A non-turbulent, perfect, compressible, and barotropic fluid undergoing steady motion is governed by the Bernoulli Equation:

where g is the gravity acceleration constant (9.81 m/s2; 32.2 ft/s2), V is the velocity of the fluid, and z is the height above an arbitrary datum. C remains constant along any streamline in the flow, but varies from streamline to streamline. If the flow is irrotational, then C has the same value for all streamlines. The function is the "pressure per density" in the fluid, and follows from the barotropic equation of state, p = p(). For an incompressible fluid, the function Bernoulli Equation becomes: simplifies to p/, and the incompressible

Bernoulli Equation A non-turbulent, perfect, compressible, and barotropic fluid undergoing steady motion is governed by the Bernoulli Equation:

where g is the gravity acceleration constant (9.81 m/s2; 32.2 ft/s2), V is the velocity of the fluid, and z is the height above an arbitrary datum. C remains constant along any streamline in the flow, but varies from streamline to streamline. If the flow is irrotational, then C has the same value for all streamlines. The function is the "pressure per density" in the fluid, and follows from the barotropic equation of state, p = p(). For an incompressible fluid, the function Bernoulli Equation becomes: simplifies to p/, and the incompressible

Derivation from Navier-Stokes The Navier-Stokes equation for a perfect fluid reduce to the Euler Equation:

Rearranging, and assuming that the body force b is due to gravity only, we can eventually integrate over space to remove any vector derivatives,

If the fluid motion is also steady (implying that all derivatives with respect to time are zero), then we arrive at the Bernoulli equation after dividing out by the gravity constant (and absorbing it into the constant C),

Note that the fluid's barotropic nature allowed the following chain rule application,

with the "pressure per density" function

defined as,

Fluids at Rest A barotropic, compressible fluid at rest is governed by the statics equation,

where z is the height above an arbitrary datum, and g is the gravity acceleration constant (9.81 m/s2; 32.2 ft/s2). This equation describes the pressure profile of the atmosphere, for example. For an incompressible fluid, the statics equation simplifies to,

This equation describes the pressure profile in a body of water, or in a manometer. If the fluid is compressible but barotropic, then the density and the pressure can be integrated into the "pressure per density" function , giving the following alternate form for the compressible fluid statics equation,

Note that the equation at the top of the page can still be applied though, as it makes no assumption on the fluid's equation of state. Derivation from Navier-Stokes The Navier-Stokes equation for a fluid at rest reduce to,

Rearranging, and assuming that the body force b is due to gravity only, we can integrate over space to remove any vector derivatives,

For the barotropic fluid case, the derivation can be repeated in a fashion similar to that of Bernoulli,

Overview Flow measurement is essential in many industries such as the oil, power, chemical, food, water, and waste treatment industries. These industries require the determination of the quantity of a fluid, either gas, liquid, or steam, that passes through a check point, either a closed conduit or an open channel, in their daily processing or operating. The quantity to be determined may be volume flow rate, mass flow rate, flow velocity, or other quantities related to the previous three. The instrument to conduct flow measurement is called flowmeter. The development of a flowmeter involves a wide variety of disciplines including the flow sensors, the sensor and fluid interactions through the use of computation techniques, the transducers and their associated signal processing units, and the assessment of the overall system under ideal, disturbed, harsh, or potentially explosive conditions in both the laboratory and the field. Categorization Since flowmeters are integrated instruments that measure different flow quantities by different technologies. Many characteristics can be referred in categorizing flowmeters. Some of the references are listed below: Technology Employed Instrumentation Configuration Physical Quantity Measured Flow Quantity Converted

Common flowmeters that are discussed in this flowmeter section include: Flowmeter 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Coriolis Differential Pressure Elbow Flow Nozzle Orifice Pitot Tube Pitot Tube (Averaging) Venturi Wedge

Magnetic Positive Displacement Nutating Disc Oscillating Piston Oval Gear Roots Target Thermal Turbine Ultrasonic Doppler Transit Time Variable Area Movable Vane Rotameter Weir, Flume Vortex Top of Page

Installation Flowmeters need to be integrated into existing/planning piping system to be useful. There are two types of flowmeter installation methods: inline and insertion. The inline models include connectors to the upstream and downstream pipes while the insertion models insert the sensor probe into the pipes. Most flowmeters need to be installed at a point where the pipes on both sides remain straight for a certain distance. For inline models, the inner diameter of the pipes have to be the same as the flowmeter's line size. Between the flowmeter and the pipes, there are

two types of mostly used connecting methods: flanged and wafer.

Among different types of connection methods, insertion design is more flexible and more economical in larger line sizes while inline design is more confined and usually easier to calibrate. The wafer connection is usually less expansive than flanged connection. However, it may require extra parts to allow the threading with pipes at both ends. Top of Page Selection To select a flowmeter that suits one's application, many factors need to be considered. The most important ones are fluid phase (gas, liquid, steam, etc.) and flow condition (clean, dirty, viscous , abrasive, open channel, ect.) The matching of fluid phase and flowmeter technology can be found in the flowmeter selection page. The second most important factors are line size and flow rate (They are closely related). This information will further eliminate most submodels in each flowmeter technology. Other fluid properties that may affect the selection of flowmeters include density (specific gravity), pressure, temperature, viscosity, and electronic conductivity. On the flow part, one needs to pay attention to the state of fluid (pure or mixed) and the status of flow (constant, pulsating, or variable). Moreover, the environment temperature, the arrangements (e.g., corrosive, explosive,

indoor, outdoor), the installation method (insertion, clamped-on, or inline), and the location of the flowmeter also need to be considered, along with other factors which include the maximum allowable pressure drop, the required accuracy, repeatability, and cost (initial set up, maintenance, and training). Top of Page Manometer Pressure Manometers measure a pressure difference by balancing the weight of a fluid column between the two pressures of interest. Large pressure differences are measured with heavy fluids, such as mercury (e.g. 760 mm Hg = 1 atmosphere). Small pressure differences, such as those experienced in experimental wind tunnels or venturi flowmeters, are measured by lighter fluids such as water (27.7 inch H2O = 1 psi; 1 cm H2O = 98.1 Pa). To calculate the pressure indicated by the manometer, enter the data below. (The default calculation is for a water manometer with a 10 cm fluid column, with the answer rounded to 3 significant figures.):

Inputs Height of fluid column, h: Fluid density, : Answers Manometer Pressure, p: 981 Pa
10 1

Equations used in the Calculation The pressure difference between the bottom and top of an incompressible fluid column is given by the incompressible fluid statics equation,

where g is the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2). Exit Spout Velocity Calculator Hydrostatic pressure will impart a velocity to an exiting fluid jet. The velocity and flowrate of the jet depend on the depth of the fluid. To calculate the jet velocity and flowrate, enter the parameters below. (The default calculation is for a small tank containing water 20 cm deep, with answers rounded to 3 significant figures. Any interaction of the fluid jet with air is ignored.)

Inputs Depth of spout, z: Fluid density, : Spout exit diameter, D: Discharge Coefficient, C: Answers Exit Velocity, V: 1.98 m/s Volume Flowrate: 0.152 l/s Mass Flowrate: 0.152 kg/s Select desired output units for next calculation.
20 1 1 0.98

Equations used in the Calculation For low-viscosity incompressible fluids such as water, the incompressible Bernoulli equation describes the flow. Applying this equation to a "streamline" that starts at the top free surface and exits out the spout yields,

Note that the exiting fluid jet experiences the same pressure as the free surface (patm). Solving for the fluid jet velocity gives,

The non-zero viscosity of fluids will rob the flow of mechanical energy (converting it into heat within boundary layers hugging the spout walls), hence the fluid jet beyond the spout exit will have a slightly smaller diameter than that of the spout. This factor can be accounted for by a discharge coefficient C, whose value is typically between 0.90 and 0.98. The volumetric flowrate Q results from multiplying the jet velocity times the crosssectional area,

Introduction A fluid passing though an orifice constriction will experience a drop in pressure across the orifice. This change can be used to measure the flowrate of the fluid. To calculate the flowrate of a fluid passing through an orifice plate, enter the parameters below. (The default calculation involves air passing through a medium-sized orifice in a 4" pipe, with answers rounded to 3 significant figures.)

Inputs Pipe (inlet) diameter upstream of orifice, Di: Orifice diameter (less than the inlet diameter), Do: Pressure difference across the orifice, p: Fluid density, : Flow Coefficient, Cf: Answers Velocity at the inlet, Vi: 1.76 m/s Volumetric Flowrate, Q: 13.9 l/s Mass Flowrate: 0.0179 kg/s Equations used in this Calculator As long as the fluid speed is sufficiently subsonic (V < mach 0.3), the incompressible Bernoulli's equation describes the flow reasonably well. Applying this equation to a streamline traveling down the axis of the horizontal tube gives, Select desired output units for next calculation.
10 8 10 1.29 0.7

where location 1 is upstream of the orifice, and location 2 is slightly behind the orifice. It is recommended that location 1 be positioned one pipe diameter upstream of the orifice, and location 2 be positioned one-half pipe diameter downstream of the orifice. Since the pressure at 1 will be higher than the pressure at 2 (for flow moving from 1 to 2), the pressure difference as defined will be a positive quantity.

From continuity, the velocities can be replaced by cross-sectional areas of the flow and the volumetric flowrate Q,

Solving for the volumetric flowrate Q gives,

The above equation applies only to perfectly laminar, inviscid flows. For real flows (such as water or air), viscosity and turbulence are present and act to convert kinetic flow energy into heat. To account for this effect, a discharge coefficient Cd is introduced into the above equation to marginally reduce the flowrate Q,

Since the actual flow profile at location 2 downstream of the orifice is quite complex, thereby making the effective value of A2 uncertain, the following substitution introducing a flow coefficient Cf is made,

where Ao is the area of the orifice. As a result, the volumetric flowrate Q for real flows is given by the equation,

The flow coefficient Cf is found from experiments and is tabulated in reference books; it ranges from 0.6 to 0.9 for most orifices. Since it depends on the orifice and pipe diameters (as well as the Reynolds Number), one will often find Cf tabulated versus the

ratio of orifice diameter to inlet diameter, sometimes defined as ,

The mass flowrate can be found by multiplying Q with the fluid density,