of radio systems, Dociiments of Plenary Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. Ill, Recommendation 341, 29-31.
11-3
(1963b), Transmission loss in studies of radio systems, Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. Ill, Report 112, 84-89. (1963c),
Documents
of the
Xth Plenary-
Optimum use
Ill,
Documents
of the
(1963d), Line frequencies or bands of interest to radioastronomy and related sciences, in the 30 - 300 Gc/s range arising from natural phenomena, Documents of the Xth
Plenary Assembly,
(1963e), Reference atmospheres, Documents of the Xth Plenary Assembly, Geneva, Vol. II, Report, 231, 74-75.
ITU,
(1963f), Estimation of tropospheric-wave transmission loss. Documents Plenary Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. II, Report 244, 191-213.
of the
Xth
(1963g),
Documents
(1963h), 1000 Mc/s
Propagation curves for VHF/UHF broadcasting in the African Continent, of the Xth Plenary Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. Ill, Report 240, 143-181.
and UHF propagation curves for the frequency range from 40 Mc/s to Broadcasting and mobile services. Documents of the Xth Plenary Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. II, Recommendation 370, 24-36.
-
VHF
CCIR
Communication satellite systems -frequency sharing between communication systems and terrestrial services, Documents of the Xth Plenary Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. IV, Report 209, 221-232.
(19631), satellites (1963J),
CCIR
CCIR
Plenary Assembly,
Influence of the atmosphere on wave propagation. Documents of the Xth ITU, Geneva, Vol. II, Report 233, 76-120.
of the
(1963k), Propagation data required for radio relay systems. Documents Plenary Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. II, Report 242, 182-187.
Xth
CCIR
Fading of signals propagated by the ionosphere. Documents (1963i), Plenary Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. II, Report 266, 327-334.
of the
Xth
CCIR (1963m),
CCIR
Terms and
I,
definitions,
2 39.
ITU,
Geneva, Vol.
(1964), the Xlth
Report 321,
Optimum use of the radio frequency spectrum. Document being prepared for Plenary Assembly, in accordance with Resolution 1 of the Xth Plenary Assembly, ITU, Geneva, Vol. IE, 111.
Chernov, L. A. (Jan. - Jiine 1955), Correlation of amplitude and phase fluctuations for wave translation in propagation in a medium with random irregularities, Akust. Zh. ~ 1, 89; Soviet Phys. - Acoust. No. 1-2, 94-101.
l_.
A. W. A. Tech. Rev.
[Amal. Wire-
361-383.
Clemow,
D. B.
munications,
Long range
VHF
air/ground com-
Cozzens, D. E. (June 1962), Nomograph for determining paraboloidal gain as a function of feed pattern and angular aperture. Microwave J. V, No. 6, 58-59.
Crawford, A. B. and D. C. Hogg (July 1956), millimeter wavelengths. Bell Syst. Tech.
,
Measurement
J.
of
atmospheric attenuation
at
35,
907-916.
11-4
Crawford, A. B. D. C. Hogg, and W. H. Kummer (Sept. 1959), Studies in tropospheric propagation beyond the horizon. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 28_ No. 5, 1067-1178.
,
Crichlow, W. Q. D. F. Smith, R. N. Morton, and W. R. Corliss (Aug. 1955), Worldwide radio noise levels expected in the frequency band 10 Kc to 100 Mc, NBS Circular 557.
,
Crysdale, J. H. (July 1958), Comparison of some experimental terrain diffraction losses with predictions based on Rice's theory for diffraction by a parabolic cylinder, IRE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-6 No. 3, 293-295.
,
Crysdale,
J.
H.
J.
W. B. Day, W.
1957),
An experimental
S. Cook, M. E. Psutka, and P. E. Robillard (April investigation of the diffraction of electromagnetic waves by a Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-5 No. 2, 203-210.
,
and W L. Root (1958), An introduction to the theory or ranaom sigDavenport, W. B. Inc., New York, Chapters, nals and noise, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
,
dejager, C. (1952), The spectrum of turbulence in the earth's upper atmosphere, Liege 12, 223-252. Soc. Roy. des Sci.
,
Mem.
Dickson, F. H. J. J. Egli, J. W. Herbstreit, and G. S. Wickizer (Aug. 1953), Large reductions of VHF transmission loss and fading by the presence of a mountain obstacle in beyond-line- of- sight paths, Proc. IRE 41, No. 8, 967-969. See also subsequent correspondence by Crysdale and rebuttal by Dickson, et al., in Proc. IRE 43, No. 5, 627-628 (May 1955).
,
Doherty, L, H. (Sept. 1952), Geometrical optics and the field at a caustic with applications to radio wave propagation between aircraft, Cornell University School of Electrical Engineering Research Report EE-138.
Dolukhanov, M. P. (1957), Investigations into the propagation of radio waves over the earth's surface in the USSR., Radio Engr. and Electronics (USSR) 2, No. 11, 39-61.
Domb,
C. and M. H. L. Pryce (Sept. 1947), The calculation of field strengths over a spherical earth, lEE 94, Part III, No. 31, 325-339.
,
Dougherty, H. T., and L. J. Maloney, (Feb. 1964) The application of diffraction by convex surfaces to irregular terrain situations, J. Res. NBS 68D (Radio Science), No. 2, 239-250.
duCastel, F. (May 1957a), Different types of fluctuations of tropospheric fields and their physical interpretation, L'Onde Electrique 37, No. 362, 501-506.
duCastel, F. (Nov. 1957b), The use of ultra short waves for long distance telephone links in Africa (Results of Tests in the Cameroons), L'Onde Electrique 37, No. 368, 10251035. duCastel, F. (Nov. -Dec. I960), Experimental results from transhorizon tropospheric propagation, Ann des T^^comm. _1^, No. 11-12, 255-259. duCastel, F., and P. Misme (Nov. 1957), Elements of radio climatology, L'Onde Electrique 37, No. 368, 1045-1052.
duCastel, F,, P.
Misme, and J. Voge (March 1958), Reflection of an electromagnetic wave from an atmospheric layer with variable index of refraction, C. R. Acad., Sci. Fr.
246
,
No.
12,
1838-1840.
duCastel, F., P. Misme, A. Spizzichino, and J. Voge (1962), On the role of the process of reflection in radio wave propagation, J. Res. NBS 66D (Ra. -S. Yt^-.^, _Io. 3, 273-284.
On the climatology of groiind -based radio ducts and associated Dutton, E. J. (Jixne 1961), fading regions, NBS Tech. Note 96.
11-5
Dutton, E. J., and G. D. Thayer (Oct. 1961), Techniques for computing refraction of radio waves in the troposphere, NBS Tech. Note 97.
Fengler, G. (1964), Untersuchungen der elektromagnetischen wellenausbreitung im 500 MHZ-bereich iiber land tonter besonderer beriicksichtigung der meteorologischen, Berichte des Instituts fiir Radiometeorologie und Maritime Meteorologie an der Universitat Hamburg, Report No. 8.
Fengler, G.
,
J.
fiir
Instituts
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Report No.
Florman, E. F. , and J. J. Tary (Jan. 1962), Required signal-to-noise ratios, RF signal power, and bandwidth for multichannel radio commionications systems, NBS Tech.
Note 100.
Fok, V. A., L. A. Vainshtein, and M. G. Belkina ( 1958), Radiowave propagation in surface tropospheric ducts. Radio Eng. Electron. (USSR), 3, No. IZ, 1-27.
Friend, A. W. (June 1945), A summary and interpretation of ultra high frequency wave propagation data collected by the late Ross A. HiiLl, Proc, IRE 33, 358.
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,
A
3,
627-644.
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I,
11,
III,
J.
Radio Res.
135,
349(1957),
and
6,
71(1959).
Furutsu, K. (Jan. -Feb. 1963), On the theory of radio wave propagation over inhomogeneous earth, J. Res. NBS 67D (Radio Prop. ), No. 1, 39-62.
Grosskopf,
On the existing condition of research in the realm of tropoJ. (June 1956), spherically scattered radiation, Nachrtech. Z. 9, No. 6, 272-279.
J.
Grosskopf,
(Nov. 1958),
Some remarks on
11,
meter range,
Gvmn, K. L.
S.
,
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Princeton, N.
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in
Mcps
Hartman, W. J., and R. E. Wilkerson (Nov. - Dec. 1959), Path antenna gain ential atmosphere, J. Res. NBS 63D (Radio Prop. ), No. 3, 273-286.
Hathaway,
S.
an expon-
D.
Radio attenuation at 11 kMc and some Bell Syst. Tech. J. 38, No. 1, 73-97.
Haurwitz, B. and
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M. Austin
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11-6
television field strengths at ultra-high Head, H. T. (June I960), The influence of trees on 1016-1020. No. 6, 48, IRE Proc. frequencies,
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(May 1961a), Multipath properties of tropospheric propagation of very short radio waves beyond the horizon. Jour. Radio Res. Lab., Japan 8, No, 37, 147-174.
Hirai, Masaichi (Sept, 1961b), Diversity effects in spaced- antenna reception of tropospheric scatter waves, Jour. Radio Res. Lab., Japan ^, 301-329,
The
HF
band:
Is a
Hogg, D.
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C,
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of the
Hogg, D.
C, and R. A. Semplak (Sept. 1961), The effect of rain and water vapor on sky noise at centimeter wavelengths. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 40, No. 5, 1331-1348.
,
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,
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,
(McGraw
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Johnson, M. A. (1958), A review of tropospheric scatter propagation theory and tion to experiment, Proc. lEE 10 5B Suppl. 8, 165-176.
,
its
applica-
Josephson, B,, and A. Blomquist (April 1958), The influence of moisture in the ground, temperature and terrain on ground wave propagation in the VHF band, IRE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-6 No. 2, 169-172.
,
Josephson, B., and G. Carlson (April 1958), Distance dependence, fading characteristics and pulse distortion of 3000 Mc trans-horizon signals, IRE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-6 No. 2, 173-175.
Josephson, B., and F. Eklund (April 1958), Some microwave propagation experiences from a just-below-horizon path, IRE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-6 No, 2, 176-178.
,
Jowett, J. K. S. (Jan. 1958), The measurement and prediction of VHF tropospheric field strengths at distances beyond the horizon, Proc. lEE 105B, Supp. 8, 91-96, and 122126, Paper No. 2500R.
Joy,
W. R. R.
(Jan. 1958a), The long-range propagation of radio waves at 10 length, Proc. lEE 105B Supp. 8, 153-157, Paper No. 2522R,
,
cm wave-
Joy,
W, R. R. (1958b), Radio propagation far beyond the horizon at about 3.2 cm wavelength, Proc. lEE 105B, Supp. 8, 1 58- 164 and 184- 188, Paper No. 2528R.
11-7
Kales, M. L, (May 1951), Elliptically polarized waves and antenna, Proc. IRE 39, No. 544-549.
Kalinin, A.
i
5,
I. (1957), Approximate methods of computing the field strength of ultra short waves with consideration of terrain relief. Radio Eng. 12, No. 4, 13-26, Radiotekhn.
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Kalinin, lu. K (1958), Perturbation of plane radio wave by inhomogeneities of the earth's surface, Radiotech. and Elecktron ~ 3, 557-561, Translation in Radio Engineering and
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143-149.
Kerr, D. E. (1964), Propagation of short radio waves, MIT Radiation Laboratory Series (Boston Technical Publishers, Inc., Lexington, Mass.). 13,
Kirby, R. S.
,
H. T. Dougherty, and P. L. McQuate (Oct. 1955), Obstacle gain measureat 60 to 1046 Mc/s, Proc. IRE 43, No. 10, 1467-1472.
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O.
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,
McGavin, R. E. (May
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1962),
survey
NBS
J. Maloney (Sept. - Oct. 1959), Study at 1046 Mc/s of the reflection coefficient of irregular terrain at grazing angles, J. Res. NBS 63D (Radio
2.,
235-248.
Diffraction of ixltra-short radio waves.
11-8
McPetrie,
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S. (April 1954),
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8,
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_1_5,
Some aspects
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16,
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,
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55,
Handbook
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Neugebauer, H. E.
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,
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FM
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J.
Res.
NBS 63D
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Efficient use of the radio spectrum,
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The
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,
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11-10
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same
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_19_,
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,
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U-U
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Part
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Ultra-shortwave
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,
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RCA
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Forward scattering
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11-12
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II
20,
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2.
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, . ,
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Calculation of groundwave attenuation in the far diffraction Res. NBS/USNC-URSI 68D, No. 7, 819-826.
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11-14
12.
LIST
letters precede
for quantities
is
upper-case letters.
As
Sometimes
for
is:
in
which case
it
is listed
The order
1.
h h
h
h(x)
ht.
2.
Symbol with
a subscript,
Symbol
as a special function.
4.
Abbreviations.
is
term
in its
proper context.
Where
applicable,
reference
to the
is
made
to a figure.
base
10
Effective earth's radius, allowing for average radio ray bending near the surface
of the earth,
(4.4) figure 4.
2.
a
e
An
mean
of the radii
a
t
and a
r
(7,10).
a a
of
an antenna,
n
(2. 24),
for the
a
ez
of the receiving
a a
The fraction
of
of
it,
(II.
26).
pm
pn
The fraction
of energy,
and n
multipath components
1
from
a single source,
where
to
(11.39).
The radius
at the horizon,
and that merges smoothly with the corresponding arc through the
8. 7.
D
s
(8.15).
a
s
of a single scatterer or
group
of scatterers,
12-1
Radius
figure 8.7.
(IV. 14).
a
a
a
a
V2
a
V3
Radiowave scattering cross-section from refractivity turbulence, (IV. 21). Radiowave scattering cross-sections per unit volume for large, medium, and
small layers, (IV.
15)
VI
to (IV. 17).
(II.
a
a
15).
xn
a
XI
a
x2
first,
wave from
a
a single source,
(11.3
5)
and
(11.8 5).
xr
xrn
xri
Axial ratios of the polarization ellipse associated with the receiving patn
,
first,
(11.35)
and
a a
to be 6370 kilometers,
(4.4).
arc that
is
at the horizon,
is
+ ia
a
,
= a
+ a
2
,
(II.
52).
a,
a
,
aa, where a
is a unit
vector.
of a
complex vector: a
T
a
a^
a (-f)
e
+ ia"
(11.45).
A complex A complex
and
(2. 24).
vector:
a = a
(II.
45)
,
x
(-f)
(II.
62).
(2. 22)
A A
Aa
An antenna
(2.35).
to
See
of radio
3.
waves due
atmospheric absorption
section
12-2
A ar .A at
at
A ar
the
sum
of the
transmitter to the crossover of horizon rays and the absorption from the cross-
over
of
horizon rays
to the receiver,
section
3.
A A
A
(3. 13).
to free space,
annex
I.
(3. 7).
A
A A A A 12
,
(2.47).
See A.
full leaf,
(5. 18).
Rate
of attenuation
through woods in
9 =
over
smooth
earth,
section
9.
2..
6. 1.
A(v, 0)
A(v,
p)
rounded obstacle,
A(0,
p)
(7.7),
figure 7.3.
0=0
j
r,
(7. 7)
figure 7.4.
A(v
J
as a function of the
parameter
v.
where
of
1, 2, 3, 4,
(III.
34).
A m (p)
Am
A
o
(p)
for values of
ranging
from 0.01
The dimensions
lar to
K,
(IV. 9).
b
b
(V. 7).
The parameter
zation,
b,
a function of
and equations
(III. (III.
40) 40)
and
(III.
41).
b b
41).
B B B
s
Effective bandwidth,
expressed
in decibels
An
The parameter
1, 2, t,
a
s
,
(8.15).
(8. 13). '
^
B,
Values
of the parameter ^
(8. 2)
that
correspond ^
to values of
K
1,
2, t,
Defined by
o
combined
for convenience in
considering diffraction.
12-3
Any
B(K,b)
from
to
figure
6. 3.
A A
parameter plotted
in figure 8. 3 as a function of
of
K and
0. 3
b,
(8.2).
radio waves,
c =
299792.
-
km/sec.
parameter showing
the
phase change u
wave reflection
infinite
coefficient
R exp
[.Ktt - c)
corresponding
III. 1
from an
(5.4) figures
through
III. 8.
(III. 13)
V^
c
Values
(III. 14)
respectively,
and
figures
through
III. 8.
2'
c 3
coefficients R^^ The phase changes associated with the complex reflection
R
C
Ci
C.
(III. 3 2).
e3
and
B,
(6.
1)
and
(6. 2)
Cosine integral,
Fresnel integral,
where j= 1,2,3,4.
to
C
C
,
A
C
,
K(8497), (8.2).
to effective earth's radii
corresponding
o
a^, a^,
and
a^,
or'
os'
ot
(8.13).
C
Ol
,C
02
Values
of
corresponding
^
a^
Qi
C(u), C(v)
and B'
(6. 6) to (6. 9)
(IV. 8).
(8.
1)
(K, b)
,
parameter used
,
figure 8.4.
C (K
b),
C (K
b)
The parameter C
C^(K^)
corresponding
to
written
C"
and C ^(K ^)
of
(8.11).
,
(K
values of C (K
of
b)
and ^^^(K^,
b)
(8.11).
Ci(r)
r,
of
(III. 51).
Ci(r
12
Ci(r
(III. 50).
\
CCIR
CRPL
C. d
W.
Continuous wave.
at
and
figure
6. 1,
Clearing depth in meters, defined as the distance from the edge of woods
to the
(5. 19).
d,
f
mctere
,
and h
section
(10.3).
to its horizon,
d.
Lr
to its horizon,
12-4
dq
d
r
(IV. 5),
d
r
is
sr
Distance between the receiving ^ antenna horizon and the crossover of horizon
Distance between the transmitting antenna horizon and the crossover of horizon rays as measured at sea level,
(6. 20).
d'
sr
d'
If
St
or
or d
or
in
is negative,
6
.
d'
9,
ot
sr
or
d'
is
for
d sr
st
reading figure
(6.23).
d d
so
si
d
e
(10. 2).
approximately
for
to free
space
is zero,
(5.10).
at
6. 1.
d'
,d
tions,
db
Decibels
all
= 10 log
(power ratio) or
20 log
(voltage ratio).
In this report,
dbu
dbw
D
D
Diameter
of a
D
D
e
(6. 17),
fig-
function of
used
in
computing diffraction
of the
loss,
(8. 16),
figure 8.8.
e
e,
sections
of the
4 and
II. 2.
cr
cr
16).
e. e.
1
e.
1
>^
(e
r
+ ie
1
exp
(II.
where
e r
and
and exp
(ir)
is a
time phasor,
8b)
12-5
component
e,
II. 2.
pr
The positive
of a
component
pr
16).
component
e
associated
e
i
v^'ave
is a
\/2~(e
r
+ ie.) exp
1
(ir),
where
r
(II.
and
are time-
time phasor,
8a)
e
e
(II. 5),
(2.44).
of real
e,
(11.10).
e 9
e
9,
e
4)
vectors
-wave,
and
e
<j)
and
components
of a
complex plane
(II. 7)
figure
of a
uniform
e
c
,
annex
II,
section
II. 2.
_ _
e
,
product
x e is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, (II. 14). c P Cross and principal polarization field components of a receiving antenna ree
cr
pr
Directions of cross and principal polarization components of a receiving antenna response pattern,
(II. 18),
(II.
20).
e.
the
imaginary component
+ ie.) exp
r
1
of the
8b).
time -invariant
\J2
(e
(ir),
(II.
e r
\fT~ (e
of a
(II.
solved into comoonents which are orthogonal in both space and time,
e 9
,
10).
e
<^
and
(ir),
cj)
components
of a
[e
9
exp
(ir
+ e
cj)
exp
II. 1
9
(II. 7)
(It )]
(p
exp
where only
the
phasor exp
depends
on time,
e
figure
e
cp
9
e
cp
e, e
A A A
x^"
perpendicular to
9
e
cp
and r,
r
(II. 3 b)
figure
(II.
II. 1 II. 1
(r
x x o )/sin
perpendicular to
to indicate a
and x
'^
3a) figure
bar
is
complex vector: e
= e
+ ie
c
=e
pr
+ie cr ,(2.
19).
of
e:
= e
ie
'
el e r letjle
'
The magnitudes
I,
of the
complex vectors
'
and
(II.
22).
'e'er'
lel.le pr'
p
The magnitudes
,
com
ponents
e c
cr
and
pr
sections 2.4,
II. 2,
II.
3.
12-6
E
E E
E.R.P.
o
(2.44).
(2.45).
^^pt^^i)
E. R. P. = P^ +
"
^'^^
'^^^
2.
E
f
ikw
Field strength in dbu per kilowatt effective radiated power, see section
1, 2, 3, 4,
f, f f
M Hz
,
^,
-1^6
in
megahertz.
7).
(III.
op
12
,
f,, f 3 4
Diffraction loss for each of four distinct rays over an isolated obstacle,
32).
f(r
f(v.)
),
f(r
r
,
and
(III.
(III.
50).
10.
f(0
A A A
f.
for
v = v.
33) figure
III.
beams elevated
.
and 9, h b function used in computing path antenna gain, defined by (9. 13) figure
64) figure III. 22.
See
9,
9. 7.
F
F
F
and
(9. 7).
i
oi
op F(x
8)
F(x
(8. 1)
and figures
8. 5
and
F(9d)
in calculating
1,
for
figures
9.
and
III.
11 to
14.
9
.
F(0
.d)
This function
is the
ei
same
as
F(9d)
ei
annex
III,
(III.
57).
FM
g
service.
Maximum
mean power
II.
/r|
section
2. 3,
annex
g ta
beam
watts per unit area in every direction not acb or by one of the side lobes of an antenna, annex
section
III. 6.
g bt
annex
III,
section
III. 6.
12-7
gc
'cr
'P
(II.
24).
(II.
19).
24).
Principal polarization directive gains for the receiving and transmitting antennas,
g
,
respectively, (11.26).
free space directive gains for the receiving and transmitting antennas
g
t
Maximum
respectively,
g
section 2.3,
g
^rn g ^tn
,
^r
and g
for the
^t
of a series of plane ^
waves,
-
(II. v
33)
/
ri
Directive gain factors defined for each antenna in the direction of the point of
rz
The
maximum
7).
5. 1.
section
g
cp
e
cp
14).
g(f)
g(p,
f)
A A
(III.
66).
g(p, f)
used
to adjust
(10)
and Y^(90)
pre-
(II. 56)
g(_r)
g
(r),
(-r)
annex
II.
in the direction
g
a
(_r) r
(r
of the receiving
(-r)
(2.32).
^r^
(r
2
^r^
(11.84).
of the
g (r)
see
section
of a
2. 3.
g'
Power gain
minals
is
transmitting antenna when the power input to the antenna tersection 2.3.
r
,
p'
watts,
g'
(r)
Power gain
Grams.
of a
gm
g/m
G
G,
Grams
The
per meter.
free space directive gain relative to an isotropic radiator,
of of
g,
,
maximum
Decibel equivalent
Decibel equivalent
G, bt
hub
G
- 10 log g
(2. 14).
annex
III
section
III. 6.
annex
III
section
III, 6.
12-8
G
P
if
multipath coupling loss were used at the same locations at the actual antennas, (2,29)a
G G G
pf
(2. 3 2).
,
pm
PP
,
of
G
p
(2.36),
(2. 29).
of the receiving
G G
ri
G
ti
Gains of the
(III. 57).
respectively,
Maximum
system
value,
expressed
.
in decibels,
for
G(h)
G(h
for the transmitting or receiving antenna. for the transmitting and receiving antennas,
G(h ),G(h
The function
(7.5).
G(h)
respectively,
G(r)
r.
The
maximum
value of G(r)
G,
section 2.3.
r
G
r
(r),
(-r)
r
(-r),
and
^r(^,2^
G' (r)
r
-10
1ogg^(r^^^).
gain,
Power
in decibels,
of a receiving antenna,
(2. 13).
G
t
(r)
(2. 13).
G'(r)
Power
gain,
in decibels,
of a transmitting antenna,
G'(r) =
t
G
t
(r)
L
et
(2. 13). 8. 6.
G(x
(8. 1)
figures
8. 5
and
GHz
h
Radio frequency
Height above the surface of the ground as used in Height referred to sea level.
e
(3. 10),
(3. 12).
h
h
is
equivalent to h
(III. 63)
h.
(5. 15),
h
h
(6. 15).
(6. 15).
of
6. 1.
Height
of the
smooth earth.
to
I,
A smooth
or
earth
is
assumed
in the
curves
of figures I. 5
and
I.
26.
h
r
h
t
The height h ^
h
t
is
antenna above the average height of the central 80% of the terrain between the
antenna and
its
(6. 11).
12-9
re
h
te
For
h
r
h
t
re
h
r
h
te
h
t
correction Ah
rm
,
tm
37).
Height of the receiving antenna or transmitting antenna above sea level, figure 6.1, used in
(6. 11),
(6.15).
h
s
mean sea
level,
(4. 3).
of evenly
(6. 11).
horizon,
h h
t30
of the
(6. 11).
The height ^
of the
horizon obstacle
= h
Lt
(6. 11).
^
Height of the crossover of horizon rays above a straight line between the transmitter and receiver horizon obstacles,
(9. 7)
figure
6. 1.
h
h'
h
h'
and and
2
2
of the earth,
figure
5. 1.
bounce point
of a reflected ray,
h h
level,
(5. 15).
Average height
horizon,
Normalized heights
h(r)
h(r
),
h(r
A A
function of function of
21.
r r
shown
or
r
20
21.
III.
defined by
(III. 50)
20
and
III.
h(x)
straight line fitted by least squares to equidistant heights above sea level,
(5.15).
h(0), h(d)
to
and extrapolated
to the
transmitter at
h(0)
at
h(d),
h (x
i
i
series of equidistant heights above sea level of terrain visible to both antennas,
5.
1
section
H H oi
.
function,
discussed in section
th
9. 2.
for the
beam
(r
),
(r r^) )
2
as a function of
12
and
r
respec-
tively,
12-10
H H
(ri
<
s
1),
(ri
o
r\
=1)
s
where
the
parameter
is less
(9. 6).
(r|
=0)
=0
assump-
Hz
i
i
annex
s. s.
II.
Current
in r.
m.
amperes w^here
= 0,
1, 2.
I_, I., I
Current in r.mi.
amperes corresponding
to three
Represents a series
(III. 3 5).
of subscripts
1, 2, 3, 4,
as used in equations
(III. 27)
to
k
k
Propagation constant,
k= k=
2it
/\
(II. 1).
Boltzmann's constant,
b
1.380 54 x 10
-23
kT
Johnson's noise power that would be available in the bandwidth b cycles per
288.37
degrees Kelvin,
km
kw
K K
A A
frequency-dependent coefficient,
(3.8).
parameter used
in
is a
function of the
figure 8.
and annex
of the
root-sum-square
of
Rayleigh components
of a
received
2
annex V, section V.
and figure V.
K K K K K
K
h
o
III.4.-
An
III. 4.
A
K
2
within a cloud,
,
K
s
K
t
for
corresponding earth's
fa
radii
K(a), K(8497)
a
2
a
r
a
s
a, (8.8) to
t
^ '
a,
and for
8497 km.
K(f
rain,
K(N
s
N
s
(III.
46)
12-11
(N
s
),
K (N
1
),
K
2
(N
s
,
N
s
used in computing
F(ed)
jf
(III.
Used as
pedance
for example,
v,
radio frequency
(2.4).
is
most
af-
or by layers of an average
(IV. 1).
thickness
i/2,
power
erv
hertz,
av
/p
av
(2.9)
efficiency,
S.
mv
o
A mismatch
7).
'
i
Li
in decibels,
(2. 2).
Lb Lbd L bf
L
.
(2. 28)
and
(2. 29).
L bm
bsr
of
to
forward
L L
(2. 25).
Lcr
L,
dr
Reference value
of
Reference value
of
(9. 14).
L er
L erV
L>
,
expressed
v
in decibels,
(2. 11).
factor,
er
at a
radio frequency
hertz,
et
L etv
in decibels,
and
(2. 11).
L.
An
,
" (2.34).
L
ft
fr
and transmitting
Loss
scattering subvolume,
(III. 57).
12-12
1j
Loss
gP
sion loss
maximum
gain: ^
and path loss L, or as the difference bet^veen the sum of the b o gains of the transmitting and receiving antennas and the path antenna
L
gP
L.
=L^-L =G+G r -G b o
db,(2.3 7).
^'^ i
'
power contribution,
(III. 55)
and
(III. 57)
ix
it
Transmission Transmission
line
line
and matching network losses at the receiver. and matching network losses
loss,
at the transmitter,
L
Li
(V. ZO)
m
mo
o
(V. 20).
of the time with a probability
L L
maximum
free
=L-G -G r
t
(2. 27).
L L
pb
rr
The ratio
its
ra-
L L
rt
The ratio
its
in decibels,
defined by
(2. 1).
L L L
sr
Reference value
to obtain the
of
loss,
used with L,
dr
reference value
of
cr
(9. 14).
um
12
,
L,
...
annex
III,
subsection
(III.
7. 2.
of the time,
68).
L(50)
of
10. 3.
L(O.Ol), L(0.
L(99. 99)
of the
time
where p^O.Ol,
99. 99,
of
section 10.3.
L L
(50)
(p)
Time
I.
availability of hourly
loss,
annex
I,
figures
7 to I. 17.
L,
bm
(50)
of
L,
(2.36).
L.(p)
12-13
L.(0.
11
1),
(0.9)
of the time,
(p)
hours or
of all hours,
(V,25).
L L
m (50)
loss,
(V.2).
of the
m (p,
mo (g)
n
(p)
time with a
Maximum
gion,
service, (V.27).
in a
L
L
time
(50)
L
L
um (p) um (50)
of
per-
(V.39).
Lim.
m m m
m,
h
,
A A
symbol used
(5. 15).
5).
Parameters used
\
in
and R
of the
smooth plane
'^
which a layer
is
imbedded,
mm.
mho.
unit of conductance,
III. 1,
measured
in
ohms,
annex
figures
III. 1
mm. mv/m
M
M
(3. 13).
A term A term
defined by (IV.
7)
used
in the
(IV.
6)
vo
12-14
MHz
M. U.F.
n
maximum
or
t
usable frequency.
The ratio a lb
o
or
/
used
to
compute n, (9.12).
(4. 1).
n
2
homogeneous media,
(9. 12).
,
(IV. 3).
parameter used
N N
10
section 4.
15)
N o Ns N
v
The value
of
(4. 1).
The number
of scattering
subvolumes
11).
that
power, (IV.
Time
is not
availability,
transmission loss
function of the dielectric constant and grazing 'angle used in computing the
(III. 8)
Radio frequency signal power that would be available from an equivalent lossfree receiving antenna,
(2. 2).
-L
to
40)
i
P_.
scattering subvolume,
and (IV.
11).
at the
P y
frequency
v,
(2.9).
P
J,
Available power at the terminals of the actual receiving antenna at a radio fre-
quency
p.
(2.6).
^ir' ^f r V
Power delivered
v,
(2. 5).
12-15
^n' ^ftv
Power delivered by
(2. 5).
annex V,
Median value
power
in watts,
(V. 7).
Fixed value
of
(V.34).
from
band
of radio
frequencies, (2.2).
v,
(2. 10).
Pi
Pi tv
to the
(2. 1).
(2. 10).
station,
(V. 34).
scattering subvolume,
100 q
percent
of a
See
p..
mr
(g)
The value
of
g,
annex V.
21).
(II. 3 5).
(II. 18).
th
5).
in the direction
(r)
in the direction
(2. 18),
P^l
and
(II.
29)
P P
is
otherwise
at the
12-16
ab
(2. 28).
P
i
= 10 log p.,
i
the instantaneous
power
of a
in
decibels, (V.
1).
Power, in
ir
dbw,
(2. 5).
Power, in
ir
dbw,
of
line,
(2. 5),
The component
which
is not
ence fading, most often identified as the short-term median of the available
power
'^
P.
1
(V.
1).
in
,
dbw
power delivered
to a
receiver
mn
= 10 log p
rnn
(V.8).
of fading
Total power radiated from a wanted station, expressed in dbw, (V. 34).
The
total
dbw:
P^
- 10 log p^,
(2.2).
^1
to the
station,
(V.33).
at a receiving
antenna from an
annex V.
Percentage
annex V.
of
time
power
is
exceeded,
P.(q)
The percentage,
P.
of
100 q,
P.(q)
is
of a
that
will exceed
P.
1
known
median value P
is
known, annex V.
it
at least a
grade g
service for
percent
of the time,
(V. 25).
P
P
m (P)
m (50)
mo (P)
mr (g)
of all
of all
usually identified
(V. 2).
P P
Observed values
of
m (p).
of a receiving
minimum
in the
service
g,
pre-
12-17
p um (p) P
um
um
expected
to be available at least
percent
annex V.
um (50)
expected
to be available at least 50
percent
annex V.
q
,
is the
probability that
will
exceed
p.(q)
1
for a given
median value
Y.(q)
,
m
p
which
is the
same
as the
probability that
Y.
will exceed
annex V.
A parameter
(III. 14).
used
in calculating a plane
wave reflection
coefficient,
(III. 7)
to
The ratio q
= r
2
s r
1
used
to
compute
2
mated by
(IV.
6)
extended plane
Q
Q(P)
Q(z
mo
mo
(V.44).
of the direct
r r r
r
5. 1.
(7.9).
2.
Magnitude
of the
vector
r = r r
r, 9,
in the direction
(\>,
r(9,
cj)) ,
and a coordinate
of
system
annex
II.
3.2 to 3.4.
er
(3. 12)
figures
3. 10 to 3. 13.
and transmiitting
Resistance
Jtv
of a load,
(2.4).
Ratio between the hourly median wanted signal power and the hourly median
operating noise power, annex V.
specified value of
annex V.
IZ-li
Length
o
of a direct
5. 1
a,
figure
r r
,
r
t
of the
r' , r' t r
Resistance component
mitting antennas,
of
respectively, (2.38).
Ratio between the hourly median wanted signal power and the hourly median
at the receiver,
ur
specified value of r which must be exceeded for at least a specified peru centage of time to provide satisfactory service in the presence of a single
signal,
of
unwanted
r
r' V
annex V.
Resistance
12
r
,
Parameters used
by (9.4).
in
computing
the
Ho
and defined
r r
r
,
Distances w^hose
r
,
sum
is the
5. 1.
(III.
28) fig-
ure
r
,
to a point
from
figure 6.4.
rr,
(11.47).
II,
A
r^
subsection
II. 1.
r^,
Direction of the most important propagation path from the transmitter to the
receiver, or from the receiver to the transmitter.
^'^e'
r
1
II.
mr (g)
ur
(
of
in the
r
absence
,
g)
The protection
g
,
ratio,
annex
section V. 4.
r.
s.
Abbreviation of root-mean-square.
Location
of the
R R
5. 1.
The magnitude
a plane
exp[-i(iT -c)]
for reflection of
of a given conductivity
and dielec-
tric constant,
12-19
Re Rh
An
1).
(III. 12)
and
R m. R mr Rr R rs Ru
Rm
= 10 log r
m
,
to III. 8.
decibels, the
to
of
mr
mr
=10
log r
mr
annex V.
(3. 10).
(3. 10).
Ru
= 10 log r
the ratio
between
the hourly
the hourly
antenna
terminals, (V.15).
R ui
.
The ratio between the instantaneous wanted signal power and the instantaneous unwanted signal power at the receiving antenna terminals, (V.
10).
R ur R
V
of
=10
log r
figures
Til. 1
to
III. 8.
^'
'^o
to a point
R^
R.
R^
Unit vectors from the centers of radiation of the receiving and transmitting
antennas, respectively, (IV.
1)
R oi
.
point
is
R(0,5)
mm
3. 14.
Cumulative distribution
function of
of
of
L,
dr
-L cr
(9. 14)
figure 9. 16.
50
R
R
exceeded exceeded
of
at least
at least
(V.9).
at least
(50)
(g)
A A
specified value of
R
R
exceeded
specified value of
exceeded
at least 50
ur
to
provide a
service, annex
V
to
section 4.
^ur*^'
^'
R
5).
for at least
per-
^uro^^^
s
of
for non-fading
s = a
/p
(6. 19).
12-20
Total
c
s
mean power
flux density,
(II. 2 5).
Mean power
The fraction
e
s
components,
(II.
23).
power,
e
/P
,
(II.
43a)
= a e
64)
Mean power
Free space
o
s
(11.
28).
Mean power
P
(II.
components,
23).
Mean
r
(II.
28).
<s >
e
s(r)
s (r), s
(r)
The
(II.
43b).
(2. 23).
Total P
tion
mean power
Mean power
components
^
e
_^
of
in the direction
33). (IV. 8).
r,
(II.
23).
S.
Fresnel integral,
(III.
r,
(III. 51).
(II. 1),
Time
at the transmitter,
uf
in seconds,
T
T
o
Location
5. 1.
T(r)
Temperature
T
s
(K)
T. A. S. O.
Abbreviation
of
annex V. u
U(vp)
A parameter
defined by (TV.
in
9).
parameter used
(III. 26)
U H F
v
A parameter A parameter
rr.!
(7. 1).
V
V.
9)
The
-th
1
V.
(III. 27).
(2.8).
s.
v'
(2.5).
12-21
V(50, d
e
or equations (10.4)
to
and
(III.
67).
)
Y n (50,
d
e
VHF
w
X X X
,
Abbreviation
of
A A
X
(2. 14).
Points at which a first Fresnel ellipse cuts the great circle plane.
III.
18 to
23.
of a load,
X,
x'
Reactance
The
distance from the transmitter along a great circle path, figure 6.4.
m
,
One
x
,
of
= 0,
1, 2,
annex
8. 5
II.
Xq
Parameters used
compute diffraction
loss,
(8. 2)
figures
and
8.6.-
(5. 15).
(II. 2)
X X
Axes
of a
figure
II. 1.
The average
Initial
and x
(5. 15b).
X
y.
6.3.
to
(6. 10).
y(x)
y(x) - h(x)
-x
/(2a),
(5. 16).
Y
Y
6.3.
symbol used
to
1)
and (V.3).
Y.
of a
1)
and (V.3).
16). 10).
Y Y
Y'
.
of
AB
figure 6.3.
6)
Y{p)
Long-term variability
and (V.4).
of
in
terms
of
Y.(q)
the particular
where
(V.
5).
12-22
Y.(q, K)
1
of a
wanted
signal,
(V. 12),
of
Y
i
(q,
an un-
wanted
signal,
(V. 12).
Y
Y
n
(p)
(p)
- p)
Variability of hourly
median transmission
loss,
(V. 29).
(p)
= F
(p)
(50),
(V.32).
Y (100
Value
of
(p)
exceeded (100
(V.31).
- p)
percent
of the
percent
of the hours,
Y Y
o o
(p)
(p,
6)
fig-
ure 10.2.
(p)
Variability of the ratio of wanted to unwanted signal, (V.38). Variability of an unwanted signal, (V.39).
u (p) Y (100-p)
z
z
SLv
Value
of
(p)
exceeded 100
(
- p)
percent
6)
.
of the time,
(V.38).
Thickness
of a
Impedance
of a load,
z z
mo
o
A
A A
The thickness
P
6).
z z
uc
2
cr
uc
(p)
of
an
Impedance
of of
Impedance
The conjugate
following
(2. 5).
Z Z
Z.
and
B, figure u
,
6. 3.
(V. 16).
Y.
and
Y
Z'
ui
.,
(V. 11).
B'
,
(p)
for the
random variable Z =
(V. 17).
of
(50)
<,
(p)
by definition equal
to
zero,
Z.(q,
where
Y.
is
Ray-
Z. (q,
>,
Z.(q,
<,
<)
see (V.
12)
and Table
V..2.
,
Z. (q, K, la
of the
random variable Z
1
12-23
The parameter a
is
of transmitting or receiving
(III.
antenna beams
61).
Ki
Angles a
e
and
p e
for the
eo 'Peo
When beams
atmospheric refraction a ^
considered a
a o
a a
,
eo
^e
- Q
^eo
(III. 60)
(III.
and p
e
,
61).
,
The angles a
o
.
oo
,
oo
(6. 19).
(III.
.,
P
,
The angles a
o
OJ
OJ
made by each
rays,
36).
oo
oo
drawn befigure
6. 1.
a
OI
a
02
The angles a
o2
and p
(III.
36).
(fGHz)
^oo
The function a
GHz,
figure 3.9.
Differential absorption in decibels per kilometer for oxygen under standard conditions of temperature and pressure,
(3.4).
^r
^rs
y 'wo
Differential absorption in decibels per kilometer for water vapor under standard
conditions of temperature and pressure and for a surface value of absolute hu-
midity of
Y(r)
lOg/cc, (3.4).
db/km
r
,
(3.1).
v
r
(r)
(h),
(3. 7).
v
o
(h)
Differential absorption in
db/km
respectively,
as a function of height,
r(r)
6
h,
(3.3).
of path distance
r,
(3.Z)
and (3.6).
parameter used
in
computing the
first
Fresnel zone
in a reflecting plane,
(III. 18).
6 6
of
an antenna,
(2. 15)
and annex
III.
of
an antenna that
is
elevated or di-
III. 6.
The semi-beamwidth
5
of
an equivalent
beam
5n/!t7~4,
o
5
,
annex
III. 6.
6
t
rwo
two
(III. 58)
23.
(III. 58)
23.
12-24
6 6 6
w
wo
z
Azimuthal semi-beamwidth,
(Z. 15).
III. 6.
zo
,
Aa
(6. 19)
figure 6.9.
(5. 19). (6. 12)
Depression
c
of field strength
Ah
A
j
correction term used to compute the effective height for high antennas,
6. 7.
figure
The
value of Ar
where Ar
= r
1
+ r^
2
its
(III.
27)
and
(III.
29).
An
Ar
The deviation
of refractive
index from
Ar A
= r
1
r.,
- r
(5.4),
(5.9)
and
(7. 1).
Auxiliary functions used to check the magnitude of error in the graphical determina-
"r
-2
tion of diffraction attenuation,
(8. 5)
figures
8. 5
and 8.6.
AH o AN
A
(9.
5)
from
to the value of
at a
A A
A,
Ir
2r
Ray path difference between straight and ground reflected rays on A 3r 4r either side of an isolated obstacle, (III. 31, (III. 3 7) figure (III. 31).
,
Aa (N
o
s
),
A3 (N
o
s
AS
for values of
o
N
s
Aa
GO
(301),
AP
AP O
for
N =301,
S
(6. 21)
read from
figure 6.9.
Ah(h
r
N
s
),
Ah(h
t
N
s
of
N
s
and
of
mitter heights
and h
t
(6. 12)
figure 6.7.
(IV. 20).
<An>
<(An) >
of refractive index,
(IV. 19).
Ratio of the dielectric constant of the earth's surface to the dielectric constant of
air,
figures 8,
III.
4. 64)
A
,>
^^.1
(11.
and used in
(II. 65),
(II. 72)
to (II. 75).
an
12-25
twl
tw2
Azimuth angles
to the
of the first
of a
main beam
axis,
figure
23.
of a
tz
,6
1
main beam
axis,
figure
23.
(III. 60),
t,
The angle that a scattering plane makes with the great circle plane,
and figure
III.
(III. 61),
22.
s
n
se
A A
function of h function of h
antenna beams directed above the horizon or a'way from the great circle plane,
(III.
r|
OS es
and and
N N
oo oioi
and
(9.3)
and
for scattering
from
64).
r\
= 4itc. 10
-7
120it
ohms,
(II. 5).
9,
is the
A
b
polar coordinate,
(II.
56).
Angle
of elevation of the
(III.
of
an antenna
beam above
the
horizontal,
9
9,
,
62).
See
and
f ( 9,
9
.
Values
.
of
9
9,
(III.
61).
bri
e
9,
Values
of
bti
for the
beam
intersection,
(III. 59).
The angle between radio rays elevated above the horizon and/ or away from the
great circle plane,
(III.
i
64).
The angle
ei
9
e
at the
"
at the receiver
(6. 15).
,9
ez
en
III.
The angle
22.
9
e
second,
th
figure
9
Angle
(5. 12).
of elevation of a direct
See
9,
and
f ( 9,
9,
hr
ht
Angle
of elevation of a knife
(III.
transmitting antenna,
9.
38).
j
1, 2, 3,
Angles defined
jr
9,,
J
in
(III. 29),
where
1, 2, 3, 4,
to
determine
9. =
J
9 + 9, jr =
Ir
,9
2r
,9
3r
,9
4r
Values
of
9.
for
1, 2, 3,
4,
(III. 29)
jr
Angle
of elevation
to 3.4.
12-26
oo
Angle between radio horizon rays, assuming straight rays above an earth
fective radius,
a,
of ef-
figure
of a
6. 1.
or
figure
6. 1.
9,9,9,9
Jc
The angle between rays from the transmitting and receiving antennas over
III. 9.
A wave number
X.
direction defined by
length,
(9. 12)
(IV. 1).
in (2. 16).
|j.
6/5
used in
9. 8.
parameter
(9. 12)
in
antenna gain,
(9. 11),
V V
i
,
and figure
9. 7.
(2. 4)
to
(2. 12).
Limits
and
(2. 12)
chosen
constant,
tt
= 3.14159264.
p..
p
'^i
to
sources
,
and
j,
(10.8).
a
r
a
,
(10.9). (10.9).
of
p
'^i
P
p p
m (50)
and P
um
(50)
(V.45).
tn
'^tu
(T
m P m
and F
and
op
(V.27).
,
um
(V.34).
8. 1
III. 4.
cr
to the
variance
(p).
2
(T
(p)
of trans-
set of
parameters used
(50)
of the difference
of
6.
transmission loss.
(50)
annex V.
of
smooth curve
cr
op
2
cr
(p)
Total variance of any estimate of the service criterion for service limited only
is
cr
(p).
P Total variance of any estimate of the service criterion for service limited only
The corresponding
standard deviation
is
cr
uc
(p).
12-27
ur
Variance
of the
estimate
ur
(p,
g)
(V.45).
20
of
A symbol
'
to
terms, as in
i
(5. 15)
where
1=0
.S^ h.
1
means
the
T T
sum
of all
from
to
= 20.
in the
(ir)
atmosphere,
,
(III.
62).
is the
exp
where
c
t = k(ct-r) is the r
time of recep-
tion at free-space
radio-wave velocities,
waves,
(II. 1).
is the
is the
T
T
a
,
(II.
ai
70) as
= IOtt
cos
9.
waves
at
function of
r,
(II. 9),
(11.31).
T.
in
for the
component
of
T.
T.
for two
components
of
of
m
,
phase
1, 2,
of the
m
T
,
= 0,
(11.46).
of the
Initial
phases
for path length differences and diffraction or reflection phase shifts, (11.31).
X
^
pn'
pi
on an antenna from
T
r
T
first, and second plane for the n P a single source, (11.32) and (11.8 5).
t
,
th
wave incident
(II.
16). first,
T ri
T rz
t r
for the
(11.32)
wave incident on
T
T
,
and (11.81).
(II.
16).
T
t2
tn
th
t
t
for the
first,
and
(11,8 5).
T,
,
field
components
e,,
9,
(II. 7)
t(9,
off at
an initial angle
(III.
61).
<})
One
r,
9,
(j),
(II. 56)
and figure
II. 1.
<\){v,0)
Component
figure
7. 1,
to diffraction
(7. 13)
and
of
30).
to diffraction
7. 5
tJ3(vp)
Component
rounded obstacle,
4>(0, p)
figure
and
(III.
The component
of the
phase lag
v =
0,
(7. 13)
30)
12-28
$
4
A
.
and B,
(6. 1)
from
to B,
(6. 7).
30a),
where
1, 2, 3,
4.
The
total
phase lag
reflections
$(v,
0)
from
terrain,
The
total
phase lag
(7.13).
reflections,
$.(v,
p)
of the diffracted
,
.(v, p)
J
s ^
(III.
30). th
j
$ $
.(v, 0)
ray,
1, 2, 3,
(III.
30).
32)
of a
S
^
$
J
1
ijj
.(v, p)
J
for values of
4,
(III.
smooth
figure
5. 1,
di
m
P
,
>li
Minimum
di
and
P
pr
(2. 26).
th
di
(11.8 5).
pi
4j
,
4"
of
an antenna
beam
60).
(III. 59).
4^
The angle
Angle
edge,
i\i
or
r
\\i
for the
t
ri
ti
lJj
of reflection at the
(III. 3 6)
ground
figure
III. 9.
n
r2
,
= 25,
(9. 10)
and figure
III.
22.
of the
Q,
ro
rl
n
to
to
25
o
26,
1
tl
III.
22.
12-29
GPO
849-642
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