Internship Report on Embedded Systems(8051)

(Undertaken during Summer Training as a part of 9th Semester) Submitted to Amity University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of B.Tech Aerospace + M.Tech Avionics (Dual) Degree
(Session 2009-14) By Ana Bhalla, 03 Manish Tripathi, 16 Sadhana Singh, 22

Amity Institute of Space Science and Technology Amity University (UP) Noida 201301
Under the guidance of Prof. M.S Prasad HOD Amity Institute of Space Science And Technology Noida-201301 , UP

Candidates Declaration / Certificate

We hereby declare that the work being presented in this report entitled Obstacle Avoidance Robot Using Advanced Microcontroller AT89C51 is an authentic record of our own work carried out under the supervision of Er. Raj Kumar.----------The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted by us for the award of any other degree. Dated: 17/07/2013 Department: Embedded System 21 Ana Bhalla,02 Manish Tripathi, Manish Tripathi,16 Cetpa Infotech Private Limited Noida Sadhana Singh,216 Name of Students Sadhana Singh,

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidates is correct to the best of my knowledge. Miss Medhavi Date: 17/07/2013 Designation: Department: Embedded System Mr.Raj Kumar

Date..

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express thanks to the individuals who contributed in various ways for the completion of the project. The successful culmination of our efforts reminds us of our indebtedness towards our venerated guide ------------ of the department of Embedded System, CETPA INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED for his valuable guidance and providing encouragement throughout the semester. We are also thankful to all the faculty members of the department of Embedded System, CETPA INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED NOIDA for their valuable suggestions and help provided to us from time to time. Last but not the least we also express our gratitude towards our respected Prof. M.S.Prasad (HOD-AISST) and our friends and other people who have been indirectly involved in the successful completion of the project and their valuable advice in the hour of need, providing the requisite facilities for completion of the project work.

Contents
Contents................................................................................................................ 4 Abstract................................................................................................................. 7 ............................................................................................................................. 9 Chapter 1 .......................................................................................................... 11 1.1 CETPA Introduction.................................................................................... 11 1.2 CETPA Objectives........................................................................................ 11 1.3 CETPA Education......................................................................................... 11 1.4 CETPA Research & Development...............................................................11 1.5 CETPA Open Platform................................................................................. 12 1.6 CETPA E-Magazine..................................................................................... 12 1.7 CETPA Club................................................................................................. 12 ........................................................................................................................ 12 1.8 CETPA Seminar........................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2 Introduction to Embedded systems...................................................14 2.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 15 2.2 Efficiency parameters................................................................................. 16 2.2.1 Technical metrics.................................................................................16 2.2.2 Economical metrics..............................................................................16 2.3 Designing Embedded Systems ..................................................................17 2.4 PERIPHERALS ........................................................................................... 19 2.5 APPLICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM ......................................................20 2.6 Some important concepts ..........................................................................20 2.6.1 Differential Steering System...............................................................20 The 8051 microcontroller.............................................................................. 23 3.2 The 8051 architecture:...............................................................................24 3.2.1 Important features and applications.....................................................25 3.2.2 Pin Description..................................................................................... 26 3.2.3 Memory Organization...........................................................................28 3.2.4 The Instruction Set...............................................................................30 3.2.5 Program Status Word...........................................................................30 3.2.6 Addressing Modes ............................................................................... 30

3.3 Liquid Crystal Display Fundamentals..........................................................31 3.4 THEORY OF D.C. MOTORS...........................................................................32 3.4.1 DC motor types.................................................................................... 33 Brushed............................................................................................................ 33 Synchronous..................................................................................................... 33 Brushless.......................................................................................................... 33 3.4.2 DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL---PWM TECHNIQUE................................33 3.4.3 L293D................................................................................................... 36 3.4.4 CONCEPT OF H BRIDGE HARDWARE CONTROL OF DC MOTOR.............37 3.5 INFRARED SENSORS (IR SENSORS)[6](refer-6)...........................................39 3.5.1 WORKING OF INFRARED MOTION DETECTOR COMPONENTS ............39 3.5.2 COMPARATOR....................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER 4........................................................................................................... 43 Obstacle Detector Robot...................................................................................... 43 4.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION..................................................................44 4.3.3 MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUIT USING H BRIDGE...........................................50 4.6 FUTURE SCOPE &APPLICATION...................................................................53 RESULT AND CONCLUSION............................................................................... 54 Appendix I : Code for the Obstacle Detector Robot.............................................55 Appendix II Softwares required for the coding.....................................................56 Topview Simulator ........................................................................................... 56 ISIS Schematic Capture or Proteus ..................................................................57 REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 57

Table of figures :
Figure 2-1 Apollo guidance system..14 Figure 2-2 Prototype to final 16 Figure 2-3 differential steering .18 Figure 3-1 8051 a) Pin Diagram b) Architecture.22 Figure 3-2 Interrupts 0f 89C51 26

Figure 3-3 LCD panel and IC driver locations28 Figure 3-4 Motor speed variation due to continuous on/off.31 Figure 3-6 pin diagram of L293d..32. Figure 3-7 working of IR Sensors..34 Figure 3-8 IR sensor circuit....38 Figure 4-1 block Diagram of Obstacle Detector Robot.43 Figure 4-2 Schematic of obstacle detector on Proteus..43 Figure 4-3: MICROCONTROLLER INTERFACE WITH L293D TO CONTROL DC MOTOR.44 Figure 4-4 Sensor Array.44 Figure 4-5 Voltage Regulators 45 Figure 1-6 The motor control.48
Figure 4-7 Reflective Server .50

Abstract Embedded systems and Avionics

The basic aim of we students in joining this course was acquainting ourselves some knowledge of the industry of electronics mainly related to embedded systems and implement that in our further studies as they play a very important role in present day aerospace and its related avionics. Before understanding the role of embedded systems in modern day avionics we must first understand the terminology. The word Avionics refers to an airborne electronic equipment. For e.g. the altimeter and its related subsystems like the Pitot tube tube etc. is one of the on-board instrument also referred to as avionics .avionics. An embedded system is a computer system designed for specific control functions within a larger system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. It can be characterized

as the combination of hardware and software to perform a specific task. Its further explanation will be given in chapter 2. If you find difficulty in visualising what are Embedded Systems, we all have heard about Robots , about the various machines that are being adopted in multi-national companies for automization of all the processes , about the KIROBO Robot also christened as the Robot Astronaut of Japan etc. are all some of the systems that are based on this technology. In the early days of the aircraft industry most of the calculations and presumptions related to the aircraft safety, guidance, navigation, and control were carried out by the pilot itself. Thus the need of automization of various equipments increased rapidly throughout to reduce the work load on the pilot. This demand for automization was the cause for the rise of an entirely new science called the embedded systems in Avionics. The Apollo Guidance system used for the guidance system of the Apollo satellite was in fact the first recognizable embedded system developed by the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. Embedded systems are a very important part for missiles, the Inertial Navigation System and the Flight control systems. These days we can see the embedded systems all around us in the form of various automation home appliances like The Washing Machine, Automated cars etc. In the following report we will be explaining about the company we had the pleasure of being associated with I.e. CETPA in Chapter 1. This is followed by introduction to embedded systems explanations of the various concepts related to embedded systems in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 deals with explanation of the various devices we dealt with during our internship and will also be giving a brief description about the project named: Obstacle Detector Robot worked on by us in the concluding chapter, Chapter 4 .

Organization overview

Chapter 1 Organization review

1.1 CETPA Introduction CETPA Info-Tech Pvt. Ltd. is an ISO 9001:2008 Certified Multinational Organization which deals in the field of Software Development & Embedded Products Development, Placement Consultancy and Engineers Training Programs. CETPA Info-Tech has combined unparalleled
experience, comprehensive capabilities and extensive research, to become one of the premier Training, Development & Consultancy Organization in India and abroad.

The mission of CETPA is to work for the promotion of computer education and technology in India and abroad. CETPA is a group of professionals who are working for the promotion of technology. CETPA provides open platform for the development of the various computer software. They are a part of Linux Promotion Organization.

1.2 CETPA Objectives > > > > > > > > > Promoting Computer Education & Technology Open platform for the development jobs Provide World Class Computer Education Organize Paper Presentation & Quizzes Organize Conferences & Seminars Collaboration with other Institute Launch Research Paper & Projects of the Members Research for Advance Technology Honor Outstanding Personalities.

1.3 CETPA Education CETPA is an association dedicated for spreading advance computer education to all over the world. CETPA provides computer education in advance technology courses like LINUX, J2EE, VHDL, EMBEDDED SYSTEM, ADVANCE EMBEDDED SYSTEM, CAD , Pro-E or Mechanical & Electronics students, .NET, MATLAB, ADVANCE JAVA, ORACLE, SOFTWARE TESTING etc.
1.4 CETPA Research & Development

CETPA is working continuously in Research and Development field from the very beginning. CETPA has developed a number of advanced software and currently working in following main projects : > Congestion Control in Wireless Traffic

> Real Time Scheduling for Automatic Guided Vehicles > Advancement in Microprocessors Technology > CETPA Linux( releasing soon) > 1.5 CETPA Open Platform CETPA is an association, which is providing open platform for software development. Their
thinkingTheir thinking is that development tools should be provided free of cost so that the technological advancement and refinement can take place unhindered. In this mission everyone is invited .CETPA Linux is a special flavor of Linux that can be easily optimized and customized for just about any application or need Extreme performance, configurability and a top-notch user and developer community are all hallmarks of the CETPA experience. 1.6 CETPA E-Magazine

CETPA e-magazine is the best way to give new comers a chance to show their ability .Through e-magazines our student members can give their articles, projects, & thoughts to CETPA. These magazines not only have ideas of new comers but also thesis of well-known scientists, professionals and professors. 1.7 CETPA Club CETPA has two types of clubs for professionals and students. Members of the professional club
are professionals from various domains who are working seriously for the fulfillment of CETPA objectives. The members of the students Club are the students who are provided platform by CETPA to present their research papers, and to share their views with other members of the club. Projects submitted by the students are sponsored in the national and international seminars for paper presentation and publishing.

1.8 CETPA Seminar CETPA conducts free of cost seminars on various technologies in different institutions and organizations to help students and professionals to acquaint themselves with the latest
technological advancements. Their vision serves as the framework for their Roadmap and guides every aspect of the business by describing what they need to accomplish in order to continue achieving sustainable and quality growth.

> People: Be a great place to work where people are inspired to be the best they can be. > Portfolio: Bring to the world a portfolio of quality education with placement assistance and be the pioneer in the field of development > Partners: Nurture a winning network of customers and Clients, together we create mutual and long lasting value.

> Profit: Maximize long-term return while being mindful of our overall responsibilities. > Productivity: Be a highly effective, lean and fast-moving organization. > Qualities: Inspire creativity, passion, optimism and fun.

Chapter 2

Introduction to embedded systems

Chapter 2

Introduction to Embedded systems

2.1 Introduction An embedded system is a computer system designed for specific control functions within a larger system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today. Embedded Systems are computing systems with tightly coupled software & hardware integration that are designed to perform a dedicated task or functions

Embedded systems are computers which are part of special-purpose devices. Due to the limited duties this systems can be highly optimized to the particular needs. Traditionally most of this systems are used for control and process measurement, as a side-effect of higher integration of integrated circuits more complex applications can be solved by embedded systems. To be able to solve this problems embedded systems are commonly equipped with various kinds of peripherals. As already stated in the preceding chapter the earliest applications of these included the guidance computer of the Minuteman I missiles and the Apollo guidance computer. The Minuteman I & II missiles were intercontinental ballistic nuclear warheads, produced by Boeing in the 1960s.

Figure 2-1 Apollo guidance system Figure 2-0- 2: Apollo guidance system Nowadays embedded systems can be found in devices from digital watches to trafficcontrol systems. The broad range of applications with totally different requirements lead to various implementation approaches. The range of hardware used in embedded systems reaches from FPGAs to full blown desktop CPUs which are accompanied by special purpose ICs such as DSPs. On the software side, depending on the needs, everything, from logic fully implemented in hardware to systems with own operating system and different applications running on it, can be found. 2.2 Efficiency parameters There are certain hardware independent parameters which are used to compare the various embedded systems archictecturesarchitectures like Atmel, Arm etc. these are divided into Technical and economical parameters or metrics. 2.2.1 Technical metrics These are used to compare the technical designs and specifications of the particular embedded system and thus using the one which would comply with the desired technical requirements Performance describes the execution time or throughput of the system. Energy Efficiency is an indicator for the amount of power consumed by the device. Size as a metric is used if there are constraints for physical size (eg:minimal size requirement for satellite systems) Flexibility is a metric for ease of reconfiguration and reusability. 2.2.2 Economical metrics These metrics are used for comparing the cost aspect of using a particular embedded system for designing the particular system some of them are : Unit Cost describes the net cost for manufacturing a single unit of the particular system based on the availability and the technological machinery required for its manufacturing. Flexibility in a economical sense describes the ability to change the functionality of the system without incurring heavy cost.

Time to Market indicates the amount of time to develop a system to the point that it can be released for usage for the particular requirement (like sale or testing) After analysing the above said parameters of the different systems based on our task requirement we choose our controller in a way so as to optimize the technical and economical metrics.

2.3 Designing Embedded Systems The following offers a brief step-by-step approach to follow while designing an embedded system: 1. Proposal: An innovative idea or system that makes life easier and/or reduces the amount of human effort required to complete a task. 2. Definition: Next, the whole system needs to be designed, including what it will do under all possible sets of input conditions. This definition is perhaps the most critical part, as any error here will affect the working of whole system. I. I/O Considerations: Defines that for a particular input, what the output of the system will be, considering the system as a black box. II. Mathematical Modelling: Design the algorithm for the system to work as desired. III. Functional Modelling: Design the functions of the system which will accept input and produce the desired output. 3. Technology Selection: Based on the above points, designers then review the available technology and select which devices will fulfil all the requirements while balancing efficiency, cost, and time-to-market and the remaining above mentioned metrics. 4. Integration & PCB design: List all the components, which you need to implement your functions and design their placement on the PCB. Traces and all other paths must have the least possible electromagnetic interference (EMI) and should be free from various errors. While designing the PCB, special attention must be given to the ground as well as all the components on the PCB that use ground. 5. Firmware Development & Debugging: Since hardware needs instructions to execute the way we want, we need to write the code for every component used by the hardware. This is exactly what is done by the firmware i.e. the application code. Firmware should be of minimum complexity. Moreover, as we write the code, we face many errors or bugs and for this we need a proper debugging protocol.

6. Testing: Debugging tests the piece of code but in testing we test the whole system i.e. hardware as well as the software that drives that hardware. 7. Documentation: Anyone who accesses your complete application should never ask you what does this mean? or How does this thing work? and for this we need to document everything

Hardware & Software

Final

Final
Figure 2-2 Prototype to final

Figure 2-3 Prototype to final

After going through the designing process and its various steps we should get a brief knowledge of the various peripherals that are used for the communication between the real world and the logical world. 2.4 PERIPHERALS Embedded Systems talk with the outside world via peripherals, such as:

Serial Communication Interfaces (SCI): RS-232, RS-422, RS-485 etc. Synchronous Serial Communication Interface: I2C, SPI, SSC and ESSI (Enhanced Synchronous Serial Interface) Universal Serial Bus (USB) Fieldbuses: CAN-Bus, LIN-Bus, PROFIBUS, etc. Timers: Time Processing Units Discrete IO: aka General Purpose Input/ Output (GPIO)

2.5 APPLICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM Embedded systems span all aspects of modern life and there are many examples of their use: Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone switches for the network to mobile phones at the end-user. Computer networking user dedicated routers and network bridges to route data. Consumer electronics include personal digital assistants (PDAs), mp3 players, mobile phones, videogame consoles, digital cameras, DVD players, GPS receivers, and printers. Many household appliances, such as microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers, are including embedded systems to provide flexibility, efficiency and features. Advanced HVAC systems use networked thermostats to more accurately and efficiently control temperature that can change by time of day and season. Home automation uses wired- and wireless-networking that can be used to control lights, climate, security, audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded devices for sensing and controlling. Transportation systems from flight to automobiles increasingly use embedded systems. New airplanes contain advanced avionics such as inertial guidance systems and GPS receivers that also have considerable safety requirements. Various electric motors brushless DC motors, induction motors and DC motors are using electric/electronic motor controllers. Automobiles, electric vehicles, and hybrid vehicles are increasingly using embedded systems to maximize efficiency and reduce pollution Medical equipment is continuing to advance with more embedded systems for vital signals monitoring, electronic stethoscopes for amplifying sounds, and various medical imaging(PET, SPECT, CT, MRI) for non-invasive internal inspections. Embedded systems are especially suited for use in transportation, fire safety, safety and security, medical applications and life critical systems as these systems can be isolated from hacking and thus be more reliable. For fire safety, the systems can be designed to have greater ability to handle higher temperatures and continue to operate. In dealing with security, the embedded systems can be selfsufficient and be able to deal with cut electrical and communication systems.

2.6 Some important concepts 2.6.1 Differential Steering System During our internship we came to know the importance of motors (DC motors, Stepper Motor etc.) and their applications whether it be in the form of robots and its locomotive motion or the usage of them in various control systems like those used in factories. Thus

in order to understand its programming we would like to first acquaint ourselves with the locomotive motion of our Robot (as mentioned in the preceding lessons ) which would be explained in Chapter 4. The differential steering system features two wheels mounted on a single axis which are independently powered and controlled, thus providing both drive and steering. Additional passive wheels (usually casters) are provided for support. If both drive wheels turn in tandem, the robot moves in a straight line. If one wheel turns faster than the other, the robot follows a curved path. If the wheels turn at equal speed, but in opposite directions, the robot pivots.

Figure 2-3 differential steering Figure 2- 4 Differential steering where given the displacement for the left and right wheels respectively, r is the turn radius for the inner (left) wheel, b is the distance between wheels (from centre-to-centre along the length of the axle), and is the angle of the turn in radians , vl is the speed at the centre point on the main axle. In this discussion, we will treat the axle's centre point as the origin of the simulated robot's frame of reference. Once we've established the simple geometry for the differential steering system, it is easy to develop algorithms for controlling the robot's path. Note, though, that we did make an important simplifying assumption: the wheels maintain a steady velocity. We neglected the effects of acceleration. If the wheels are allowed to accelerate, the curve which describes the robot's trajectory can become much more complicated. When working with very light robots, where the mass (and inertia) of the platform is small, we can often get away with treating changes in speed as nearly instantaneous. The path that the robot follows will not be truly circular, but it will be close enough for many applications. For larger and heavier robots, of course mass is important and acceleration must be considered.

If the right wheel is moving at a velocity of VR and the left wheel at a velocity of VL, then the following equation can be derived. Where a positiveimplies counter-clockwise rotation; the above equation clearly shows that the angle of the turn can be increased by either, Increasing the difference in the wheels velocities (VR VL), or Keep the wheels at the different velocity for a longer time (t) All this while b remains constant; in the line following robot, both these parameters are dynamically changed by the sensors in order to keep the robot away from obstacles. With the help of these sensors and the H-bridge Circuitry (which we will learn about in Chapter 3) we can control the speed and direction of movement of our Robot.

Chapter 3
The 8051 microcontroller

A microcontroller is an economical computer-on-a-chip built for dealing with specific tasks, such as displaying or receiving information through LEDs or remote controlled devices. The most commonly used set of microcontrollers belong to 8051 Family, Pic , Arm(32 bit) etc. 8051 Microcontrollers continue to remain a preferred choice for a vast community of hobbyists and professionals. Through 8051, the world became witness to the most revolutionary set of microcontrollers. Intel fabricated the original 8051 which is known as MCS-51. The other two members of the 8051 family are:

i. 8052 This microcontroller has 256 bytes of RAM and 3 timers. In addition to the standard features of 8051, this microcontroller has an added 128 bytes of RAM and timer. It has 8K bytes of on chip program ROM. The programs written for projects using 8051 microcontroller can be used to run on the projects using 8052 microcontroller as 8051 is a subset of 8052. ii. 8031 This microcontroller has all the features of 8051 except for it to be ROMless. An external ROM that can be as large as 64 K bytes should be programmed and added to this chip for execution. The disadvantage of adding external ROM is that 2 ports (out of the 4 ports) are used. Hence, only 2 ports are left for I/O operations which can also be added externally if required for execution. Comparison of 8051 family members: Features 8051 8052 8031 RAM(bytes) 128 256 128 ROM 4K 8K 0K Timers 2 3 2 Serial port 1 1 1 I/O pins 32 32 32 Interrupt sources 6 8 6 Table 13-1 Comparison of the different 8051 microcontrollers 3.1 AT89C51 from Atmel Corporation Atmel fabricated the flash ROM version of 8051 which is popularly known as AT89C51. The AT89C51 is a low-power, highperformance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM).The flash memory can erase the contents within seconds which is best for fast growth. Therefore, 8751 is replaced by AT89C51 to eradicate the waiting time required to erase the contents and hence expedite the development time. To build up a microcontroller based system using AT89C51, it is essential to have ROM burner that supports flash memory. Note that in Flash memory, entire contents must be erased to program it again. The contents are erased by the ROM burner. Atmel is working on a newer version of AT89C51 that can be programmed using the serial COM port of IBM PC in order to get rid of the ROM burner. This is the controller we will be using our project. The Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

3.2 The 8051 architecture: This was designed by the Intel Company in the 1960s .The various members of this family have the same architecture so as to be more user friendly. They differ from each other in the way they store memory and the memory sizes.

The first digit of the numbering tells us that it is a 8-bit processor, the second digit tells us in what way the controller can be reprogrammed, like 0 tells us that it cannot be reprogrammed. Whereas the third digit corresponds to the number interrupts present in the device (internal/external). The fourth digit tells us that serial communication is possible with the 8051.

Figure 3-1 8051 a) Pin Diagram b) Architecture

3.2.1 Important features and applications It provides many functions (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in a single package 8-bit ALU, Accumulator and Registers; hence it is an 8-bit microcontroller

8-bit data bus - It can access 8 bits of data in one operation 16-bit address bus - It can access 216 memory locations - 64 kB (65536 locations) each of RAM and ROM On-chip RAM - 128 bytes ("Data Memory") On-chip ROM - 4 kB ("Program Memory") Four byte bi-directional input/output port UART (serial port) Two 16-bit Counter/timers Two-level interrupt priority Power saving mode

3.2.2 Pin Description

Pins 1-8: Port 1 Each of these pins can be configured as an input or an output. Pin 9: RS A logic one on this pin disables the microcontroller and clears the contents of

most registers. In other words, the positive voltage on this pin resets the microcontroller. By applying logic zero to this pin, the program starts execution from the beginning.
Pins10-17: Port 3 Similar to port 1, each of these pins can serve as general input or

output. Besides, all of them have alternative functions:

Pin 10: RXD Serial asynchronous communication input or Serial synchronous

communication output.
Pin 11: TXD Serial asynchronous communication output or Serial synchronous

communication clock output.

Pin 12: INT0 Interrupt 0 input. Pin 13: INT1 Interrupt 1 input. Pin 14: T0 Counter 0 clock input. Pin 15: T1 Counter 1 clock input. Pin 16: WR Write to external (additional) RAM. Pin 17: RD Read from external RAM. Pin 18, 19: X2, X1 Internal oscillator input and output. A quartz crystal which specifies

operating frequency is usually connected to these pins. Instead of it, miniature ceramics resonators can also be used for frequency stability. Later versions of microcontrollers operate at a frequency of 0 Hz up to over 50 Hz.
Pin 20: GND Ground. Pin 21-28: Port 2 If there is no intention to use external memory then these port pins are

configured as general inputs/outputs. In case external memory is used, the higher address byte, i.e. addresses A8-A15 will appear on this port. Even though memory with capacity

of 64Kb is not used, which means that not all eight port bits are used for its addressing, the rest of them are not available as inputs/outputs.
Pin 29: PSEN If external ROM is used for storing program then a logic zero (0) appears

on it every time the microcontroller reads a byte from memory.

Pin 30: ALE Prior to reading from external memory, the microcontroller puts the lower

address byte (A0-A7) on P0 and activates the ALE output. After receiving signal from 0the ALE pin, the external register (usually 74HCT373 or 74HCT375 add-on chip) memorizes the state of P0 and uses it as a memory chip address. Immediately after that, the ALU pin is returned its previous logic state and P0 is now used as a Data Bus. As seen, port data multiplexing is performed by means of only one additional (and cheap) integrated circuit. In other words, this port is used for both data and address transmission.
Pin 31: EA By applying logic zero to this pin, P2 and P3 are used for data and address

transmission with no regard to whether there is internal memory or not. It means that even there is a program written to the microcontroller, it will not be executed. Instead, the program written to external ROM will be executed. By applying logic one to the EA pin, the microcontroller will use both memories, first internal then external (if exists).
Pin 32-39: Port 0 Similar to P2, if external memory is not used, these pins can be used

as general inputs/outputs. Otherwise, P0 is configured as address output (A0-A7) when the ALE pin is driven high (1) or as data output (Data Bus) when the ALE pin is driven low (0).
Pin 40: VCC +5V power supply

Table 3-2 Port 3 description

XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Oscillator Characters: XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

3.2.3 Memory Organization All Atmel Flash microcontrollers have separate address spaces for program and data memory. The logical separation of program and data memory allows the data memory to be accessed by 8-bit addresses, which can be more quickly stored and manipulated by an 8- bit CPU. )a Program Memory

After reset, the CPU begins execution from location 0000H. Each interrupt is assigned a fixed location in program memory. The interrupt causes the CPU to jump to that location, where it executes the service routine. External Interrupt 0, for example, is assigned to location 0003H. If External Interrupt 0 is used, its service routine must begin at location 0003H. If the interrupt is not used, its service location is available as general purpose program memory. The interrupt service locations are spaced at 8-byte intervals: 0003H for External Interrupt 0, 000BH for Timer 0, 0013H for External Interrupt 1, 001BH for Timer 1, and so on.

Figure 3-2 Interrupts 0f 89C51 If an interrupt service routine is short enough (as is often the case in control applications), it can reside entirely within that 8-byte interval. Longer service routines can use a jump instruction to skip over subsequent interrupt locations. )b Data Memory )c Internal data memory addresses are always 1 byte wide, which implies an address space of only 256 bytes. However, the addressing modes for internal RAM can in fact accommodate 384 bytes. Direct addresses higher than 7FH access one memory space, and indirect addresses higher than 7FH access a different memory space. Thus, the Upper 128 and SFR space occupying the same block of addresses, 80H through FFH, although they are physically separate entities. The lowest 32 bytes are grouped into 4 banks of 8 registers. Program instructions call out these registers as R0 through R7. Two bits in the Program Status Word (PSW) select which register bank is in use. This architecture allows more efficient use of code space, since register instructions are shorter than instructions that use direct addressing. For using external memory feature refer to reference no 2.

3.2.4 The Instruction Set All members of the Atmel microcontroller family execute the same instruction set. This instruction set is optimized for 8- bit control applications and it provides a variety of fast addressing modes for accessing the internal RAM to facilitate byte operations on small data structures. The instruction set provides extensive support for 1-bit variables as a separate data type, allowing direct bit manipulation in control and logic systems that require Boolean processing. The following overview of the instruction set gives a brief description of how certain instructions can be used. 3.2.5 Program Status Word The Program Status Word (PSW) contains status bits that reflect the current state of the CPU. The PSW, shown in Figure 11, resides in SFR space. The PSW contains the Carry bit, the Auxiliary Carry (for BCD operations), the tworegister bank select bits, the Overflow flag, a Parity bit, and two user-definable status flags. The Carry bit, in addition to serving as a Carry bit in arithmetic operations, also serves as the Accumulator for a number of Boolean operations. The bits RS0 and RS1 select one of the four register banks shown in Figure 8. A number of instructions refer to these RAM locations as R0 through R7. The status of the RS0 and RS1 bits at execution time determines which of the four banks is selected. The Parity bit reflects the number of 1s in the Accumulator: P=1 if the Accumulator contains an odd number of 1s, and P=0 if the Accumulator contains an even number of 1s. Thus, the number of 1s in the Accumulator plus P is always even. Two bits in the PSW are uncommitted and can be used as general purpose status flags.

3.2.6 Addressing Modes The addressing modes in the Flash microcontroller instruction set are as follows. a) Direct Addressing In direct addressing, the operand is specified by an 8-bit address field in the instruction. Only internal data RAM and SFRs can be directly addressed. b) Indirect Addressing In indirect addressing, the instruction specifies a register that contains the address of the operand. Both internal and external RAM can be indirectly addressed. The address register for 8-bit addresses can be either the Stack Pointer or R0 or R1 of the selected register bank. The address register for 16-bit addresses can be only the 16-bit data pointer register, DPTR. Register Instructions The register banks, which contain registers R0 through R7, can be accessed by instructions whose opcodes carry a 3- bit register specification0. Instructions that access the registers this way make efficient use of code, since this mode eliminates an address

byte. When the instruction is executed, one of the eight registers in the selected bank is accessed. One of four banks is selected at execution time by the two bank select bits in the PSW. c) Indexed Addressing Program memory can only be accessed via indexed addressing. This addressing mode is intended for reading look-up tables in program memory. A 16-bit base register (either DPTR or the Program Counter) points to the base of the table, and the Accumulator is set up with the table entry number. The address of the table entry in program memory is formed by adding the Accumulator data to the base pointer.

3.3 Liquid Crystal Display Fundamentals A general discussion of how liquid crystal displays work. A basic introduction to the chemistry, structure, and properties of liquid crystals used in displays. An overview of display structure, assembly, and related technology is summarized.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) are categorized as non-emissive display devices, in that respect, they do not produce any form of light like a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). LCDs either pass or block light that is reflected from an external light source or provided by a back/side lighting system. There are two modes of operation for LCDs during the absence of an electric field (applied Power); a mode describes the transmittance state of the liquid crystal elements. Normal White mode: the display is white or clear and allows light to pass through and Normal Black Mode: the display is dark and all light is diffused. Virtually all displays in production for PC/Workstation use are normal white mode to optimize contrast and speed.

A simplified description of how a dot matrix LCD display works is as follows: A twisted nematic (TN) LC display consists of two polarizers, two pieces of glass, some form of switching element or electrode to define pixels, and driver Integrated Circuits (ICs) to address the rows and columns of pixels. To define a pixel (or subpixelsub pixel element for a colorcolour display), a rectangle is constructed out of Indium Tin Oxide -- a semitransparent metal oxide (ITO) and charge is applied to this area in order to change the orientation of the LC material ( change from a white pixel to a dark pixel). The method utilized to form a pixel in passive and active matrix displays differs and will be described in later sections. Figure 1 illustrates a cross sectional view of a simple TN LC display. Figure 2 depicts a dot matrix display as viewed without its metal module/case exposing the IC drivers.

Looking directly at the display the gate or row drivers are located either on the left or the right side of the display while the data or column drivers are located on the top (and or bottom) of the display. New thin display module technology mounts the ICs on conductive tape that allows them to be folded behind the display further reducing the size of the finished module. An IC will address a number of rows or columns.

Figure 1: Cross Section of a Simple LC Display

viewer ///////////////////////////////////// Polarizer _____________________________________ glass ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Liquid Crystal _____________________________________ glass \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Polarizer Backlight Figure 3-3 LCD panel and IC driver locations

Polarizers are an integral part of a LCD display, possessing the unique property of only passing light if it is oriented in a specific (oriented) direction. To utilize this phenomena in TN LC displays, the bottom polarizer orients incoming light in one direction. The oriented light passes through the LC material and is either unaltered or "bent" 90 degrees. Depending on the orientation of the top polarizer, this light will either pass through or be diffused. If the light is diffused, it will appear as a dark area. Figure 3 is a simple illustration of the sequence of events that occur when light passes through a simple twisted nematic LC display. For accessing datasheets of the various LCD panels used industrially refer to reference number 4.

3.4 THEORY OF D.C. MOTORS A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. DC motors were used to run machinery, often eliminating the need for a local steam engine or internal combustion engine. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Modern DC motors are nearly always operated in conjunction with power electronic devices.

Two important performance parameters of DC motors are the motor constants, Kv and Km. 3.4.1 DC motor types A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. Brushed The brushed DC motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary permanent magnets, and rotating electrical magnets. It works on the principle of Lorentz force, which states that any current carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a torque or force known as Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor. Synchronous Synchronous DC motors, such as the brushless DC motor and the stepper motor, require external commutation to generate torque. They lock up if driven directly by DC power. However, BLDC motors are more similar to a synchronous ac motor. Brushless Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed controller. Using theesthese as a part of the required task circuitry involves gaining knowledge about the torque requirement and the current and voltage input available. The connections mailymainly involves only proper synchronized connection of the Vcc and the Gnd pins of the motor. 3.4.2 DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL---PWM TECHNIQUE

3.4.2.1 INTRODUCTION PWM TECHNIQUE The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage, so if we reduce the supply voltage from 12 Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. How can this be achieved when the battery is fixed at 12 Volts? The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. It could do this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the motor, but this is quite inefficient to do. A better way is to switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect.. Now imagine a light bulb with a switch. When we close the switch, the bulb goes on and is at full brightness, say 100 Watts. When we open the switch it goes off (0 Watts). Now if we close the switch for a fraction of a second, then open it for the same amount of time, the filament won't have time to cool down and heat up, and you will just get an average glow of 50 Watts. This is how lamp dimmers work, and the same principle is used by speed controllers to drive a motor. When the switch is closed, the motor sees 12 Volts, and when it is open it sees 0 Volts. If the switch is open for the same amount of time as it is closed, the motor will see an average of 6 Volts, and will run more slowly accordingly. As the amount of time that the voltage is on increases compared with the amount of time that it is off, the average speed of the motor increases. This on-off switching is performed by power MOSFETs. A MOSFET (Metal-OxideSemiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a device that can turn very large currents on and off under the control of a low signal level voltage. For more detailed information, see the dedicated chapter on MOSFETs) The time that it takes a motor to speed up and slow down under switching conditions is dependent on the inertia of the rotor (basically how heavy it is), and how much friction and load torque there is.

The graph below shows the speed of a motor that is being turned on and off fairly slowly:

Figure 3-4 Motor speed variation due to continuous on/off We can see that the average speed is around 150, although it varies quite a bit. If the supply voltage is switched fast enough, it wont have time to change speed much, and the speed will be quite steady. This is the principle of switch mode speed control. Thus the speed is set by PWM Pulse Width Modulation. Below is a simple block diagram of the speed controller.

Figure 3-5 Block diagram of motor speed Control

3.4.1.2 PWM FREQUENCY The frequency of the resulting PWM signal is dependent on the frequency of the ramp waveform. What frequency do we want? This is not a simple question. Some pros and cons are:

Frequencies between 20Hz and 18kHz may produce audible screaming from the speed controller and motors - this may be an added attraction for your robot! RF interference emitted by the circuit will be worse the higher the switching frequency is. Each switching on and off of the speed controller MOSFETs results in a little power loss. Therefore the greater the time spent switching compared with the static on and off times, the greater will be the resulting 'switching loss' in the MOSFETs. The higher the switching frequency, the more stable is the current waveform in the motors. This waveform will be a spiky switching waveform at low frequencies, but at high frequencies the inductance of the motor will smooth this out to an average DC current level proportional to the PWM demand. This spikiness will cause greater power loss in the resistances of the wires, MOSFETs, and motor windings than a steady DC current waveform. For calculations related to frequency go to reference 5.

Thus we can control the speed of our motor and thus we can can manipulate our direct our robot fixed with these motors to meet our objective of obstacle avoidance or line follower. 3.4.3 L293D Motor drivers act as current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-current signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the motors. The most common method to drive DC motors in two directions under control of a computer is with an H-bridge motor driver. The L293 is simplest and inexpensive for low current motors, for high current motors, it is less expensive to build your own H-bridge from scratch (BJT or FET). L293D is one of the motor driver IC and very frequently used in robotics. It contains two inbuilt H-bridge bidirectional driver circuits. With one L293D IC two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. L293D is a high voltage high current four channel driver designed to accept standard DTL and TTL (5V) logic levels. It is used to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, DC motors, stepper motors, and switching power transistors. It can drive current of up to 600mA with voltage range of 4.5 to 36 volts. It is suitable to drive small DC-Geared motors, bipolar stepper motor etc. The L293 is an integrated circuit motor driver that can be used for simultaneous, bidirectional control of two small motors. The L293 is limited to 600 mA, but in reality can only handle much small currents unless you have done some serious heat sinking to keep the case temperature down.

There is an L293 and an L293D part number. ATMELk the "D" version because it has built in fly back diodes to minimize inductive voltage spikes L239 is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1A at voltages from 4.5V to 36V while L239 is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600mA at voltages from 4.5V to 36V.

Figure 3-6 pin diagram of L293d Pin Description Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Function Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Input 1 for Motor 1 Output 1 for Motor 1 Ground (0V) Ground (0V) Output 2 for Motor 1 Input 2 for Motor 1 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Input 1 for Motor 1 Output 1 for Motor 1 Ground (0V) Ground (0V) Output 2 for Motor 1 Input2 for Motor 1 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V) Table 3-3 pin Description of L293d Name Enable 1,2 Input 1 Output 1 Ground Ground Output 2 Input 2 Vcc 2 Enable 3,4 Input 3 Output 3 Ground Ground Output 4 Input 4 Vcc 1

3.4.4 CONCEPT OF H BRIDGE HARDWARE CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

What is H-Bridge? An H bridge is an electronic circuit that enables a voltage to be applied across a load in either direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run forwards and backwards. The term H Bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit as shown in fig 2-4. The term H bridgeBridge is derived from the graphical representation of such a circuit. An H bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical).Several characteristics are important when selecting DC motors and these can be split into two specific categories. The first category is associated with the input ratings of the motor and specifies its electrical requirements, like operating voltage and current. The second category is related to the motor's output characteristics and specifies the physicalPhysical limitations of the motor in terms of speed, torque and power. Example specifications of the motors used are given below:

A 1 0 0 1

B 0 1 1 0

C 0 1 0 1

D 1 0 1 0

ACTION CLOCKWISE COUNTER CLOCKWISE BRAKE ANY OTHER STATE FORBIDDEN

The Explanation is simple, If A & D are turned on, then the current flows in the direction shown in the figure below.

If B & C are turned on, then the motor rotates in counter clockwise direction

If we turn on the two upper circuits, the motor resists turning, and we have a effectively breaking mechanism. The same is true if you turn on both of the lower circuits.

3.5 INFRARED SENSORS (IR SENSORS)[6](refer-6)

IR Distance sensors are a low-cost, easy to use analog distance sensor. IR Sensors produce a constantly updated analog output signal depending upon the intensity of the reflected IR, which in turn can be used to calculate approximate range. These sensors are perfect for obstacle avoidance, line following, and even map building! Browse a large selection of IR Sensors with different distance ranges, applications, and output types. 3.5.1 WORKING OF INFRARED MOTION DETECTOR COMPONENTS Infrared Radiation Infrared radiation exists in the electromagnetic spectrum at a wavelength that is longer than visible light. It cannot be seen but it can be detected. Objects that generate heat also generate infrared radiation and those objects include animals and the human body whose radiation is strongest at a wavelength of 9.4um. Infrared in this range will not pass through many types of material that pass visible light such as ordinary window glass and plastic. However it will pass through, with some attenuation, material that is opaque to

visible light such as germanium and silicon. An unprocessed silicon wafer makes a good IR window in a weatherproof enclosure for outdoor use. It also provides additional filtering for light in the visible range. 9.4um infrared will also pass through polyethylene which is usually used to make Fresnel lenses to focus the infrared onto sensor elements. Pyroelectric Sensors The pyroelectric sensor is made of a crystalline material that generates a surface electric charge when exposed to heat in the form of infrared radiation. When the amount of radiation striking the crystal changes, the amount of charge also changes and can then be measured with a sensitive FET device built into the sensor. The sensor elements are sensitive to radiation over a wide range so a filter window is added to the TO5 package to limit detectable radiation to the 8 to 14mm range which is most sensitive to human body radiation. The FET source terminal pin 2 connects through a pull-down resistor of about 100 K to ground and feeds into a two stage amplifier having signal conditioning circuits. The amplifier is bandwidth limited to below 10Hz to reject high frequency noise and is followed by a window comparator that responds to both the positive and negative transitions of the sensor output signal. A well filtered power source of from 3 to 15 volts should be connected to the FET drain terminal pin 1.

The PIR325 sensor has two sensing elements connected in a voltage bucking configuration. This arrangement cancels signals caused by vibration, temperature changes and sunlight. A body passing in front of the sensor will activate first one and then the other element whereas other sources will affect both elements simultaneously and be cancelled. The radiation source must pass across the sensor in a horizontal direction when sensor pins 1 and 2 are on a horizontal plane so that the elements are sequentially exposed to the IR source. A focusing device is usually used in front of the sensor

Figure 3-7 working of IR Sensors

Fresnel Lens A Fresnel lens (pronounced FrennelFresnel) is a Plano Convex lens that has been collapsed on itself to form a flat lens that retains its optical characteristics but is much smaller in thickness and therefore has less absorption losses. Our FL65 Fresnel lens is made of an infrared transmitting material that has an IR transmission range of 8 to 14um which is most sensitive to human body radiation. It is designed to have its grooves facing the IR sensing element so that a smooth surface is presented to the subject side of the lens which is usually the outside of an enclosure that houses the sensor. The lens element is round with a diameter of 1 inch and has a flange that is 1.5 inches square. This flange is used for mounting the lens in a suitable frame or enclosure. Mounting can best and most easily be done with strips of Scotch tape. Silicone rubber can also be used if it overlaps the edges to form a captive mount. The FL65 has a focal length of 0.65 inches from the lens to the sensing element. It has been determined by experiment to have a field of view of approximately 10 degrees when used with a PIR325 Pyroelectric sensor.

3.5.2 COMPARATOR A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op-amp with a known reference voltage at the other input, and produces either a high or a low output voltage, depending on which input is higher. The input / output characteristics of a comparator is as shown.

The sensor circuit is redrawn using the comparator, and this is shown below. The sensor circuit is redrawn using the comparator, and this is shown below.

Figure 3-8 IR sensor circuit The reference voltage is generated by the 20k POT and given to all the comparators to the non-inverting input. When the respective sensor is on the line, the emitted light is absorbed by the line and the transistor is the cut-off mode, thus a potential of 4.6V is given to the inverting input which is greater than Vref (which is chosen to be 2.5V), thus the output of the comparator goes low. When the sensor is not on the line (reflective white surface) the potential across the detector is usually 0.6V. Thus the output of the comparator goes high (the non-inverting input has a greater potential). Thus the output of the comparator goes low only when the sensor is over the line. The comparator is open collector, and hence a pull-up resistor of 10 k is required at the output In a similar way we can use this microcontroller to control various other equipments like the keypad control, many RF circuit based equipments etc. which can be studied in reference[7-9]. 7-9 Programs related to LCD and dc motor control are given in Appendix 1 After going through the various equipments we studied during our internship, in the next chapter we will manifest the knowledge that we acquired and use those to build our desired project termed as the Obstacle Detector Robot

CHAPTER 4 Obstacle Detector Robot

OBSTACLE DETECTOR

AIM: This robot with the help of its microcontroller fitted with IR sensors will automatically detect the presence of obstacles and perform the desired effect to avoid it The main components incorporated into the hardware are given below: The ATMEL microcontroller The voltage regulator and supporting components. Crystal oscillator (4MHz) The H-bridge motor control IC (L293D) Series Wound DC Motors 5V, 9V Lead-Acid battery. A pair of LM358 IR interrupt sensor, modified to be a reflective sensor. Connectors to join the different boards to form one functional device. Each of the hardware is dissected and was designed/implemented separately for their functional and later incorporated as one whole application. This helped in the debugging processes. The block diagram for the same has been given down under: 4.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION Firstly the design to be implemented is tested computationally by simulating it using various circuit simulation platforms like the one we used termed as PROTEUS.

The resultant circuit after removal of errors and debugging came as shown under:

Figure 4-1 block Diagram of Obstacle Detector Robot

R3 R1
10k 10k

R2
10k

U1
13 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 OSC1/CLKIN OSC2/CLKOUT MCLR/Vpp/THV RB0/INT RB1 RB2 RB3/PGM RB4 RB5 RB6/PGC RB7/PGD 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 15 16 17 18 23 24 25 26 19 20 21 22 27 28 29 30

SW1
SW-SPST

SW2 SW3

U2
14 11 OUT4 GND OUT3 GND IN4 IN3 EN2 EN1 IN2 IN1 15 10 9 1 7 2 L293D

6 3

OUT2 OUT1 VS 8

RA0/AN0 RA1/AN1 RA2/AN2/VREFRA3/AN3/VREF+ RA4/T0CKI RA5/AN4/SS RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 RE0/AN5/RD RC2/CCP1 RE1/AN6/WR RC3/SCK/SCL RE2/AN7/CS RC4/SDI/SDA RC5/SDO RC6/TX/CK RC7/RX/DT RD0/PSP0 RD1/PSP1 RD2/PSP2 RD3/PSP3 RD4/PSP4 RD5/PSP5 RD6/PSP6 RD7/PSP7 PIC16F877

SW-SPST

SW-SPST

VSS 16

Figure 4-2 Schematic of obstacle detector on Proteus

4.2 SCHEMATIC

Figure 4-3: MICROCONTROLLER INTERFACE WITH L293D TO CONTROL DC MOTOR The sensor used for obstacle detection is the most crucial part of our Robot whose Circuit diagram as shown below. :

Figure 4-4 Sensor Array

4.2.1 THE MICROCONTROLLER The ATMEL microcontroller was used as its a RISC processor which is better suited for real-time operations. Thus the midrange devices were chosen. 4.2.2 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR The clock frequency is provided by one 4Mhz crystal which is connected across the OSC1 & OSC2 pins as shown above. This provides an instruction execution time of 1s. 4.2.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR It has been shown that practically all electronic devices need DC supply. A direct voltage of constant magnitude requires to be supplied, for the smooth and efficient functioning of these devices. A properly designed voltage regulator ensures that, irrespective of change in supply voltage, load impedance or temperature, the DC supply is maintained at a constant level. This is achieved by incorporating some type of feedback in the regulator circuit. An IC voltage regulator unit contains all the circuitry required in a single IC. Thus there are no discrete components and the circuitry needed for the reference source, the comparator and control elements are fabricated on a single chip. Even the over load and short-circuit protection mechanism is integrated into the IC. IC voltage regulators are designed to provide either a fixed positive or negative voltage, or an adjustable voltage which can be set for any value ranging between two voltage levels.

Figure 4-5 Voltage Regulators The circuit requires two voltage sources; one for the digital ICs (+5V) and a+12-17 V to the motors. The motor is supplied 17V unregulated supply directly from the battery as regulation would be difficult and unnecessary; whereas the digital ICs and the microcontroller require a perfect ripple free +5V to function properly. The L7805C is a 5V voltage regulator IC. The capacitors added to the input of the voltage regulator are to isolate the spikes generated by the motor from the input and to reduce noise. The 10F capacitor at the output is to maintain stability and improve regulation. These are standard values. The 0.1F capacitor is used at the input because of the fact that high value capacitors have poor high frequency response. Note: in our project we have instead provided 5v supply to the IC and sensors and 9 volt supply to dc motor through separate supply points. 4.2.4 BATTERY

Motors on a robot consume most of the power. For most of them, each DC motor consumes 1.5W on the average. For differential steering, two DC motors consume up to 3W. By comparison, the logic components draw a total of about 80mA. Even at a supply voltage of 12V, the logic component only consumes 1W. If we assume the whole robot consume 5W, it requires 4500J of energy to last 15 Minutes. If we use a 12V battery, it must have a capacity of 4500J/12V=375Asec or 104mAH. This may imply that getting a battery of 150mAH is sufficient. Unfortunately, the discharge curve of a 150mAH will not sustain the required voltage for 15 minutes. 4.3 USE OF SERIES WOUND DC MOTOR IMPLEMENTING PWM SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUE: The purpose of a motor speed controller is to take a signal representing the demanded speed, and to drive a motor at that speed. The controller may or may not actually measure the speed of the motor. If it does, it is called a Feedback Speed Controller or Closed Loop Speed Controller, if not it is called an Open Loop Speed Controller. Feedback speed control is better, but more complicated, and may not be required for a simple robot design. Motors come in a variety of forms, and the speed controller's motor drive output will be different dependent on these forms. The speed controller presented here is designed to drive a simple cheap starter motor from a car, which can be purchased from any scrap yard. These motors are generally series wound, which means to reverse them, they must be altered slightly, (see the section on motors). 4.3.1 L293D Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver L293D is a dual H-Bridge motor driver, So with one IC we have interfaced two DC motors which can be controlled in both clockwise and counter clockwise direction and if we have motor with fix direction of motion that we can make use of all the four I/Os to connect up to 4 DC motors. L293D has output current of 600mA and peak output current of 1.2A per channel. Moreover for protection of circuit from back EMF output diodes are included within the IC. The output supply (VCC2) has a wide range from 4.5V to 36V, which has made L293D a best choice for DC motor driver. A simple schematic for interfacing a DC motor using L293D is shown on the following page:

As we can see in the circuit, three pins are needed for interfacing a DC motor (A, B, Enable). If we want the o/p to be enabled completely then you can connect Enable to VCC and only 2 pins needed from controller to make the motor work. Before proceeding ahead recall the concept of H-Bridge and its circuitry to direction of flow of current. 4.3.2 THE H-BRIDGE CIRCUIT As we change the output values of the IN1, IN2 we can control the two motors and thus move the Robot in the desired direction by the directional steering method as explained above. IN1 1 0 1 0 IN2 0 1 0 1 IN3 1 0 0 1 IN4 0 1 1 0 ACTION BOTH MOTORS FORWARD (MOVE FORWARD) BOTH MOTORS BACKWARD (MOVE BACKWARD) RIGHT MOTOR BACKWARD LEFT MOTOR FORWARD (TURN RIGHT) RIGHT MOTOR FORWARD LEFT MOTOR BACKWARD (TURN LEFT)

As per the truth mentioned in the image above its fairly simple to program the microcontroller. Its also clear from the truth table of BJT circuit and L293D that the programming will be same for both of them, just keeping in mind the allowed combinations of A and B. We will discuss about programming in C as well as assembly for running motor with the help of ac microcontroller. The total number of directional control signals required is 4; but as it can be observed in the above table, IN1 & IN2 are complimentary (and so is IN3 & IN4) that is, both the inputs have to take the opposite states for a safe operation. This is done by connecting DL to IN1
L

and to

IN2. The same is done to IN3 & IN4. Now we have 1 directional control per motor. The ENABLE of each motor section is given PWM inputs to further improve on the control. Now, each motor has a direction control and a speed control. The clamping diodes are built into the chip which prevent the back EMF generated by the motors to harm the H-bridge.

4.3.3 MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUIT USING H BRIDGE A common use of the H bridge is an inverter. The arrangement is sometimes known as a single- or three-phase bridge inverter. The H bridge with a DC supply will generate a square wave voltage waveform across the load. For a purely inductive load, the current waveform would be a triangle wave, with its peak depending on the inductance, switching frequency, and input voltage.

Figure 5-6 The motor control. The entire motor control circuitry is shown in the above figure along with the internal circuitry of the L293D motor control IC. 4.3.4 PWM SPECIFICATIONS & CALCULATIONS

The L293D chip can operate on PWM signals up to 5kHz, which was decided to be used.

1/5kHz = [(PR2) + 1] x4(1/4MHz)1 200s = [(PR2) + 1]1s PR2 = 200-1 = 199 200 Three speeds are used for the Robot and their corresponding duty cycles are 0%, 50% & 96%. These calculations are shown below. For 0% duty cycle the value to be loaded is obviously zero, For 50 % duty cycle, PWM duty cycle = 200s 10050 = 100 s . 100s = [DCx] 0.25s 1 DCx = 400 = 110010000b Thus, clear the bits DCx(B1) & DCx(B0) and load 1100100b i.e. 100 into the CCPRxL register. For 96 % duty cycle, PWM duty cycle = 200s 10096 = 192s . 192 s = [DCx] 0.25s 1 DCx = 768 = 1100000000b Thus, clear the bits DCx (B1) & DCx (B0) and load 11000000b i.e. 192 into the CCPRxL register. 4.4 LM358 IR SENSORS IC

RECIEVER TRANSMITTER The LM358 consists of an infrared emitting diode (= 950nm) and an NPN silicon phototransistor mounted to face each other on a converging optical axis in a black plastic housing. The phototransistor responds to radiation from the emitting diode only when no object is present within its field of view. This sensor is physically modified so that the emitter

and detector face the same direction and thus the modified sensor serves the purpose of an optical-reflective sensor. The sensor has a focal length of 8mm, thus the surface must be at an optimum distance of 1.6cm. The original and modified sensors are shown below.

Figure 4-7 Reflective Server

If a reflective (white) surface is present at the optimal distance (d = 1.6cm) then the reflected waves will strike the detector which on radiation will start to conduct. The circuit diagram is shown in the figure below.

Figure 4-8 LM358 Sensor

The drop across the emitter when forward biased is around 1.4V. According to the data sheets, to have sustained radiation, a max of 40mA must flow through to avoid damage. A safe margin is allowed and a current of 16mA is considered for the design.for, R=Vcc-Vd/ Id Vcc = 5V Vd = 1.4V Id = 16mA R is calculated to be approximately 220 . For the emitter, the collector resistor was determined experimentally on a trial and error basis. It was decided to use a value of 56 k. For this value, the potential across the detector is normally 4.6V, when an object reflects the rays towards the detector, then the potential drops to 0.6V. The output is obviously analog in nature.

4.4.1 SENSOR ARRAY 2 sensors are totally used (A, B).

The sensors are mounted on a separate board along with the biasing resistors and a 2 pin connector supplies the power to the sensor array. And the output of each sensor is connected to the main board via a 3 pin connector to the comparators on the main board.
SENSOR A,B= CONNECTED TO SIDES OF CHESIS

Thus these sensors detect the presence of any obstacle in the optimum region of d=1.6 cm and based on what side the sensors detects the correspondinng sides motor speed is increased and the opposite sides is reduced and thus the object can be avoided. This is done every 2.1 msec using the Timer 1 interrupt.

4.6 FUTURE SCOPE &APPLICATION Application :-

 Obstacle sensing robot can be applied at the toys where small children will play. It can used for the army application. We can apply number pairs of IR pairs for the safe direction control of the robot. In Mines. The same methodoly has been adopted varios other EM wave sensors like RADAR etc for many robots.

Future Aspects
We can extend this project with wireless technology by IR (or) RF. This robot can be used for pick and place the required object by giving directions to the robot but IR pair should be replaced depending upon the application. By doing extra things, it can be used in Army application.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

The Obstacle Detector Robot was finally completed. A lot of effort was put into the design, implementation and days of toil in front of the computer, writing and debugging the code. The robot was finally running with a few glitches here and there which we resorted in the later revisions of the firmware. The line following robot still has a few shortcomings but achieves most of the objectives. We earned a lot of knowledge on micro-controllers, a deeper & clearer view of the architecture, ports & all other functional blocks was achieved. Did a lot of research on robotics and already have my next project planned. We had a peek look at all simple functional parts of the project like the crystal oscillator, logic gates and the works. Well, these were the to ATMEL that we have already dealt with, but We must be honest and admit that there were various practical issues which one would learn only during a project. Theres a lot of learning & yet not the end, learning is a continuous never ending process but is definitely fun.

3.6.2 CONCEPT OF H BRIDGE HARDWARE CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

What is H-Bridgse ?

An H bridge is an electronic circuit that enables a voltage to be applied across a load in either direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run forwards and backwards. The term H Bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit as shown in fig 2-4.

Several characteristics are important when selecting DC motors and these can be split into two specific categories. The first category is associated with the input ratings of the motor and specifies its electrical requirements, like operating voltage and current. The second category is related to the motor's output characteristics and specifies the physical limitations of the motor in terms of speed, torque and power. Example specifications of the motors used are given below:

A 1 0 0 1

B 0 1 1 0

C 0 1 0 1

D 1 0 1 0

ACTION CLOCKWISE COUNTER CLOCKWISE BRAKE ANY OTHER STATE FORBIDDEN

Appendix I : Code for the Obstacle Detector Robot

#include<reg51.h> sbit m0=P2^0; sbit m1 =P2^1 ; sbit m2 =P2^2 ; sbit m3 =P2^3 sbit s1 =P1^0; sbit s2 =P1^1; void main() { while(1) { while(s1==1&&s2==1) { m0=1; m2=1; } while(s1==1&&s2==0) { m0=0; m1=0; m2=1; } while(s1==0&&s2==1) { m0=1; m1=0; //left m3=0; //rite m1=0; m3=0; ;

m2=0; m3=0} while(s1==0&&s2==0) { m0=0; m1=0; m2=0; m3=0; } } }

Appendix II Softwares required for the coding

Topview Simulator Topview Simulator gives an excellent simulation environment for the industry's most popular 8 bit Microcontroller family, MCS 51. It gives required facilities to enable the system designers to start projects right from the scratch and finish them with ease and confidence.

It is the total simulation solution giving many state of art features meeting the needs of the designers possessing different levels of expertise. If you are a beginner, then you can learn about 8051 based embedded solutions without any hardware. If you are an experienced designer, you may find most of the required facilities built in the simulator that enabling you to complete your next project without waiting for the target hardware. Its various features can studied in detail from the reference.[12]

ISIS Schematic Capture or Proteus ISIS lies at the heart of the Proteus system, and is far more than just another schematics package. It combines a powerful design environment with the ability to define most aspects of the drawing appearance. Whether your requirement is the rapid entry of complex designs for simulation and PCB layout, or the creation of attractive schematics for publication, ISIS is the tool for the job.[13] Basic knowledge of programming in C/C++ is a must for carrying out and understanding the coding involved. We used the KEIL C microcontroller compiler for Embedded C For acquitting more on that we can have look on the references.[14][15]

REFERENCES 1. www.keil.com/dd/docs/datashts/atmel/at89c51_ds.pdf 2. http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IITKANPUR/microcontrollers/micro/ui/Course_home2_7.html 3. http://www.mikroe.com/chapters/view/64/chapter-1-introduction-tomicrocontrollers/ 4. http://www.engineersgarage.com/electronic-components/16x2-lcd-moduledatasheet 5. http://www.nxp.com/documents/application_note/APPCHP3.pdf 6. http://www.trossenrobotics.com/c/robot-IR-sensors.aspx 7. http://www.8051projects.net/news-i161-gsm-controlled-robot-projectreport.html 8. http://www.engineersgarage.com/microcontroller/8051projects/steppermotor-interfacing-with-8051-microcontroller-circuit 9. http://www.engineersgarage.com/microcontroller/8051projects/alphabetic -keypad-AT89C51-circuit 10. http://wwwrobotics.jpl.nasa.gov/publications/Charles_Bergh/MATTHIES_03_isrr.pdf 11. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=614366 12. http://www.frontline-electronics.com/html/simulator8031.html 13. http://www.labcenter.com/products/pcb/schematic_intro.cfm 14. http://www.8051projects.net/keil-c-programming-tutorial/ 15. Programming Embedded Systems using C Author(s) Mikael J. Pont Publisher: Addison-Wesley Professional (May 4, 2002), eBook (2006) 16. www.youtube.com 17. www.google.co.in 18. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

The Explanation is simple, If A & D are turned on, then the current flows in the direction shown in the figure below.

If B & C are turned on, then the motor rotates in counter clockwise direction

If we turn on the two upper circuits, the motor resists turning, and we have a effectively breaking mechanism. The same is true if you turn on both of the lower circuits.