Work Power Energy

WORK, ENERGY,
POWER & MOMENTUM

WORK
Work is said to be done by a force when the point of application of the force is displaced in the direction of the
force. Work is a scalar quantity and is measured by the product of the magnitude of the force and the
component of displacement along the direction of the applied force.
Force
Constant
Variable
WORK DONE BY A CONSTANT FORCE
If the direction and magnitude of a force applying on a body is constant, the force is said to be constant. Work
done by a constant force,
W =Force component of displacement along force =displacement component of force along displacement.
If a force
F is acting on a body at an angle u to the horizontal and the displacement
r is along the horizontal,

the work done will, be W =(F cos u) r
=F (r cos u)
u
Fcosu
F
r
In vector from, W =

r . F
If
z y x
F k
F j
F i
F + + =
and
z k
y j
x i
r + + =
, the work done will be, W =F

x
x +F
y
y +F
z
z
Note :
The force of gravity is the example of constant force, hence work done by it is the example of work done by a
constant force.
WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE
The equation W F.S FScos = = u

is valid when F remains constant but when the force is variable, total
work done is obtained by integration method using W dW F.dS. = =
} }

1
2
Physics : Work, Energy, Power and Momentum
(A) WHEN THE FORCE IS SOME FUNCTION OF POSITION
Let a force F F(x) = act along the x-axis as shown in the Fx graph in the figure.
Work done during small displacement dx is F dx which is equal to the area of the shaded rectangular
strip.
Hence the total work done is
B
A
F Fdx = =
}
Area under the F x graph.
F(x)
dx A B
x
An example of the variable force is the spring force in which the force F is
proportional to the extension x, given by F = kx, where k =force constant
and negative sign indicates opposite direction of spring force F and extensionx.
Work done by spring =
f
1
x
2 2
f i
x
1
F.dx kx dx k(x x )
2
= =
} }

.
If spring be initially relaxed, then work done by the spring (or, work done against the external agent) for
an extension x is obtained by putting
i
x 0 = and
f
x x = leading to
2
1
W kx
2
= .
Note that the work done by the spring is negative where as the work done by the external agent
producing the extension is positive. The two, however, are equal in quantity.
(B) WHEN THE FORCE IS TIME DEPENDENT:
Let F F(t) = , then
dx
W F.dx F. dt F.vdt
dt
| |
= = =
|
|
\ .
} } }

,
where F
and v
are time dependent instantaneous force and velocity vectors expressed as functions of
time.
CALCULATION OF WORK DONE FROM FORCE DISPLACEMENT GRAPH
Suppose a body, whose initial position is r
1
, is acted upon by a variable force
F
and consequently the body
acquires its final position r
2
. From position r to r +dr or for small displacement dr, the work done will be Fdr
whose value will be the area of the shaded strip of width dr.
The work done on the body in displacing it from position r
1
to r
2
will be equal to the sum of areas of all the such
strips
Thus, total work done, W =
dW
2
1
r
r
dr
P
1
M
O
F
P
2
N
r
2
r
1
=
dr . F
2
1
r
r
=Area of P
1
P
2
NM
The area between the graph between force and displacement axis is equal to the work done.
3
Note :
To calculate the work done by graphical method, for the sake of simplicity, here we have assumed the direction
of force and displacement as same, but if they are not in same direction, the graph must be plotted between
F cos u and r.
(i) Work is a scalar quantity
(ii) The dimensions of work : ML
2
T
2
(iii) Unit of work : there are two types of unit of work
(a) Absolute unit : J oule (in M.K.S), Erg (in C.G.S.) (Note : 10
7
erg =1 joule)
(b) Gravitational unit : Kilogram - metre (in M.K.S), Gram-cm (in C.G.S)
(Note : 1 kilogram metre =9.8 joule =10
5
gram cm)
NATURE OF WORK DONE
Although work done is a scalar quant ity, yet its value may be posit ive, negat ive or even zero
(a) Positive work : As W = u =

cos r F r . F
When is acute (<90) cos is positive. Hence work done is positive.
Examples :
When a body falls freely under the action of gravity u =0, cos u =+1, therefore work done by gravity
on a body, falling freely is positive.
(b) Negative work : When is obtuse (>90), cos is negati ve. Hence work done is negative
Examples :
(i) When a body is thrown up, its motion is opposed by gravity. The angle u between the gravitational
force
F and displacement
r is 180. As cos u = 1, therefore, work done by gravity is negative.

(ii) When a body is moved over a rough horizontal surface, the motion is opposed by the force of
friction.
Hence work done by frictional force is negative. Note that work done by the appl ied force is
not negative
(iii) When a positive charge is moved closer to another positive charge, work done by electrostatic
force of repulsion between the charges is negative.
(c) Zero work : When force
F
or the displacement
r
or both are zero, work done W, will be
zero. Again when angle between
F
and
r is 90, the work done wi ll be zero.

Examples :
(i) When we fail to move a heavy stone, however hard we may try, work done by us is zero,
0 r =
(ii) When a collie carrying some load on his head moves on horizontal platform, u =90. Therefore,
workdone by the collie is zero. This is because u =90
(iii) Tension in the string of simple pendulum is always perpendicular to displacement of the bob.
Therefore, work done by tension is always zero.
4
Note :
Anot her way of expressing negat ive or positive work is that when energy is transferred to the
object work done is positive and when energy is transferred from the object the work done is
negative and hence the work whi ch is a transfer of energy has same dimensions as energy.
WORK DEPENDS ON THE REFERENCE FRAME
Consider a situation in which a person pushes a block inside a moving train through a distance S. The work
done on the block in the trains frame will be F.S

. The work done on the block in the ground frame
will be
0
F.(S S ) +

, where
0
S
is the displacement of the train relative to the ground.

In mechanics, we encounter two types of forces : conservative and non-conservative force.
CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
Conservative Force:
A force is said to be conservative if the work by the force in moving a mass through any closed path is zero.
Alternative, if the net work done by the force in moving a mass between two points is path independent
i.e., the work done depends only on the location of two points and not on the path followed, the force
may be termed conservative.Conservative forces are non-dissipative and can store work (as energy)
Examples
Gravitational Force, electrostatic force, ideal spring force are examples of conservative forces.Associated
with each conservative force there exists a well defined function known as the potential energy function.
In these three cases, we refer to the respective energies as gravitational potential energy, electrostatic
potential energy and strain energy.
Non-conservative Force
The forces which do not fulfill the above mentioned conditions are non-conservative. For these the energy isnot
stored but dissipated during displacement.
Examples of non-conservative forces are friction, viscous forces etc.
EXAMPLE BASED ON WORK
Example 1. A position dependent force
2
x 3 x 2 7 F + =
acts on a small body of mass 2kg and displaces

it from x =0 to x =5 m. The work done in joule will be
Solution :
2
1
X 5
2
X 0
W Fdx (7 2x 3x )dx = = +
} }
5
2 3
0
2x 3x
7x 135J
2 3
(
= + =
(

Example 2. For the force displacement diagram shown in adjoining diagram the work done by the force in
displacing the body from x =1 cm to x =5 cm is -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
20
10
0
-10
-20
F
(In dyne)
x-(cm)
Solution : Work =Area under the curve and displacement axis =10 +20 20 +10 =20 erg.
5
Example 3. A uniform chain of mass M and length L is lying on a frictionless table in such a way that its 1/
3 part is hanging vertically down. The work done in pulling the chain up the table is
Solution : If length x of the chain is pulled up on the table, then the length of hanging part of the chain
would be
|
.
|
\
|
x
3
L
and its weight would be
. g x
3
L
L
M
|
.
|
\
|

If it is pulled up further by a distance
dx, the work done in pulling up.
j
dx g x
3
L
L
M
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
= |
.
|
\
|
=
3 / L
0
18
MgL
dx g x
3
L
L
M
w
Example 4. The work done in pulling a body of mass 5 kg along an inclined plane (angle 60) with coefficient
of friction 0.2 through 2m, will be
Solution : The minimum force with a body is to be pulled up along the inclined plane is mg (sinu +cosu)
Work done, d . F W

=
=Fd cos 0
=mg (sinu + cosu ) d
=5 9.8 (sin 60 +0.2 cos 60) 2
=98.08 J
Example 5. A particle moves from a point
1

r (5m)i (5m)j = +
to another point
2

r (6m)i (4m)j = +
during
which a certain force

F (5N)i (5N)j = +
acts on it. Find the work done by the force on the

particle during the displacement.
Solution : Displacement vector

2 1
S r r =

=( )

i j m .
Work done =F.S

(5i 5j).(i j ) = +
=(5 5) = 0.
ENERGY
The energy of a body is defined as the capacity of doing work.
There are various form of energy
(i) mechanical energy (ii) chemical energy
(iii) electrical energy (iv) magnetic energy
(v) nuclear energy (vi) sound energy
(vii) light energy etc
Energy of system always remain constant it can neither be created nor it can be destroyed, however, it may
be converted from one form to another Exampl e
6
Electrical energy

Motor
Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy

Generator
Electrical energy
Light energy

Photocell
Electrical energy
Electrical energy
Heater
Heat energy
Electrical energy
Radio
Sound energy
Nuclear energy

actor Re Nuclear
Electrical energy
Chemical energy

Cell
Electrical energy
Electrical energy

Cell Secondary
Chemical energy
Heat energy

lamp nt Incendence
Light energy
Energy is a scalar quantity
Unit : Its unit is same as that of work .
In MKS : J oule, watt sec
In CGS : Erg
Note :
1 eV =1.6 10
19
joule
1 KWh =36 10
5
joule
10
7
erg =1 joule
Dimension [M
1
L
2
T
2
]
According to Einsteins mass energy equivalence principle mass and energy are inter convertible i.e. they can
be changed into each other
Energy equivalent of mass m is, E =mc
2
Where, m : mass of the particle
c : velocity of light
E : equivalent energy corresponding to mass m.
In mechanics we are concerned with mechanical energy only which is of two type
(a) kinetic energy; (b) potential energy
KINETIC ENERGY
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy
If a body of mass m is moving with velocity v, its kinetic energy
7
KE =
2
1
mv
2
, for translatory motion
KE =
2
1
Ie
2
, for rotational motion
Kinetic energy is always positive
If linear momentum of body is p, KE =
2
2
mv
2
1
m 2
p
= - for translatory motion
If angular momentum of body is J , KE =
2
2
2
1
2
J
e = I
I
- for rotational motion
p or J E o p : momentum
P
E
1/P
E
The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by the amount of work which has been done in bringing the
body from the rest position to its present moving position or
The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by the amount of work which the body can do against the
external forces before it comes to rest.
If a body performs translatory and rotational motion simultaneously, its total kinetic energy =
2 2
2
1
mv
2
1
e + I
WORK ENERGY THEOREM
For translatory mot ion : Work done by all the external forces acting on a body is equal to change in its
kinetic energy of translation.
Work done by all the external forces =change in K.E of translation =
2 2
2 1
1 1
mv mv
2 2
For rotat ional motion : Work done by all the external torque acting on a rigid body is equal to change in its
rotational kinetic energy. Work done by all the external torque =
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
e e I I
Note :
In simple words AK =K
f
K
i
=W in the work energy theorem ?
POTENTIAL ENERGY
The energy which a body has by virtue of its position or configuration in a conservative force field
Potential energy is a relative quantity.
Potential energy is defined only for conservative force field.
Potential energy of a body at any position in a conservative force field is defined as the work done by an
external agent against the action of conservative force in order to shift it from reference point.
(PE =0) to the present position or.
8
Potential energy of a body in a conservative force field is equal to the work done by the body in moving from its
present position to reference position.
Relationship between conservative force field and potential energy (U)F
= U grad (U) V =
= k
z
U
j
y
U
i
x
U
c
c
c
c
c
c
Example 6. (i) U =3x
2

i
x 6 F =
(ii) U =2x
2
y +3y
2
x +xz
2

) xz 2 ( ) xy 6 x 2 ( ) z y 3 xy 4 ( F
2 2 2
+ + + + + =
If force varies only with one dimension, then F =

dx
dU
or
2
1
u
u
d
}
Fdx U
2
1
x
x
}
=
Potential energy may be positive or negative
(i) Potential energy is positive, if force field is repulsive in nature
(ii) Potential energy is negative, if force field is attractive in nature
Attraction forces
Repulsion forces
r
U-ve
U+ve
If r | (separation between body and force centre), U |, force field is
attractive or vice-versa.
If r |, U +, force field is repulsive in nature.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FORCES AND CORRESPONDING P.E
(a) Gravitati onal potenti al energy :
For small distances above or below the earth surface :
Reference point =Earth surface i.e. P.E
surface
=0
P.E above the earth surface is positive and below the earth surface is negative and in magnitude it is
equal to mgh.
For greater dist ance :
Reference point = i.e. P.E
=0
P.E. =
r
GMm
, for r >R
Where R =radius of earth,
r =distance of body from the centre of earth,
m =mass of body,
M =mass of earth
Electrostat ic potential energy :
=0
P.E. =
r
Q KQ
2 1
, [value of Q
1
and Q
2
are substituted with sign.]
Intermolecular potent ial energy :
=0
U (r) =
6 12
r
b
r
a
, F = |
|
.
|
\
|
= 1
r
b / a 2
r
b 6
dr
dU
6 7
Elastic potent ial energy :
9
Which is associated with the state of compression of extension of an elastic object U (x) =
2
1
kx
2
where
k =spring constant, x =change in dimensions
POTENTIAL ENERGY CURVE
A graph plotted between the PE of a particle and its displacement from the centre of force field is called PE
curve.
Using graph, we can predict the rate of motion of a particle at various positions.
Force on the particle is F
(x)
=
dU
dx
Case : I On increasing x, if U increase, force is in ()ve x-direction i.e. attraction force.
Case : II On increasing x, if U decreases, force is in (+)ve x-direction i.e. repulsion force.
Diff erent posi tions of a particle
Position of equi libri um
If net force acting on a body is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium
dU
dx
=0 Points P, Q, R and S are the states
of equilibrium positions.
TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Stable equili brium - When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and a force acting on it brings it
back to the initial position, it is said to be in stable equilibriums position.
Necessary conditions -
dU
dx
=0,
ve
dx
U d
2
2
+ =
Unstable equil ibrium : When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and force acting on it tries
to displace the practice further away from the equilibrium position, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
Condition :
dx
dU
= 0 potential energy is max i.e. =
ve
dx
U d
2
2
=
Neut ral equili brium : In the neutral equilibrium when a particle is displaced from its position it does
not experiences any force to acting on it and continues to be in equilibrium in the displaced position, it
is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
EXAMPLE BASED ON ENERGY
Example 7. A meter scale of mass m initially vertical is dispalced at 45 keeping the upper end fixed, the
change in PE will be-
Solution : Work =change in PE =Force displacement
dU = ) cos 1 (
2
mg u
45
/2 G'
G
=mg ) 45 cos 1 (
2
1
( =1m) =
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
1
2
mg
10
Example 8. If the potential energy function for a particle is U =a
2
x
c
x
b
+
; The force constant for
oscillation will be.
Solution : U =a
2
x
c
x
b
+
.........(1)
2 3
dU b 2c
dx x x
=
.........(2)
and
2
2 3
d U 1 6c
2b
x dx x
| |
= +
|
\ .
.........(3)
` for equilibrium
0
dx
dU
=
x =
b
c 2
Substituting this value in (3)
3
2
2
c 2
b
dx
U d
|
.
|
\
|
=
3
4
c 8
b
b / c 2
c 6
b 2 =
(
+
as
K
dx
U d
2
2
=
K =b
4
/8c
3
Example 9 On passing through a wooden sheet a bullet looses 1/20 of initial velocity. The minimum
number of sheets required to completely stop the bullet will be-
Solution : Use v
2
=u
2
+2as
for a sheet of thickness s v =(19/20)u
2
19
u u 2as
20
| |
= +
|
\ .
2as =(361/400)u
2
u
2
a =
s 2
u
400
39
2
|
.
|
\
|
suppose for n sheet v =0 0
2
=u
2
+2a (ns)
n =
as 2
u
2
=
11
s
s 2
u
400
39
2
u
2
2
~
|
.
|
\
|
Example 10. The work done in taking out 2 litre of water using a bucket of mass 0.5 kg from a well of depth
6m will be-
Solution : W =mgh
=(m
bucket
+m
water
)gh [2 Lit water =2 kg water]
=(0.5 +2.00) 9.8 6 =15 9.8 =147 J
Example 11. A body has velocity 200 m/s and its kinetic energy is 200 J . The mass of the body would be
Solution : E mv
2
1
2
=
or
2 2
) 200 (
200 2
v
E 2
m

= |
.
|
\
|
=
2
4
4 10 1
100 4 10
= =
m =0.01 kg
Example 12. A body of mass 8 kg moves under the influence of a force. The position of the body and time
are related as x =t
2
/2 where x is in meter and t in sec. The work done by the force in first two
11
seconds.
Solution : Work done =change in kinetic energy
or
2 2
2
2
t 2
m
2
1
dt
dx
m
2
1
mv
2
1
|
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
=
J oules 16
2
2 2
8
2
1
2
=
(

=
Example 13. A body falls on the surface of the earth from a height of 20 cm. If after colliding with the earth,
its mechanical energy is lost by 75%, then body would reach upto a height of
Solution : ' mgh mgh
4
1
=
cm 5 20
4
1
4
h
' h = = =
Example 14. Potential energy function describing the interaction between two atoms of a diatomic molecule
is
6 12
x
b
x
a
) x ( U = . In stable equilibrium, the distance between them would be
Solution : In stable equilibrium potential energy is minimum. For minimum value of U(x)
0 )] x ( U [
dx
d
=
or
0
x
b
x
a
dx
d
6 12
= |
.
|
\
|

or
0
x
b 6
x
a 12
7 13
= +
or
0 ) bx a 2 (
x
6
6
13
= +
or bx
6
2a =0
6 / 1
b
a 2
x |
.
|
\
|
=
Example 15. Two electrons are at a distance of 1 10
12
m from each other. Potential energy (in eV) of this
system would be
Solution : Potential energy of the system
r
q Kq
U
2 1
=
12
19 19 9
10 1
10 6 . 1 10 6 . 1 10 9

=
=23.04 10
17
J oule
eV 10 44 . 1 eV
10 6 . 1
10 04 . 23
3
19
17
=
Example 16. The stopping distance for a vehicle of mass M moving with speed v along level road, will be
( is the coefficient of friction between tyres and the road)
Solution : When the vehicle of mass m is moving with velocity v, the kinetic energy of the where K =1/2
mv
2
and if S is the stopping distance, work done by the firction
W =FS cos u =m MgS cos 180 = m MgS
So by Work-Energy theorem, W =AK =K
f
k
i
MgS =0 1/2 Mv
2
12
S =
g 2
v
2
Example 17. A particle of mass m is moving in a horizontal circle of radius r, under a centripetal force equal
to (k/r
2
), where k is constant. The total energy of the particle is
Solution : As the particle is moving in a circle, so
2
2
r
k
r
mv
= Now K.E =
2
1
mv
2
=
r 2
k
Now as
dr
dU
F = P.E,
}
=
r
dr F U

dr
r
k
r
2 }
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

r
k
=
So total energy =U +K.E.

r 2
k
r
k
+ =
r 2
k
=
Negative energy means that particle is in bound state.
Example 18. The work done by a person in carrying a box of mass 10 kg. through a vertical height of 10 m
is 4900J . The mass of the person is
Solution : Let the mass of the person is m .
Work done, W =P.E at height h above the earth surface.
=(M +m) gh
or 4900 =(M +10) 9.8 x 10
or M =40 kg
Example 19. A uniform rod of length 4m and mass 20kg is lying horizontal on the ground. The work done in
keeping it vertical with one of its ends touching the ground, will be -
Solution : As the rod is kept in vertical position the shift in the centre of gravity is equal to the half the
length = /2
Work done w =mgh =mg
2
=20 x 9.8 x
2
4
=392 J
Example 20. A man throws the bricks to the height of 12 m where they reach with a speed of 12 m/sec. If
he throws the bricks such that they just reach this height, what percentage of energy will he
save.
Solution : In first case, W
1
=
2
1
m(v
1
)
2
+mgh
2
1
= m(12)
2
+m 10 12
=72 m +120 m
13
and in second case, W
2
=mgh
=120 m
The percentage of energy saved
% 38 100
m 192
m 120 m 192
=
=
POWER
(a) The time rate of doing work is called power
(b) Power =
= =

dw dx
F. F.v
dt dt
In translatory motion :

= v . F P
In rotational motion :

e t = . P
(c) It is scalar quantity
(d) Unit :
In MKS - J /sec, watt
In CGS - erg/sec, (Note : 1KW =10
3
watt, 1 HP =746 watt)
(e) Dimension : [M
1
L
2
T
3
]
Note : Power is the rate at which applied force transfers energy
(a) Power
w
P
t
A
=
A
where w A work is done in At time
(b) Instantaneous power P =
dt
dw
.
EXAMPLE BASED ON POWER
Example 21. A pump can lift 9000 kg coal per hour from a mine of depth 120 m. Assuming its efficiency is
75%, its power will be (in watts) -
Solution : Power =
time
work
Effeiciency of pump =
power input
power ouput
;
4
3
=
P
power output
Output power =
4
P 3
P
4
3
=
t
mgh
P =
3
4

t
mgh
=
3600
120 8 . 9 9000
3
4
=3920 W
14
Example 22. A person of mass 60 kg is capable of taking a 15 kg massive objets to a height of 10 m in 3
min. The efficiency of person is -
Solution : % Efficiency
100
input work
output work
= q
=
100
gh ) M m (
mgh
+
=
100
M m
m
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
100
60 15
15
|
.
|
\
|
+
=20%
Example 23. An automobile of mass m accelerates from rest. If the engine supplies constant power p, the
velocity at time t is given by
Solution : Given that power =Fv =p =constant
or
p v
dt
dv
m =
[as F =ma =
dt
mdv
]
or dt
m
p
dv v
} }
=

1
2
C t
m
p
2
v
+ =
Now as initially, the body is at rest i.e. v =0 at t =0 so, C
1
=0
m
pt 2
v =
Example 24. In the above problem, the position (s) at time (t) is given by
Solution : By definition
dt
ds
v =
or
2 / 1
m
pt 2
dt
ds
|
.
|
\
|
=
[From (1)]
dt
m
pt 2
ds
2 / 1
} }
|
.
|
\
|
=

1/ 2
3/2
2
2p 2
s t C
m 3
| |
= +
|
\ .
Now as t =0, s =0, so C
2
=0
2 / 3
2 / 1
t
m 9
p 8
s |
.
|
\
|
=
LINEAR MOMENTUM
The product of mass and velocity of the body is called the momentum

= v m P
Momentum is a vector quantity and its direction is always along the direction of velocity.
Unit : In MKS : kg-m/sec or N-sec
In C.G.S gm-cm/sec or Dyne-sec
Dimensions : [M
1
L
1
T
1
]
The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the magnitude of applied external force
=
dt
P d
F
ext
= for v << c
15
where c =speed of light but when speed v is very near to c then momentum is given by P =
2
c
v
1
mv
|
.
|
\
|
The momentum measure the motion of body

EXAMPLE BASED ON LINEAR MOMENTUM
Example 25. On increasing the momentum of a body by 100% the increase in its KE will be-
Solution : E =p
2
/2m
2
2 2
2
1 1
E p
E p
=
=
2
100
200
|
.
|
\
|
=4
3
1
1 4
E
E E
1
1 2
=
100
E
E E
1
1 2

=300%
Example 26. A jet of water whose cross-section is a, a wall making an angle u with normal and elastically
rebounds. The velocity of water of density d is v. Force exerted on the wall is
u
u
v
v
Solution : If m kg water strikes the wall in one sec. and rebounds
elastically, then the change of its momentum
=2mv cos u (perpendicular to wall) per sec.
But m =vad
Force =rate of change of momentum
=2av
2
d cos u
Example 27. Sand is falling on a conveyor belt at the rate of m kg per second. The force needed to maintain
its velocity v m/s is (in newton)
Solution : The change in momentum of the sand of mass m kg to gain a velocity v.
=mv per sec.
required force =mv
Example 28. In the above example,. what must be the velocity to have same kinetic energy (in m/s)
Solution : The kinetic energy of first truck =1/2 mv
2
and the kinetic energy of second J ruck =1/2 mv
2
Now
2 2
' v ' m
2
1
mv
2
1
=
5000
) 20 ( 000 , 10
' m
mv
' v
2 2
2
= =
v =20
2
m/s
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
According to this principle, when the value of external force acting on a particle or system is zero, its linear
momentum remains conserved. On the other hand in the absence of external force, the linear momentum of
a particle or system remains unchanged. This is known as law of conservation of linear momentum.
16
dt
P d
F
ext
=
If

ext
F =0
dt
P d
=0
P d =0
Change in momentum =0
Momentum =constant
If
1 2 3
p ,p ,p ,..................

, be the linear momentum of elements of a system, then
........ p p p
3 2 1
+ + +

=constant
Hence if the external force acting on a system is zero, the resultant momentum remains conserved.
The above equation is equivalent to three scalar equations.
p
1x
+p
2x
+p
3x
+...........+p
nx
=constant
p
1y
+p
2y
+p
3y
+...........+p
ny
=constant
p
1z
+p
2z
+p
3z
+...........+p
nz
=constant
On the other hand in the absence of external force, the components, of momentum in different direction
remains conserved or the momentum along X axis and Z axis remains conserved.
Note :
Depending upon forces acting on a system, linear momentum might be the conserved in one direction
(i.e. Px = 0) or two direction (i.e. Px = 0, Py = 0) or in all direction (i.e. Px = 0, Py = 0, Pz = 0). If a
component of the net external force on a cl osed system is zero along an axis, then the component
of the linear momentum of the system along that axis cannot change.
EXAMPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
When a bull et fired from the gun :
M Mass of gun with man
m mass of bullet
V velocity of gun (with respect to ground)
v velocity of bullet (with respect to ground)

The initial momentum of system =0
The final momentum =

+ V M v m
0 =

+ V M v m
V
=
v
M
m

m
V v
M
=

The direction
V
is opposite to that of
v
(i) When a bullet of mass m with velocity v pierces into a wooden block of mass M and gets embedded
in it:
The block is free to move on frictionless surface. Now both, the bullet & block have same velocity V,
then Momentum before collision =Momentum after collision
mv =(m +M) V
V =
M m
mv
+
17
Initial kinetic energy =
2
1
mv
2
=E
i
Final kinetic energy =
2
1

2 2
f
mv
E
m M
=
+
M
V
v
m
i f
i
f
E E 1
M m
m
E
E
< <
+
=
as some part of energy gets dissipated.
(ii) When the bullet of mass m comes out after penetrating the block of mass M :
In this case, mv =MV +mv
1
............(1)
Loss of energy =
2
1
mv
2
(
2
1
MV
2
+
2
1
mv
1
2
)
v
m
v
1
m
V
M
=(initial energy) (Final energy)
l When a bomb burst suddenly -
Let a bomb initially at rest, suddenly bursts into two pieces of masses m
1
and m
2
with velocity v
1
and v
2
respectively.
As there is no external force acting on it, therefore the linear momentum remains conserved.
0 =m
1
v
1
+m
2
v
2

2
2
2
1
m
m
v
v
=
Thus the velocities of pieces are inversely proportional to their initial masses.
Note : If the bomb initially is in motion, the initial momentum will not be zero.
l When a block of mass M is tied to a stri ng of length and a bul let of mass m strikes it wi th
velocity v and get s embedded in it :
According to conservation of linear momentum
mv =(m +M) V
h
V
m
V =
) M m (
mv
+
As bullet gets embedded in the block, so the collision is not elastic. There is loss of energy. Now if the
block rises to a height h, then
mgh =(1/2) (m +M)V
2
h =
mg 2
V ) M m (
2
+
EXAMPLE BASED ON LINEAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION
Example 29. A bullet of mass m moving horizontally with a velocity V strikes a block of mass M suspended
by a string of length L and gets embedded in it. After the collision the maximum angular
deviation of block from the vertical is -
Solution : From the conervation of momentum (m +M) v
1
=mv
v =
M m
mv
+
(velocity of combined system after impact)
u
1 from the conservation of energy
18
2
1
(M +m)u
2
=(M +m)gL (1 cosu) or [1 cosu] =
gL 2
1
2
M m
mv
|
.
|
\
|
+
or
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
= u

2
1
M m
mv
gL 2
1
1 cos
Example 30. A bullet moving with a speed of 400 m/s is stopped after penetrating into a bag of sand. Mass
of bullet and bag are 0.25 kg and 4.75 kg respectively. If the bag is free to move then its speed
would be
Solution : Momentum of a bullet
=0.25 400 =100 kg m/s
From momentum conservation law (0.25 +4.75)v =100 or s / m 20
5
100
v = =
Example 31. o-particle is emitted with a speed of 2.34 10
8
m/s from a stationary uranium nucleus, (U
238
).
The velocity of residual nucleus will be
Solution : From momentum conservation law
234 v =4 2.34 10
8
s / m 10 4
234
10 34 . 2 4
v
6
8
=

=
Example 32. A body of mass 2 kg moving with a speed of 40 m/s collides with another stationary body. After
collision both bodies move simultaneously with a speed of 25 m/s. The mass of the other body
is
m
1
u
1
+m
2
u
2
=m
1
v
1
+m
2
v
2
2 40 +m
2
0 =2 25 +m
2
25
m
2
=1.2 kg
COLLISION OF BODIES
The event or the process, in which two bodies either coming in contact with each other or due to mutual
interaction at distance apart, affect each others motion (velocity, momentum, energy or direction of motion) is
defined as a collision.
In collision -
(a) The particles come closer, before collision and after collision, they either stick together or move away
from each other.
(b) The particles need not come in contact with each other for a collision.
(c) The law of conservation of linear momentum is necessarily conserved in a collision, where as they the
law of conservation of mechanical energy may be conserved.
Note :
If
F is the average of the time varyfing force during collision and At is the duration of collision then
impulse J = t F A
.
19
On the basis of direction
One-dimensional collision
or
Head on collision
or
Direction collision
On the basis of conservation of kinetic energy
TYPES OF COLLISIONS
Two dimensional collision
or
Oblique collision
Elastic
collision
In-elastic-
collision
Perfectly inelastic
collsion
T he c o l l i s i o n, i n
which the particles move
along the same straight
line beforeand after the
collision, is defined as one
dimensional collision
The collision, in which
the particles move in the
same plane at different
angles before and after
collision, is defined
as oblique collision.
A collision is
s a i d t o b e
elastic, if the
total ki neti c
energy before
and after collision
remains the same
A colli si on is
s a i d t o b e
elastic, if the
total ki net i c
energy does not
remains constant
The coll i si on, i n
which particles gets
s t i ked t oget her
after the collision, is
cal l ed per f ectl y
inelastic collision.
In this type of inelastic
collision, lose of energy
i s ma x i mu m .
Note :
Linear momentum is essentially conserved in any collision.
NEWTONS LAW OF COLLISION
collision before velocity lative Re
collision after velocity lative Re
=e, where e =coefficient of restitution
Let u
1
and u
2
be the velocities of two bodies before collision and v
1
and v
2
that after the collision, then
1 2
1 2
u u
v v
= e
e =1, for elastic collision
e <1, for inelastic collision
e =0, for perfectly inelastic collision
Now we discuss the collision as follows
DIRECT ELASTIC COLLISION
m
1
A u
1
m
1
B u
2
F
A B
F m
1
A v
1
m
2
B v
2
Before collision During collision After collision
In this collision, both momentum and kinetic energy remains conserved. Thus for such collision
(p)
b.c.
=(p)
a.c
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
mu m u m v m v

+ = + [where, p stands for linear momentum b.c for before collision a.c for
after collision ]
and (K.E)
b.c
=(K.E)
a.c
[K.E for - kinetic energy]
20
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
v m
2
1
v m
2
1
u m
2
1
u m
2
1
+ = +
Newtons law for direct elastic collision:
v
2
v
1
= (u
2
u
1
)
Important formula and features for direct elastic collision :
(i) The velocity of first body after collision
2
2 1
2
1
2 1
2 1
1
u
m m
m 2
u
m m
m m
v
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
(ii) The velocity of second body after collision
2
2 1
1 2
1
2 1
1
2
u
m m
m m
u
m m
m 2
v
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
(iii) If the body with mass m
2
is initially at rest i.e u
2
=0
1
2 1
2 1
1
u
m m
m m
v
+
=
and
1
2 1
1 2
2m
v u
m m
=
+
When a particle of mass m
1
moving with velocity u
1
collides with another particle with m
2
at rest and if -
+ + +
(a) m
1
=m
2
(b) m
1
>>m
2
(c) m
1
<<m
2
In this case, In this case, In this case,
v
1
=0 and v
2
=u
1
v
1
=u
1
and v
2
=2u
1
v
1
= u
1
and v
2
=
0 u
m
m 2
1
2
1
~
When m
1
=m
2
=m but u
2
=
0, then v
1
=u
2
and v
2
=u
1
i.e. the particles mutually exchange their velocities.
Exchange of energy is maximum, when m
1
=m
2
. This fact is utilized in atomic reactor in slowing down the
neutrons. To slow down the neutrons, these are made to collide with nuclei of almost similar mass. For this
hydrogen nuclei are most appropriate .
Note :
To solve problems based on direct elastic collisions, the momentum conservation law and Newtons law of
collision are to be applied. In special circumstances law of conservation of kinetic energy should be applied.
DIRECT INELASTIC COLLISION
In this case, (p)
a.c
=(p)
b.c

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
mu m u m v m v

+ = +
,
(K.E)
b.c
= (K.E.)
a.c
(K.E)
b.c
+Q =(K.E.)
a.c
(where Q =heat energy, sound energy etc.)

2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
1 1 1 1
mu m u mv m v
2 2 2 2
+ = +
According to Newtons law, for inelastic collision we have, v
1
v
2
=e (u
1
u
2
)
In inelastic collision, velocity of first body after collision :
2
2 1
2
1
2 1
2 1
1
u
m m
) e 1 ( m
u
m m
em m
v
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
and velocity of second body, v
2
= 2
2 1
1 2
1
2 1
1
u
m m
em m
u
m m
) e 1 ( m
+
+
+
+
Loss of energy in inelastic collision :
2 2 1 2
k 1 2
mm 1
E (u u ) (1 e)
| |
A =
|
+
21
DIRECT, PERFECTLY INELASTIC COLLISION
m
1
A u
1
m
2
B u
2
Before collision

A B
After collision
V
In this type of collision,
(p)
b.c
=(p)
a.c.
V ) m m ( u m u m
2 1 2 2 1 1
+ = +

(K.E)
b.c.
= (K.E)
a.c.
(K.E)
b.c.
+Q =(K.E)
a.c
2
2 2
2
1 1
u m
2
1
u m
2
1
+ =
2
1 2
1
(m m )V Q
2
+ +
According to Newtons law for this collision : v
1
=v
2
(e =0)
Velocity after collision of the combined body : V =
2 1
2 2 1 1
m m
u m u m
+
+
Loss of energy :
2
2 1
2 1
2 1
k
) u u (
m m
m m
2
1
E
+
= A
If u
2
=0, ratio of final energy to initial energy : 1
m m
m
u m
2
1
v ) m m (
2
1
E
E
2 1
1
2
1 1
2
2 1
i
f
<
+
=
+
= E
f
<E
i
i.e there is loss of kinetic energy (f) If u
2
=0,
) m m (
m
E
E
2 1
2
i
k
+
=
A
LINE OF IMPACT
It is important to know the line of impact during the collision. The line of impact is the line along which the
impulsive force acts on the bodies. To find it draw the tangent at the point of contact of the two bodies. Draw
a normal to the tangent at the point. This normal line is known as line of impact.
Line of impact
v
2
v'
2
v'
1
v
1
n
B A
t
OBLIQUE COLLISION
Let us now consider the case when the velocities of the two colliding spheres are not directed along the line
of impact as shown in the figure. As already discussed, the impact is oblique. Since velocities
1
v ' and
2
v ' of
the particles after impact are unknown in direction and magnitude, their determination will require the use of
22
four independent equations.
We choose as coordinate axes the n -axis along the line of impact, i.e. along the common normal to the
surfaces in contact, and the t-axis along their common tangent. Assuming that the spheres are perfectly
smooth and frictionless, we observe that the only impulses exerted on the spheres during the impact are
due to contact forces directed along the line of impact i.e. along the line n. It follows that
m
2
v
2
n
B A
t
m
1
v
1
+
B A
t
n
n
B A
t
m
1
v'
1
m
2
v'
2
=
(1) The component along the t-axis of the momentum of each particle, considered separately, is conserved;
hence the t component of the velocity of each particle remains unchanged. We can write
(v
1
)
t
=(
1
v ' )
t;
(v
2
)
t
=(
2
v ' )
t
.
(2) The component along the n axis of the total momentum of the two particles is conserved. We write.
m
1
(v
1
)
n
+m
2
(v
2
)
n
=m
1
(
1
v' )
n
+m
2
(
2
v' )
n
.
(3) The component along the n-axis of the relative velocity of the two particles after impact is obtained by
multiplying the n-component of their relative velocity before impact by the coefficient of restitution.
(
2
v' )
n
- (
1
v' )
n
=e [(v
1
)
n
- (v
2
)
n
].
We have thus obtained four independent equations, which can be solved for the components of the
velocities of A and B after impact.
Note :
Defi nition of the coeffici ent of resti tution can be applied along common normal direction in
the case of oblique collisions.
If two particles of same mass moving at right angle to each other collide elastically, after collision also they
move at right angle to each other.
If a body A collides elastically with another body B of same mass at rest at a glancing angle, than after
collision the two bodies move at right angle to each other.
If a stationary body breaks due to some interaction in three parts, out of which the first
two parts, move at right angles to each other with momenta p
1
and p
2
respectively, then
the momenta of third part is determined as follows :
According to law of conservation of momentum :
p
3
p
3
cosu
p
3
sinu
p
1
p
2
u
Along horizontal direction : p
3
cosu =p
1
Along vertical direction : p
3
sinu =p
2
Magnitude of
2 2
3 1 2
p p p = + and its, direction from horizontal, tan u =
1
2
p
p
u =tan
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
2
p
p
Direction of p
3
, from
the direction of motion of first part =[t +tan
1
1
2
p
p
] and that from the direction motion second part =[ |
.
|
\
| t
2
+
tan
1
1
2
p
p
]
23
EXAMPLES BASED ON COLLISION
Example 33. A block of mass 12kg moving at 20 cm/s collides with an identical stationary block. If the
coefficient of restitution is 3/5 the loss in K.E during collision is -
Solution : The loss in K.E.
2
2 1
2
2 1
2 1
) u u ( ) e 1 (
m m
m m
2
1
E
+
= A
Here m
1
=12kg, m
2
=12kg, e =3/5
u
1
=20 cm/sec =0.2 m/s, u
2
=0
On substiuting the values
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= A
25
9
1
12 12
12 12
2
1
E
(0.2)
2
=
J 10 7 . 7
10
2
10
2
25
16
6
2
1
2
~
Example 34. A ball is dropped from a height h on a stationary floor and rebounds several times until it stops.
If the coefficient of restitution is e, then the total distance covered by the ball before it stops,
would be
Solution : The height h
1
up to which the ball rises after the first rebound is given by
h
1
=e
2
h
After second rebound, h
2
=e
4
h
After rebounding n times, h
n
=(e
2
)
n
h Total distance described
s =h +2h
1
+2h
2
+....... +2h
n
+.....
=h +2e
2
h +2e
4
h +....... +2e
2h
h +......
=h +2e
2
h (1 +e
2
+e
4
+.... )
= h
e 1
e 1
e 1
h e 2
h
2
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
Example 35. A rifle man, who together with his rifle has a mass of 100 kg, stands on a smooth surface fires
10 shots horizontally. Each bullet has a mass 10 gm w.r.t ground velocity of 800 m/s. What
velocity does rifle man acquire at the end of 10 shots.
Solution : Let m
1
and m
2
be the masses of bullet and the rifleman and v
1
and v
2
their respective velocities
after the first shot. Initially the rifleman and bullet are at rest, therefore initial momentum of
system =0.
i.e. initial momentum =final momentum =m
1
v
1
+m
2
v
2
or
kg 100
) s / m 800 )( kg 10 10 (
m
v m
v
3
2
1 1
2

= =
=- 0.08 m/s
Velocity acquired after 10 shots =10 v
2
=10 (0.08) = 0.8 m/s
i.e., the velocity of rifle man is 0.8 m/s in a direction opposite to that of bullet.
Example 36. A bullet of mass 10 g travelling horizontally with a velocity 300 m/s strikes a block of wood of
mass 290 g which rests on a rough horizontal floor. After impact the block and the bullet move
together and come to rest when the block has travelled a distance of 15 m. The coefficient of
friction between the block and the floor will be (Duration of impact is very short)
Solution : Let the mass of block and bullet be M and m respectively. If v is the velocity of bullet and V is
24
the velocity of block with bullet embedded in it,
Now according to conservation of momentum,
mv =(M +m) V (10 x 10
3
) (300) =(290 x 10
3
+10 x 10
3
) V
or V =10 mls
The kinetic energy just after impact is ( ) +
2
1
m M V
2
, which is lost due to work done on it by
the force of friction F.
Since force of friction F =
(M+m)g and the work done is given by Fd, we have

1/2 (M +m) V
2
= (M +m) gd
or

=
gd
V
2
1
2

3
1
) 15 ( ) 10 (
10
2
1
2
= =
Note :
Here an external horizontal force due to friction is present however as it has been assumed
that impact lasted for such a small interval of time that the block could not move appreciably
no work was done by friction during impact. Here during impact the presence of friction cannot
be ignored.
Example 37. A sphere of mas 8 kg moving at constant speed 50 m/s, contains a compressed light spring
with strain energy 15,000 joule. At a given instant, the spring breaks and causes the sphere to
explode into two pieces of equal masses. If one piece flies off at 30 to the original velocity of
the sphere, find the direction of motion of the other piece and magnitudes of the velocities of
the two pieces. Assume the energy of the compressed spring is completely imparted to the
two pieces all kinetic energy.
Solution : The situation is shown in fig.
Let v
1
and v
2
be the velocities of two pieces after explosion.
Applying the law of conservation of energy,
we .have
2
2
2
1
2
v ) 4 (
2
1
v ) 4 (
2
1
15000 ) 50 ( ) 8 (
2
1
+ = +
u
30
m=4kg
2
v
1
v
2
m=4kg
1
m =8kg
u =50m/s
or 25000 =2(v
1
2
+v
2
2
)
....(1)
Applying the law of conservation of momentum along x-axis and y-axis respectively, we get
8(5) =4 v
1
cos u +v
2
cos 30 ....(2)
and 0 =4v
1
sinu =4 v
2
sin 30 =2v
2
....(3)
or
1
2
v 2
v
sin = u ....(4)
From eq. (2)
100 =v
1
cos
u
+v
2
cos 30
25
or
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
3
v
v 4
v
1 v 100
2
2
1
2
2
1
or
2
3 v
2
v v 4
v 100
2
2
2
2
1
1
+
= ....(5)
Solving equs. (1) and (5) for v
1
and v
2
we get
v
1
=51.56 m/s and v
2
=99.2 m/s
Now
56 . 51 2
2 . 99
sin
= u
Solving we get u =748.
SYSTEM OF VARIABLE MASS
In our discussion of the conservation of linear momentum, we have so far dealt with systems whose masses
are constant. In this section, we will study systems which gain or lose mass during their motion e.g. The
motion of a rocket depends upon the constant ejection of hot gases from its rear.
For solving such problems, you need to include the thrust
t
(F )
acting on the rocket in addition to all the other

forces. This thrust is given by :
t rel
dm
F v
dt
| |
=
|
\ .

Here,
rel
v
is the velocity of the mass (ejected or gained if it is a different problem) relative to the socket, and
dm
dt
is the rate at which mass is changing.
y
x O
v
m
at time t

y
x O
at time t+ t A
v d v+
m-dm
dm
r
v
system
STEPS TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM
1. List all the forces acting on the body and show them on a diagram.
2. Show the additional thrust force
t
F
on the body..
t r
dm
F v
dt
| |
=
|
\ .
3. Find net force on the body and use the equation :
26
net
dv
F m
dt
=

(m =mass at a particular instant)

4. Integrate it with proper limits to find velocity at any time.
If a external force also acts on the system then equation wi ll be ext thrust
dv
M = F +F
dt
Example 38. A feed hopper releases grains at a rate
dm
dt
onto a conveyor belt that moves at a constant
speed v. What is the power of the motor driving the belt ?
v
Solution : We consider a fixed length of the belt plus the grain
lying on it as the system.
The mass M of the system increases as it receives grain
falling from the hopper.
So
dM dm
dt dt
=
Since the grains fall vertically,u 0 = in the horizontal direction.
rel
v u v v. = =
Since the speed is constant,
dv
0
dt
=
ext
dm
F v
dt
=

where
ext
F is the force needed to maintain constant speed because the mass is increasing.
The power
P = F.v
2
dm
P v
dt
=
.
MOTION OF ROCKET
The motion of rocket is based on Newtons third law of motion and conservation of momentum.
Hot-Gas J et
v
u
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
J
e
t
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
r
o
c
k
e
t
There is a chamber in Rocket in which fuel is filled in the form of solid or liquid. It also
has a combustion chamber. When fuel begins to burn with oxidizing substance, the
pressure increases in the combustion chamber due to heat create in it. The hot
gases ejects with high velocity in the form of jet. The jet causes a reaction force on
the rocket, then the rocket accelerates against the jet.
The velocity and mass of (rocket +fuel)
27
Time Velocity Mass
t v m
t +dt v +dv m dm
The relative velocity of mass dm relative to rocket will be v
r
=u, the velocity relative to earth will be (v +dv u).
There is no external force acting on the system, therefore in the earths coordinate system
mv =(m dm) (v +dv) +dm (v +dv u)
or dv =u
m
dm
dv
f
i
v
v
} =
f
i
m
m
dm
u
m
}
Where i and f represents initial and final states
Therefore v
f
u
i
=u log
i
f
m
m
Therefore if initial velocity be zero, the final velocity will be
f
i
i
f
f
m
m
log u
m
m
log u v = =
Note :
First rocket equation Ru =ma where
R =positive rate of fuel consumption
u =speed of exhaust products relative to rocket.
m =mass of rocket
a =acceleration produced
Example 39. The rate of burning of fuel in a rocket is 50gm/sec. and comes out with velocity 4 x 10
3
m/s. The
force exerted by gas on rocket will be
Solution : The rate of change of momentum is equal to force
dt
dp
F =
dt
dm
v =
(Here v is constt.)
Here v =4 10
3
m/s &
dt
dm
=50 10
3
kg/s
F =4 10
3
50 10
3
=200 N
CENTRE OF MASS
In a system of many particles, the centre of mass is that point in the system, which alone describe the linear
motion of the system as a whole.
Centre of mass is that point in the body, at which the total mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated
for description to linear motion of the body.
28
Centre of mass is a point, about which the sum of moments of masses (i.e. multiplication of mass and its
position vector with respect to centre of mass) of all the particles in the body is zero. If m
1
, m
2
, m
3
..... are
situated at position vector

3 2 1
r , r , r ...... with respect to the centre of mass, 0 ... r m r m r m
3 3 2 2 1 1
= + +

or
0 r m
i i
=

, where r
i
=position vector of i
th
particle with respect to the centre of mass, m
i
=mass of the i
th
particle.
Suppose a system consists of n particles with masses m
1
, m
2
, m
3
......m
n
and their position vector with
respect to chosen reference frame will be
}
}

=
+ + +
+ + +
=
dm
r dm
m
r m
..... m m m
..... r m r m r m
r
i
i i
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
cm
m
1
m
2
m
3
C
r
1
r
2
r
3
If masses m
1
, m
2
, m
3
......... are situated at (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
), (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
), (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
) ......, co-ordinate of centre of mass
in the same reference are given by -
dm
dmx
m
x m
m m
. .......... x m x m
X
i
i i
2 1
2 2 1 1
cm
}
}
=
=
+
+ +
=
1 1 2 2 i i
cm
1 2 i
my m y ........... my dmy
Y
m m m dm
+ + }
= = =
+ }
m(x ,y ,z )
1 1 1 1
m(x ,y ,z )
2 2 2 2
m(x ,y ,z )
3 3 3 3
r
2
r
3
r
1
O
X
Z
Y
dm
dmz
m
z m
m m
. .......... z m z m
Z
i
i i
2 1
2 2 1 1
cm
}
}
=
=
+
+ +
=
For regular shape and configuration, the centre of mass coincide with geometrical centre only if the mass
distribution of body with respect geometrical centre of configuration is uniform. If mass distribution is non
uniform, centre of mass and geometrical centre are not the same point.
In uniform gravitational field, centre of mass and centre of gravity are the same point
Note :
The centre of mass of a system is an imaginary point where the whole masses of the system may
suppose to be acting.
The centre of mass of a body may lie inside or outside the body.
The centre of mass always lie on the axis of symmetry of the body if it exists. For a body in which there
are two or more axes of symmetry, then the centre of mass lies at their point of intersection.
In a system of n particles, the centre of mass of the system may or may not coincide with any of the
particles.
29
CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMMON SYSTEMS
- A system of two point masses. The centre of
mass lies closer to the heavier mass
The centre of mass lies closer to the heavier
mass.
L
m
1 m
2
cm
mL
2
m
1
m
2
+
mL
1
m
1
m
2
+
- A Rectangular Plate
C
b
x
2
=
C
L
y
2
=
b
L cm
y
c
x
c
O
x
y
- A Triangular plate
C
h
y
3
=
cm
y
c
h
y
x
O
- A Solid Cone
C
3h
y
4
=
h
y
c
cm
- A semi-circular Ring
C
2R
y =
t
C
x 0 =
R
cm
O
x
y
cm
y
- A semi-circular disc
c
4R
y
3
=
t
c
x 0 =
R
cm
O
x
y
cm
y
- A Hemispherical shell
c
R
y
2
=
c
x 0 =
R
cm
O
x
y
cm
y
30
If particles of body of masses m
1
, m
2
..... are moving with velocities
1 2 3 v ,v ,v

...... respectively then velocity of
centre of mass is given by
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 i i
cm
1 2 i i
m V m V m V ...... m V p
V
m m ....... m m

+ + +
= = =
+ +
=
mass Total
system of momentum Total
Now components of velocity of centre of mass along x, y and z axes can be written as -
1 2 i i
1 x 2 x x x
x
1 2 i i
mv m v ..... mv P
Vcm
m m ....... m m
+ +
= = =
+ +
i
y
i
y
2 1
y 2 y 1
y
m
P
m
mv
....... m m
..... V m v m
Vcm
i i 2 1
=
+ +
+ +
=
i
z
i
z
2 1
z 2 z 1
z
m
P
m
mv
....... m m
..... V m v m
Vcm
i i 2 1
=
+ +
+ +
=
If = =
i net
x x
P , 0 F constant i.e if net external force acting on system along x axis is zero, total momentum
of the system along x-axis remain constant, therefore velocity of centre of mass along x-axis remain unaffected
during subsequent motion. Same analysis can be done for y and z axis.
Moti on of centre of mass is not aff ected by the internal forces. Therefore, if a shel l moving under
gravity explodes into pieces moving in dif ferent direction, even then the centre of mass moves
along the same (previous) path.
Note : Due to mutual interaction forces, velocity of CM does not change.
If no external force acts on the body, state of motion of its centre mass remains the same i.e. it it is moving with
same velocity then it keep on moving in the same direction with same velocity and if CM is at rest, it remain at
rest.
If particles of system are moving with acceleration

3 2 1
a , a , a ....., acceleration of centre of mass is given by,,
1 1 2 2 i i
cm
1 2 i
ma m a ......... ma
a
m m ........ m

+ +
= =
+ +
Components of centre of mass along x, y and z axes can be written as

i
x i
2 1
x 2 x 1
cm
m
a m
....... m m
....... a m a m
a
i 2 1
x

=
+ +
+ +
=
i
y i
2 1
y 2 y 1
cm
m
a m
....... m m
....... a m a m
a
i 2 1
y

=
+ +
+ +
=
i
z i
2 1
z 2 z 1
cm
m
a m
....... m m
....... a m a m
a
i 2 1
z

=
+ +
+ +
= If

= = = = a a a a a
cm 3 2 1
EXAMPLES BASED ON CENTRE OF MASS
Example 40. A rod of length L has nonuniformly distributed mass along its length. For its mass perunit
length varying with distance x from.one end as
2
0
L
m
(L +x). Find the position of centre of
mass of this system. Discuss the case when x =0.
Solution : Mass of element of length dx is dm =
2
0
L
m
(L +x) . dx
9
L 5
dx ) x L (
L
m
x . dx ) x L (
L
m
dm
x . dm
X
L
0
2
0
L
0
2
0
L
0
L
0
cm
=
+
+
= =
}
}
}
}
31
Example 1. Find the centre of mass of the four point-masses as shown in the figure
Solution : The coordinates of C.M. can be calculated as follows :
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
cm
1 2 3 4
xm x m x m x m
X
m m m m
+ + +
=
+ + +
=
2 3 4 3 5 ( 4) 1( 3)
12
+ + +
=
5
m 0.42m
12
=
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
cm
1 2 3 4
my my my my
Y
m m m m
+ + +
=
+ + +
=
2( 1) 4 3 5 4 1 ( 2)
12
+ + +
=
28
2.3 cm
12
=
-4
-2
2
4 -4 -2
4
2
m =2 kg
1
m =4 kg
2
m =5 kg
3
m =1 kg
4
The position vector of C.M.
cm cm

r x i y j = +
.
( )

r 0.42i 2.3j m = +
.
Example 2. A thin rod of length 3L is bent a right angles at a distance L from one end. Locate the C.M.
with respect to the corner. Take L =1.2 m.
Solution : The centre of mass of each arm is at its mid-point. The C.M. of the two arms can be found by
treating each arm as a point particle at its own C.M. From the figure, we see that
1 1
L
x , y 0
2
= = and
2 2
x 0, y L = =
If we take m
1
=m then m
2
=2m, we get
1 1 2 2
cm
L
m 2m(0)
mx mx L 1.2 2
X 0.2m
3m 3m 6 6
| |
+
|
+
\ .
= = = = =
1 1 2 2
cm
my my m(0) 2m(L) 2L 2 1.2
Y 0.8 m
3m 3m 3 3
+ +
= = = = =
The position vector of C.M. is
cm

r 0.2i 0.8j m = +
2L
L
x
y
(x y)
2, 2
(x y)
1, 1
Example 3. A body of mass m
1
is projected vertically upwards with velocity v
1
. Another body of same mass
is projected at an angle of 45
0
. Both reach the same maximum height. What is the ratio of their
kinetic energies at the point of projection?
SOLVED EXAMPLES
32
Solution : From Work-Energy principle,
2
1 1
1
mgH 0 mv K
2
= =
or K
1
=mgH.
In the projectile motion
o 2 2
2 2
1 1
mgH m(v cos45 ) mv
2 2
=
2 2
2
K K
K
2 2
= =
K
2
=2mgH

1
2
K
K
1
2
= .
Example 4. An object of mass m is tied to a string of length
and a variable horizontal force is applied on

it, which initially, is zero and gradually increases until the string makes an angle u with the
vertical. Work done by the force F is
Solution : Since change in K.E. in zero,
gr F
W W 0 + =
F gr
W W ( mgh) + = = mg (1- cos ) .
Example 5. A particle of mass m is fixed to one end of a light spring of force constant k and unstretched
length
. The system is rotated about the other end of the spring with an angular velocity e,
in gravity free space(see figure). The increase in length of the spring will be
k
m
(a)
2
me l
k
(b)
2
2
m
m
e
e
l
k -
(c)
2
2
m
m
e
+ e
l
k
(d) none of these.
Solution : The required centripetal force is provided by the spring force.
2
0 0
m (l x ) kx e + = ,
0
x
2
2
m l
=
k - m
.
Ans. (b)
Example 6. In the figure, a ball A is released from rest when the spring is at its natural (unstretched)
length. For the block B, of mass M to leave contact with the ground at some stage the
minimum mass of A must be
A
B
M
(a) 2 M
(b) M
(c) M/2
(d) A function of M and the force constant of the spring.
Solution : Applying work energy principle,
2
1
mgx kx 0
2
>
Minimum value of x =2 mg/k.
The block will leave contact with ground provided
kx =Mg
33
or
2mg
k. Mg
k
=
m=
M
2
.
Ans. (c)
Example 7. A particle of mass m moves in a conservative force field where the potential energy U varies
with position coordinate x as U =U
0
(1 cos ax), U
0
and a being positive constants. Which
of the following statement is true regarding its motion
(a) the acceleration is constant
(b) the kinetic energy is constant
(c) the acceleration is directed along the position vector
(d) the acceleration is directed opposite to the position vector.
Solution : 0
dU
F aU sinax
dx
= =
acceleration
0
aU F
sinax
m m
= =
2
0
a U
x
m
= for small value of x
accel eration
x
.
Ans. (d)
Example 8. One end of a spring of natural length h and spring constant k is fixed at the ground and the
other is fitted with a smooth ring of mass m which is allowed to slide on a horizontal rod fixed
at height h as shown in the figure. Initially, the spring makes an angle of 37 with the vertical
when the system is released from rest. Find the speed of the ring when the spring becomes
vertical.
37
o
h
Solution : The forces acting on the system are the spring force
(conservative) and other constraint forces.
Therefore, mechanical energy is conserved.
Initial tension in the spring =
5h
h
4

=
h
4
Applying energy (mechanical) conservation,
2
2
1 1 h
mv k.
2 2 4
| |
=
|
\ .
or v =
h k
4 m
.
34
Example 9. A rocket of initial mass 5000 kg ejects gas at a constant rate of 60 kg/s with a relative speed
of 2050 m/s. Acceleration of the rocket 15 second after it is blasted off from the surface of
earth will be (g =10 m/s
2
)
(a)
2
10m/s (b)
2
20 m/s
(c)
2
30 m/s (d)
2
40 m/s
Solution : Mass of the rocket after 15 s =5000 60
15 4100 =
kg
Thrust force
rel
dm
v 60 2050 12300N
dt
= = =
Hence acceleration =
12300 4100
4100
=
2
20 m/s .
Example 10. Hailstones are observed to strike the surface of a frozen lake at an angle of 30 with vertical
and rebound at 60 with the vertical. Assuming the contact to be smooth, the coefficient of
restitution e is
(a)
1
3
(b) 0.25
(c) 0.5 (d) 0.75.
Solution : Let u and v be the velocity before and after impact respectively. The components of u and v
along the horizontal direction are u sin 30 and v sin 60 respectively. Similarly, the components
along vertical directions are u cos 30 and v cos 60 respectively by Newtons Law
o
vcos60 eucos30 = ....(1)
and
o o
vsin60 usin30 =
....(2)
o o
o o
cos60 cos30
e
sin60 sin30
=
o o
cot60 ecot30 =
e = (1/3).
Example 11. A constant force is applied on the wedge horizontally as shown in figure. Find the power
required to push the wedge horizontally with constant speed V
0
to raise the rod A of mass m.
Solution :
y
tan
x
u =
y =x tan
u
B
F
u
A
or 0
dy dx
tan V tan
dt dt
| |
= u = u
|
\ .
.
Required power =Force Velocity
=mg.
dy
dt
0
mgV tan = u .
Example 12. In the figure shown the system is initially at rest and the light spring is elongated by a length
x. The supports A and B fixed with the large block are light. Find the maximum speed of the
block M after the thread is cut. Assume that friction is absent and all the surfaces are
horizontal.
35
A
B
k
m
thread
M
Solution : When the string is burnt, the P.E. stored in the spring will appear as K.E. of the two blocks.
The velocity of the blocks will be maximum when the initial tension in the spring is reduced to
zero. Since no internal force acts on the given system, the centre of mass will remain at rest.
CM
mv MV
V 0
M m
+
= =
+
MV
mv MV 0, or v
m
+ = =
.
Since the total energy is conserved,
2 2 2
1 1 1
kx mv M.V
2 2 2
= + =
2
2
1 MV 1
m MV
2 m 2
| |
+
|
\ .
2 2
M
kx MV 1
m
| |
= +
|
\ .
( )
1/ 2
2
mkx
V
M m M

=
`
+

)
.
Example 13. Two blocks of masses 10 kg and 4 kg are connected by a spring of negligible mass and
placed on a frictionless horizontal surface. An impulse gives a velocity of 14 m/s to the
heavier block in the direction of the lighter block. The velocity of the centre of mass is
(a) 30 m/s (b) 20 m/s
(c) 10 m/s (d) 5 m/s.
Solution :
1 1 2 2
cm
1 2
mv mv 10 14 4 0
v
m m 10 4
+ +
= = =
+ +
10m/s
Ans. (c)
Example 14 A particle moving in a straight line is acted by a force, which works at a constant rate and
changes its velocity from u to v in passing over a distance x. The time taken will be
Solution : The force acting on the particle =
dv
m
dt
Power of the force =
dv
m v k
dt
| |
=
|
\ .
(constant) c kt
2
v
m
2
+ = ....(1)
at t =0, v =u
2
mu
c
2
=
Now from (1),
2
mu
kt
2
v
m
2 2
+ =
2
1
m(v
2
u
2
) =kt ....(2)
Again
dv
m v k
dt
=
m.v
dx
dv
v =k
36
mv
2
dv =kdx
Intergrating, =
3
1
m(v
3
u
3
) =kx ....(3)
From (2) and (3), t =
x
u v
u v
2
3
3 3
2 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
Example 14. A particle of mass m

1
moving with a speed v, collides inelastically with a stationary particle of
mass m
2
(m
2
>m
1
). The fraction of initial kinetic energy converted into heat would be
m
1
v
1
+0 =(m
1
+m
2
) v
) m m (
v m
v
2 1
1 1
+
=
Total kinetic energy before collision
2
1 1
2
1 1
v m
2
1
0 v m
2
1
= + =
Total kinetic energy after collision
2
2 1
v ) m m (
2
1
+ =
2
2 1
1 1
2 1
m m
v m
) m m (
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
) m m (
v m
2
1
2 1
2
1
2
1
+
=
Loss of kinetic energy
) m m (
v m
2
1
v m
2
1
2 1
2
1
2
1 2
1 1
+
=
) m m (
) m m m ( v m
2
1
2 1
1 2 1
2
1 1
+
+
=

) m m (
v m m
2
1
2 1
2
1 2 1
+
=
Fraction of initial kinetic energy converted into heat.
2
1 1
2 1
2
1 2 1
v m
2
1
/
) m m (
v m m
2
1
+
=
2 1
2
m m
m
+
=
Example 15. A block of mass m
1
=150 kg is at rest on a very long frictionless table, one end of which is
terminated in a wall. Another block of mass m
2
is placed between the first block and the wall,
and set in motion towards m
1
with constant speed u
2
.
Assuming that all collisions are
completely elastic, find the value of m
2
for which both blocks move with the same velocity after
m
2
has collided once with m
1
and once with the wall. (The wall has effectively infinite mass.)
Solution : Let after the collision,
v
1
=speed of mass m1 towards left
v
2
=speed of mass m2 towards right.
Hence, momentum before collision =momentum after collision
m
2
u
2
=m
1
v
1
m
2
v
2
.....(1)
The mass m
2
rebounds elastically from the wall and its speed its reversed after the collision
with the wall.
37
According to the problem, the mass m
2
has the same speed as that of mass m1 after its
collision with the wall i.e. v
2
=v
1
. From eq.
m
2
u
2
=(m
1
m
2
) v
1
.....(2)
Since the collision is elastic, then
2
1 2
2
1 1
2
2 2
v m
2
1
v m
2
1
u m
2
1
+ =
m
2
u
2
2
=(m
1
+m
2
) v
1
2
......(3)
From eq. (2),
2 1
2 2
1
m m
u m
v
=
Substituting this value of v
1
in eq. (3), we get
2
2 1
2
2 2 2 1 2
2 2
) m m (
) u m )( m m (
u m
+
=
or (m
1
m
2
)
2
=(m
1
+m
2
) (m
2
)
or m
1
2
+m
2
2
2m
1
m
2
=m
1
m
2
+m
2
2
or m
1
2
=3 m
1
m
2
m
1
=3m
2
or
kg . 50
3
150
3
m
m
1
2
= = =
POINTS TO REMEMBER
The slope of work-time curve at any instant gives us the power at that instant, as
dW
P tan
dt
= = u
Area under power-time curves gives us total work done by/on the body, as W P dt =
}
When a man rowing a boat unstream is at rest with respect to shore, he is doing no work, though
he is applying a force. However, when he stops rowing and moves down with the stream, work is
done on him.
Power is dissipated only by the tangential component of force and not by the normal/radial component
of force. Thus power dissipated by centripetal force is zero.
Work done against friction on a rough horizontal surface is ( ) W mg x = . Where m is mass of the
body, x is the distance moved and
is coefficient of dynamic friction between the two surfaces in

contact. Similarly, work done in moving a body up a rough inclined plane of inclination u is
( ) W mg sin cos x = u + u
When two vehicles of masses m
1
, m
2
moving with velocities v
1
and v
2
respectively are stopped by the
same force, the their stopping distances x
1
and x
2
are
2
2
1 1
1 1 1
2
2
2 2 2
2 2
1
mv
x mv
2
1
x mv
mv
2
= =
If t
1
and t
2
are times taken by the two bodies to stop, then
1 1 1
2 2 2
t mv
t mv
=

Work Power Energy

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Work Power Energy

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WORK, ENERGY,

POWER & MOMENTUM

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