Writing Packet

UNIVERSIDADE DE BRASLIA INSTITUTO DE LETRAS IL DEPARTAMENTO DE LNGUAS ESTRANGEIRAS E TRADUO LET
WRITING PACKET
DISCIPLINA 142981 INGLS: EXPRESSO ESCRITA 2
PROFESSORA RACHEL LOURENO

(rachel_lourenco@yahoo.com.br)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT Introduction to the writing process Prewriting: strategies for getting started Writing an introduction Writing a conclusion Writing body paragraphs Writing with transitions Defending your position The process essay The classification essay The comparison and contrast essay The exemplification essay The cause-and-effect essay The argumentative essay Bibliography PAGE 3 5 8 15 21 24 28 34 41 48 58 64 70 77
INTRODUCTION TO THE WRITING PROCESS

Few writers are able to write exactly what they want to say and how they want to say in the first time they sit down to write. In fact, most writers make many changes before they finish writing. People who write for business, authors of books and novels, lawyers, and anyone who has to produce writing of any kind all know that writing involves a number of steps before they achieve a finished product. This writing process involves a series of tasks: thinking, planning, writing (rewriting), and editing. Writers go through this process in different ways. Some begin with thinking and planning before writing. Others start right out writing. Each writer has a preferred way of work through the process. Look at the writing process as a large circle with four quadrants, each one part of the process:
Moving around the circle, we go through the various steps. The circle has no end, however, and as we continue around the circle, we keep going through the steps. We begin to understand that writing is a recursive activity. This means that we may not go through the steps only once. We often return to steps that we have gone through before. How does this work?
Thinking
Let us start with thinking. At the thinking stage, we use a variety of strategies for getting ideas. We might talk about a subject with our friends and classmates individually or in a group. This talking will help us generate more of our own ideas. We might take a blank piece of paper and randomly list ideas that come to us as we think about the topic. We might put our ideas on note cards, or we might even just keep them quietly in our heads.
Planning
Once we have our ideas, we may move on to the planning stage before beginning to write. Some of us may like to make a written sketch or outline of our ideas. We can put our ideas in order and arrange and rearrange them during this step. Then we have a plan to follow before beginning to write.
UnB IL LET DISCIPLINA 142981 INGLS: EXPRESSO ESCRITA 2 PROFESSORA RACHEL LOURENO
Writing
Others of us may prefer to skip the planning step at this point and move directly to writing. Once we have ideas, we are ready to put them all down on paper before any planning. Then we look at what we have written, evaluate how we have presented our ideas, and then make a plan for reordering them before writing again. As a matter of fact, for many writers, the first step is writing, not thinking or planning. They use writing about ideas to help them generate new ideas. Their thinking takes place while they write. Planning comes later.
Revising
Part of the writing stage is revising, looking at the content of what we have written and asking several questions: Have I put my ideas down in an order that will be logical to the reader? Have I explained my ideas in enough detail to make them clear? Have I used connecting words and sentences to make my writing coherent? We may think that our writing is logical, clear, and coherent. However, our peers are usually able to read our writing more critically. Just as professional writers use editors to help revise their writing, we can use our classmates to give us useful feedback. These peer editors are a helpful part of the writing process.
Editing
What about final editing? Although we often think of editing (finding errors in spelling, punctuation, sentence sense, etc.) as the last step in the process, it is likely to go on all the time we are writing. Just as with revising, it is useful to have the help of a peer editor at this stage, but we must also learn to do selfediting before handing in our final drafts.
Writing is a spiraling process that takes us through a series of activities. As we look again at the circle, we see that we may start with writing or thinking. We may plan before or while writing. We may move around the circle many times going back and forth through the steps, even changing our principal idea or thesis, until we write a final copy.
PREWRITING: STRATEGIES FOR GETTING STARTED

Many writers even professionals agree that getting started is one of the most difficult aspects of writing. If you have ever stared at your computer screen or at your notebook unable to come up with words, if you have ever put off a writing task until you could no longer safely postpone it, if you have found chores or other activities to occupy you as you put off writing, you have experienced the difficulty of getting started. Throughout your years in school you have undoubtedly developed strategies for coping with the frustration that occurs when you can think of nothing to write. You may procrastinate until it is so late that you cannot possibly produce a good piece of writing. Clearly, this is not a good strategy. Knowing that most writers experience difficulties in getting started may help you feel like a member of the general community of writers. However, to reduce tendencies to procrastinate when you face a writing task, you need to learn strategies to get you started. One of the main reasons that writers experience frustration when they attempt to write is that they may have not spent enough time prewriting. Prewriting is a necessary first step in writing. It involves thinking, but it also calls for some actual writing before the formal, structured essay is attempted. Prewriting helps student writers overcome the difficulties of dealing with a writing topic. Prewriting is a type of writing warmup. Trainers and doctors tell us that it is dangerous to jump into an exercise routine without warming up. Physically, warming up before exercising may prevent muscle damage; besides, warming up also gets you mentally ready to exercise. Once your muscles are stimulated, doing a 60-minute workout or taking a three-mile run does not seem so difficult. Attempting to write without prewriting is similar to exercising without a physical and mental warmup. When students attempt to visualize the final written product without having done any prewriting, the writing task seems enormous, and frustration sets in. Prewriting reduces this anxiety and allows the writer to begin compiling ideas to be organized into the written product.
BRAINSTORMING Have you ever been with a group of people who were trying to come up with a solution for a problem? It might have been how to raise money for a student organization or how to get the boss to notice needed changes at your workplace or how to convince your parents to use the car for the night. At some point one of you might have said, Lets brainstorm. And then all of you might have started talking at once, throwing in ideas quickly even if they seemed illogical or unrealistic all for the purpose of solving the immediate problem. Brainstorming in writing is exactly the same process as brainstorming in the real world. In writing, however, your problem to be solved is how to handle the topic you have been assigned. Brainstorming is probably the most familiar prewriting strategy because it is relatively simple and highly productive. To brainstorm effectively, you should follow these basic rules: 1. Write down, in list form, all of the ideas that occur to you on the assigned topic. 2. Write your ideas down in one to three word phrases. Do not write in sentences. 3. Do not censor your ideas; in other words, do not reject any idea that occurs to you during brainstorming. 4. Spend about 5 minutes brainstorming. 5. Do not try to organize your brainstorming; jot down your ideas as they occur to you.
Brainstorming can help you identify key ideas that are suggested by the topic. If you find yourself arguing, But I can come up with those ideas without writing them down, consider this: writing down your ideas actually generates more ideas. If you try to do brainstorming without writing something down, you will forget most of your ideas and before long, you will find your mind wandering to other unrelated topics. Written brainstorming allows you to focus your thoughts because it occurs in a short period of time. At the end of brainstorming, you should have a list of topics. Most importantly, at the end of a brainstorming session, you should be mentally warmed up to begin writing.
CLUSTERING Think of the word cluster. What does it bring to mind? A cluster of grapes? A cluster of people? A cluster headache? Cluster as a concept involves a visual or metaphorical grouping of objects held together by something they have in common, for example the stem on a cluster of grapes or a localized, intense pain in a cluster headache. This grouping feature explains why the concept of clustering has been adapted so effectively as a prewriting strategy. Clustering is very similar to brainstorming, but it allows you to group cluster ideas as you think of them. The result is not simply a list of rapidly elicited ideas but a visual arrangement (a mind map) of ideas by clusters. To use clustering effectively, you should observe these guidelines: 1. Write your topic in a circle (or bubble) in the center of a blank sheet of paper. 2. As you think of related ideas, draw lines connecting them to the central circle, to each other, or to other new ideas. 3. Before long, you will have smaller clusters of ideas. 4. Spend about five minutes on clustering. 5. Do not reject any idea. If an idea occurs to you that seems unrelated to anything you have written, draw a new connection to the original idea. 6. Write no more than one or two words in each bubble. If you have never clustered before, you need to understand some important things about this strategy: No two clusters will look alike. As in brainstorming, your cluster may not make sense to other writers: you have made the connections among ideas, and the rationale for these connections is clear only to you. Although attention to the reader will be important in later stages of the writing process, at this point you should not worry about whether your cluster makes sense to anyone other than you. For many writers, a clustering exercise will result in a set of ideas that can now be developed into an essay. Do not expect to be able to use every idea from clustering in a single essay; parts of the cluster may have to be discarded or saved for other essays.
FOCUSED FREEWRITING Freewriting is a more detailed type of prewriting. Whereas in clustering and brainstorming you limit yourself to listing and connecting one- or two-word phrases, in freewriting you write in sentences and paragraphs. Many writers enjoy freewriting as a preparation strategy because it actually looks like real writing. However, it offers the advantage of being non-threatening: if you misspell words or write in fragments, it is okay. This is the free aspect of freewriting.
Here are a few simple rules to focused freewriting: 1. Begin by writing your general topic at the top of your freewriting page. 2. Write on the topic for about 5 minutes. 3. As you are writing, do not stop. If you temporarily run out of ideas, write Im stuck or This is so silly or whatever other comment comes to mind. 4. At the end of five minutes, stop and quickly read over what you have written. Write a focusing sentence that summarizes what you have written. After freewriting a few times, you may discover that a tentative thesis will emerge during your freewriting sessions. This means that at the end of freewriting, you will have a pretty good idea of how you will focus your essay.
WH- QUESTIONS When newspaper reporters write articles, they try to answer the following questions in the first sentence of the report: who, what, when, where, why, and sometimes how. You can use the same questions to generate material for your writing. Asking these questions allows you to see your topic from different points of view and may help to clarify your position on the topic. To use this technique, write out as many WH- questions as you can. Then answer them as fully as you can.
ADVICE AND WARNINGS ABOUT PREWRITING No prewriting strategy should be considered superior to another. Because everyone thinks differently, not all prewriting strategies will be productive for everyone. For example, you may prefer the linear, concise aspects of brainstorming to the more expansive, somewhat uncontrolled ramblings of freewriting. Clustering may work for you with some subjects, but not with others. The same is true of using WH-questions. Do not be distressed if you discover that a particular prewriting strategy is unproductive for you. If you find one or two that you like, that will be enough to get you through most writing tasks. However, it would not hurt to try the other strategies occasionally, especially when your favorite techniques do not quite yield ideas with which you feel satisfied. When you are assigned an elaborate topic, you may be tempted to skip prewriting because the topic seems to permit no opportunity to explore it. It may seem to direct and limit your ideas. But consider this: how will you know what ideas you can include in the essay, what examples you and use and how you might organize these ideas? Thus, even with a detailed topic, prewriting strategies allow you to explore the topic without committing yourself to specific points, approaches, or illustrations too early in the writing process. As you look over your prewriting products (the writing that you produce during prewriting), do not forget that you are still in the very first stage of writing. What you have produced may look a bit like an essay, especially if you have written several pages of freewriting, but remember that this writing is unorganized, spontaneous, exploratory, and unelaborated. Prewriting is not a rough draft of the essay. Freewriting, brainstorming, clustering, asking WH- questions, etc, are preludes to the rough draft. When you try out prewriting strategies, you are searching for things you know about the topic. Prewriting strategies are aimed at helping you discover ideas, not at crystallizing organization or at identifying details. Much more thinking must occur before you are ready to start the rough draft.
WRITING AN INTRODUCTION
The first paragraph in an essay is called the introductory paragraph and it helps the writer lead the reader into the subject of the essay. The purpose of the introductory paragraph is twofold: to introduce the subject of the essay and to give focus to the discussion. Introductory paragraphs must be relevant to the topic, that is, they should not introduce material not covered in the essay. Also, an introductory paragraph should not bring up the arguments and examples which will form the body of the essay. There are different types of introductory paragraphs. Some of them are: Brief anecdote An anecdote is a short story which illustrates the topic. You can either write this anecdote from your own experience, or you can invent a story concerning someone else. Relevant fact or statistic You may introduce the essay by surprising the reader with facts or numbers. This kind of introduction is especially effective when you have exact figures at your disposal. You can expand your knowledge of facts and statistics by careful reading of newspapers, for example. Historical introduction In this type of introduction you are naturally not expected to begin with the beginning of time, but you may write a few sentences giving some historical background to the subject. State-of-the-art introduction Unlike a historical introduction, in the state-of-the-art type you focus exclusively on the present, and give the reader an overview of the present status of the subject you are going to discuss. General to specific This is perhaps the most common type of introduction. It begins with a general statement of the larger topic and subsequently narrows it down with each following sentence to the thesis statement. The introduction has three parts:
hook general comments
thesis statement
1. A hook is usually the first sentence. It is a catchy comment about the topic. As the definition indicates, it is used to catch de readers attention and interest. 2. General comments include several sentences that give background information about the topic. 3. The thesis statement is usually the last sentence in the introduction. It is the most important sentence in the introduction. It states the specific topic of the essay.
Example: The following paragraph is the introductory paragraph of a paper. The hook underlined. The general comments are in normal type. The thesis statement is bold. In the early history of the United States, it was believed that people out of work or unemployed were lazy and simply did not want to work. They were often treated badly or punished for their laziness and lack of responsibility. Today, however, people look at the unemployed differently because unemployment is often caused by outside problems. Some of the causes of unemployment are problems of high inflation, seasonal jobs, and changes in government laws. The The The The The topic of this paper is the causes for unemployment. second paragraph will talk about high inflation. third paragraph will talk about seasonal jobs. fourth paragraph will talk about changes in government laws. last paragraph will be the conclusion.
PRACTICE 1 Identifying Parts of an Introduction Read each introductory paragraph. Underline the hook. Circle the thesis statement and read it carefully. Write what parts of the topic will be discussed in the essay in the lines provided.
Introduction 1 Youth suicide In ancient times, suicide was a heroic way of ending a life. In Japan, a person suffering a loss of face committed hara-kiri. In Greece, to save his honor, a warrior fell on his sword. Today, committing suicide is not so heroic. It is considered a major social problem because it is the third largest cause of death among students. That is why it is important to analyze what causes young adults to commit suicide and what the effect on their peers is.
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Introduction 2 New Solutions to Old Problems Just about everybody has heard of the population explosion. Many experts tell us that the world will soon come to an end if we do not control the birth rate. Demographers say that there will be too many people. Economists say that there are not enough resources. Agriculturalists say that there will be too little food. Even though most experts want to limit the number of people on earth, they do not seriously consider human creativity. In recent years, this world crisis has caused innovative scientists to discover new concepts of using space, develop new types of industries, and create more productive varieties of seeds and fertilizers.
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THE THESIS STATEMENT The thesis statement is the most important statement in the essay. It carries the main idea of the whole essay, and frequently shows or implies how the essay will be organized. A thesis statement has two parts: the topic and the controlling idea. The topic is the general subject of the essay. The controlling idea is the focus the essay will give to the subject, and it usually signals the writers point of view on the issue. The thesis statement is usually written at the end of the introduction. Soccer is gaining popularity in the US because of the simplicity of its equipment, rules and skills. (topic) (controlling idea) A study of American history reveals alternating phases of isolationism and expansionism. (topic) (controlling idea) Animal behavior can predict earthquakes. (topic) (controlling idea) Black gospel music has greatly influenced several famous rock and roll performers. (topic) (controlling idea)
The thesis statement should be expressed in a complete sentence (with a subject and a verb). A title is not a thesis statement. Since the thesis statement is the main statement for the entire essay, which makes a statement, it should not be written as a question. Not thesis statements: The fear of the dark. Who is not afraid of the dark? Thesis statement: The fear of the dark may make peoples lives miserable.
A thesis statement expresses an opinion, attitude, or idea; it does not simply announce the topic the essay will develop. Not a thesis statement: This essay will discuss the effects of radiation. Thesis statement: The effects of radiation are often unpredictable.
A thesis statement should express an opinion, attitude or idea; it should not express a fact because a fact does not need any support and is not debatable. Therefore, the thesis statement should express a position that someone could disagree with and that needs to be explained or proved. Not a thesis statement: Cows produce milk. Thesis statement: The milk cows produce is not always fit for human consumption. Not a thesis statement: There are many advantages and disadvantages to going to college. (not debatable) Thesis statement: The advantages to going to college far outweigh the disadvantages.
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A thesis statement should express only one idea toward one topic, that is, it should have only one controlling idea, not several different ones. If a thesis statement contains two or more ideas, the essay runs the risk of lacking unity and coherence. Remember that one of the functions of the thesis statement is to narrow the focus of the discussion. Not a thesis statement: Going to college in the Midwest can be fun, and living in the suburb of a large city is the best way to live while at college. Thesis statements: Going to college in the Midwest can be fun. Living in the suburb of a large city is the best way to live while at college.
PRACTICE 2 Identifying Thesis Statements Study the following statements. Put a checkmark beside the ones that are thesis statements. What is the problem with the ones that are not? _____ 1. The advantages of majoring in engineering. _____ 2. I would like to discuss my views on the Olympic Games. _____ 3. Students should be allowed to manage the bookstore. _____ 4. When I first came to the US, I was not used to eating in fast food places, and I was amazed at the shopping centers. _____ 5. Why should one be a lawyer? _____ 6. The differences between Mandarin and Hunan dialects. _____ 7. Knowing a foreign language can be beneficial to anyone. _____ 8. This advertisement attempts to appeal to the readers sense of patriotism. _____ 9. I am going to describe my home. _____ 10. There are many similarities and differences between New York and Hong Kong.
PRACTICE 3 Rewriting Thesis Statements Rewrite each of the sentences below, turning them into thesis statements. 1. I am going to explain why I decided to go to college. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 2. The hazards of storing chemical wastes. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 3. New York is the largest city in the United States. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 4. Universities in the United States should require more humanities courses and they should have more social activities. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
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PRACTICE 4 Identifying Parts of a Thesis Statement Step 1: Identify the topic and the controlling idea of the thesis statements below about the effect of teenagers on shopping malls. 1. Since a lot of customers at a mall are teenagers, the clothing stores have the latest teen styles and fads. 2. Because teenagers love malls, the restaurants at malls all offer food that teenagers like. 3. Worried parents try to help their teenagers find more productive activities, such as sports, music lessons, and clubs. 4. Thus, businesspeople decorate and design malls to please their teenage customers.
Step 2: Read the introduction below. Choose one of the thesis statements above which fits the end of the introduction. Malls couldnt exist without teenagers! They flood the malls every weekend to visit with their friends. They also shop, eat, buy music, play arcade games, and go to the movies. In fact, todays teenagers spend more time and money at malls than any previous generation has.__________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Determine the major divisions that will be in the essay, using the specific parts of the thesis statement that you chose.
The thesis statement may be created by using the ideas in a question. One way to write a thesis statement is to turn the question into a sentence. Another way is to create a new sentence. In either case, a good thesis statement always includes the topic. In addition, it can point the reader to the main ideas you are going to include in your essay. Sample question: How do conflicts about money, immaturity, and cultural differences cause divorce? Sample thesis statement: Divorce is caused by immaturity, cultural differences, and conflicts about money.
A specific thesis statement not only gives the topic of the essay, but also tells the parts that will be in the paper. The more specific the thesis statement, the more the reader can tell in advance what will be in the essay. The thesis statement below is specific. Notice the topic and the parts that will be in the paper. Divorce is caused by immaturity, cultural differences and conflicts about money. (topic) (controlling idea)
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From this specific thesis statement, one can infer the structure of the essay: Topic: causes of divorce 1st paragraph: introduction 2nd paragraph: immaturity 3rd paragraph: cultural differences 4th paragraph: conflicts about money 5th paragraph: conclusion
PRACTICE 5 Identifying the Topic and the Major Divisions of the Outline Read this question: What are some specific details, examples, and statistics that show how becoming blind as an adult causes depression, divorce, and a change of occupation? Here is a specific thesis statement made from that question. Becoming blind as an adult frequently causes depression, divorce, and a change of occupation. By looking carefully at this thesis statement one can find the topic and the major divisions of the outline that will be discussed in the essay: Topic: effects of blindness on adults 1st paragraph: introduction 2nd paragraph: depression 3rd paragraph: divorce 4th paragraph: change of occupation 5th paragraph: conclusion
PRACTICE 6 Finding the Topic and Major Divisions of the Outline Read each introduction. Underline the hook. Write the general topic of the essay and the major divisions in the outline.
Introduction 1 Native Americans Native Americans have lived on the American continent for thousands of years. As their numbers grew, they divided into tribes and settled in different parts of the country. When they did this, their lifestyles also became different from each other. Some lived in the mountains, while others lived on the prairies. Some tribes lived in tepees. Others lived in caves or in homes built out of mud or sticks. Two tribes in particular, the Navajo and the Cheyenne, were very different. They differed in both their histories and their lifestyles. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
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Introduction 2 Flying While watching birds easily fly through the air, people wondered if they could do the same thing. Some tried. They tied feathers to their arms and legs and jumped off cliffs; they strapped on wings made of paper and jumped from buildings. Finally, after many years of experimenting with balloons, wing on wheels, and gliders, the Wright brothers, in 1903, attached a motor and two propellers to a two-winged glider and flew! The successful flight of the Wright brothers caused the eventual development of private planes, air-passenger carriers, and, most recently, space exploration. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
PRACTICE 7 Writing a Specific Thesis Statement and an Introduction Change the question below on education into a specific thesis statement. What are the effects of education on ones life?
Write an introduction for this topic using the topic sentence you have just created. Begin with a hook. Add general information, description, or background information. Write the thesis statement at the end of the introduction.
REMINDERS ABOUT THE INTRODUCTION Since the introductory paragraph is the first thing that the reader sees, it should obviously inform the reader of the topic being discussed. An introductory paragraph should also indicate generally how the topic is going to be developed: whether the essay is going to discuss causes, effects, reasons or examples; whether the essay is going to classify, exemplify, explain a process, or compare and contrast, for instance. Ideally, an introduction should be inviting, that is, it should be interesting enough to make the reader want to continue reading. You should introduce the topic before you state your opinion and you should try to entice the reader to continue after reading the first sentence. Therefore, the thesis statement should not be the first sentence of the introductory paragraph. Stating an opinion in the first sentence is not usually very inviting because if readers disagree with the opinion, they may be discouraged from reading the essay. Giving readers some background before stating an opinion may make them more empathetic to your position.
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WRITING A CONCLUSION
The conclusion of an essay must give a clear understanding of what the point of your essay is. A concluding paragraph may summarize the main points of the essay by reminding the reader of the ideas that were brought up in the body paragraphs. A concluding paragraph may also restate the idea of the thesis statement and bring a final comment on the subject. In neither case should the paragraph bring up new information about the topic of the essay. New information is part of the discussion, in the body of the essay, not of the conclusion.
ideas of the thesis statement
comments: summary; evaluation; opinion final statement
1. The ideas of the thesis statement appear in the first sentence of the conclusion. They are in different words than those in the introduction. 2. Comments can include a summary of all the main ideas, an evaluation of the ideas, and or the writers opinion. 3. The final statement is a final thought that ties up the topic for the reader.
Identify the parts of a conclusion in these examples. Conclusion 1 The Effects of Volcanoes Volcanoes seem to have a significant effect on the climate and the soils in the areas in which they occur. The climates seem to become cooler over a long period of time after an eruption, and the soils become enriched as the volcanic lava and ash are broken down. Therefore, volcanoes are both destructive and beneficial to nature.
Conclusion 2 The Causes of Laughter To summarize, people laugh a good portion of their lives for various reasons. Babies laugh when something no longer is frightening to them. Adults sometimes laugh when they are trying to cover up a fear, or when they remember something in the past that at the time was frustrating, or when a behavior seems inconsistent with the situation. Laughter helps people go through hard times in life and helps them enjoy situations. It is therefore, important that society never forget how to laugh.
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PRATICE 1 Identifying the Parts of a Conclusion Read each question and the conclusion. Underline the possible thesis statement ideas. In the margin, write the type of comment used: summary, evaluation, and/or opinion. Star (*) the beginning of the final statement. Conclusion 1 (Question: What are the effects of running?) Run for Your Life In summary, exercise is the way to be healthier and to live longer, and running is a great example of such exercise. Among many other benefits, running keeps calcium in the bones to protect them against osteoporosis; helps reduce the risk of heart disease; reduces problems associated with excess weight such as diabetes, gall bladder disease, gout, and certain cancers; helps muscles increase flexibility and improve strength; helps relieve stress; and even makes people become more intelligent, live longer, and feel more joy. For these, and many other reasons, people should run as a habitual activity. In essence, running means to be young forever!
Conclusion 2 (Question: What is the real cost of nuclear energy?) The accelerating Cost of Nuclear Energy In conclusion, the power produced by nuclear plants is neither cheap, safe, nor clean. Even though scientists can estimate the price of producing nuclear energy, they cannot predict the price that people will have to pay for living in a world full of radiation. After a few very dangerous explosions, many things have to be reevaluated. One of the people who lived close to Three Mile Island during the accident in 1979 said, Even if only a little bit of radiation escapes from a nuclear facility, causing cancer in you or your child, you will not be comforted by the fact that it was just a little bit. There is no such thing as a one-hundred-percent safe nuclear energy plant and there is no way to calculate the price of the life of a human being.
Conclusion 3 (Question: What are the reasons to avoid abortion?) Your Choice, but Not Your Life The fight against abortion will continue in the world and people will continue to look for a real, precise, and scientific answer to the question of when life begins. Meanwhile, as we find answers, we should give the benefit of the doubt to life. For example, if we are driving a car in the night and we see a dark shadow that looks like a person, should we run through it just because we are not sure the shadow is a human being? In the same way, we should not let abortion take the lives of children just because we are not sure they are living human beings.
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PRACTICE 2 Identifying Appropriate Conclusions Below are thesis statements, their supporting topic sentences and conclusions. Based on this information, decide which ones are appropriate conclusions.
1. Thesis statement: Watching television is not a waste of time. a. It is a valuable educational tool. b. It provides entertainment to help people relax. c. It provides something a family can have in common to discuss. Critics of television will continue to put down the boob tube. But, because of its educational value, its entertainment value, and its provision of things people can discuss together, families are going to continue watching television for a long time. Indeed, watching television is a good way to spend ones time.
2. Thesis statement: Communicating in a foreign language can create some embarrassing misunderstandings. a. Mispronouncing words can lead to real embarrassment. b. Misunderstanding what someone says can create amusing problems. c. Misusing vocabulary can really make one blush. Everyone who speaks a foreign language is bound to have misunderstandings from time to time. What you need to do is go to the laboratory as often as you can to improve your language skills. The people there are very nice, and they will help you with your grammar and pronunciation.
3. Thesis statement: Television commercials are entertaining. a. The Coca-Cola commercial is a good example of an entertaining commercial. b. The Chevrolet commercial is as good as any situation comedy. c. The Fritos commercial is particularly amusing. If you do not have a television, you are certainly missing out on the fun of commercials. There are also a lot of entertaining programs to see. In addition, the news programs can keep you informed about the world. Indeed, everyone should have a television set.
4. Thesis statement: The reasons for coming to State University center around the services it provides. a. State University offers a superior program in my major. b. In addition, the university has high-quality academic resources. c. State also offers quality student services. d. The recreational activities make State even better. The challenge of a diversified and excellent program and the low tuition are the reasons to come to State University. This is really a wise decision. If one is looking for a quality education at a reasonable price, then one should consider State as the place to enroll.
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5. Thesis statement: In order to make a good impression at a job interview, one should prepare well for it. a. The first thing one should do is plan the answers to the possible questions the interviewer might ask. b. Then one should carefully plan and prepare what to wear. c. Finally one should make sure to arrive on time. It is necessary to be well prepared for a job interview. Having the answers ready, being properly dressed and being on time can all help to make a good impression on the interviewer. If one follows these steps, they will find themselves sitting behind the desk at that coveted job in no time at all.
USING TRANSITIONS IN THE CONCLUSION Often a writer will use a word or phrase that signals to readers that they are moving from one thought to another, or from one section of an essay to another. These words are called transitions, and they are used to link ideas together. Some common transitions used to signal conclusions are listed below. The examples show how to use these transitions and how to punctuate them correctly. In short, In summary, Thus, Therefore, In conclusion, To conclude,
To summarize,
to introduce a quick summary of the main points: (In short, / In summary, / To summarize,) there are three main ways that people should prepare themselves for employment: study the job market often used in the last sentence of a conclusion: (Thus, / Therefore,) one must have the proper training and necessary skills in order to find good employment. may be used in both of the above ways: To conclude, / In conclusion,
PRACTICE 3 Comparing Introductions and Conclusions Compare the following introductions and conclusions. Follow the directions. Underline the thesis statement in the introduction and the ideas of the thesis statement in the conclusion. Star (*) the beginning of the hook and the final sentence. Circle the general comments in the introduction and any opinions, evaluations, or feelings in the conclusion. Draw a box around any transitions. Use the introduction and the conclusion to help you outline the essay.
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Essay 1 Introduction In 1885, Karl Benz, a forty-one-year-old German engineer, made the first car in the world. From that, humanity has entered the car stage. Roads the world over are crowded with cars. Cars take a person from place to place quickly. With cars, it is possible for people to work in the city and live in the countryside. Although cars are very useful, they cause noise, pollution, and serious accidents. Conclusion In conclusion, cars bring pleasure to millions of people, but also loud noise, pollution, and death. Since the making of the first car, cars have revolutionized our lives. Cars have changed the way people work and live. Cars have changed what people do in their spare time. Cars have become an important part of life, but the problems they cause cannot be ignored. People are finding ways to deal with these problems. Someday other kinds of power will take the place of gasoline, and stricter laws will reduce the bad effects of car use. Thus, because cars will always be with us, future cars must be noiseless and safer.
Essay 2 Introduction Getting divorced nowadays has become as common as getting married. It is like buying wedding rings and then throwing them away. Still, for parents, it does not seem to be a big problem. But for children it is more than a simple pair of rings. Children are devastated when they think they are at fault and often feel anger, loneliness, depression, and have low selfesteem.
Conclusion In short, children are still the most vulnerable part of the family and the effects of divorce on them are devastating. Children think they are at fault. They feel great anger, loneliness, depression, and low self-esteem. Considering what parents mean to their children and how much children need their parents, it is sad to see how divorce continues. It seems that many couples have forgotten that children are not just pretty rings.
Essay 3 Introduction Would you mind if I smoke? I wanted to say, Yes, I do mind, yet I said, No, go ahead. Although I really hate the smell of smoke, and even seeing someone smoking, if the person politely asks my permission, I cannot say, Do not smoke. In the past few years the bad effects of smoking have been scientifically proven. Still, there are a number of people who keep smoking. There are several good health reasons why people must not smoke.
Conclusion People must not smoke for several reasons. Smoking causes many diseases that are serious and make peoples lives shorter. For women, smoking influences the womans child and her body. Also, the smoke from cigarettes gives even nonsmokers bad effects. Therefore, smokers should realize these awful facts and must quit smoking before they come down with a bad disease and die.
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PRATICE 4 Writing a Conclusion Read the following essay. Follow the directions and write your own conclusion. Underline the thesis statement in the introduction. Underline the topic sentences in the second and third paragraphs. Write a conclusion. Remember to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Restate the ideas in the thesis statement. Use transitions. Add comments using summary, evaluation, and or opinion. End with a final statement.
Street Beggars Are Not Always Homeless Tom is a man who stands on a street comer with a ragged cardboard sign. Homeless and Hungry Please Help is scrawled across the dirty cardboard in black Magic Marker. Tom said he is grateful for the people who give him money. I dont force people to give me money, Tom said. I just stand here and accept it. Its my way of making a living this is America, the land of opportunity, he said. What drives people to stand on a street comer and beg? Some people like to beg, and others need to beg. Some people pretend to be homeless when they really are not. One example is Tom. He eventually admitted he has a house, but insisted he would lose his house if he did not panhandle for a living. I need to scrape by Tom said. But scraping by for Tom means making $250 on really good days, and from $50 to $ 100 a day usually, he said. Another example is Frank, who also has a house. He is out asking people for money because he likes the freedom of his own hours and moving around whenever he wants to. Frank said he averages about $75 a day. However, some people feel forced to beg. Ed is homeless, but he does not beg for money very often only when he cannot find an odd job to do. Willy lost his job in Oregon 20 years ago and has been on the road ever since. He does not have a job, car, or house. Brent Crane, the executive director of the Utah Valley Food and Shelter Coalition, said almost all of the needy are too proud to ask for handouts, but they will come to the shelter when they want help.
(Courtesy of The daily Universe, Adapted with permission.)
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WRITING BODY PARAGRAPHS

Body paragraphs are the heart of the essay, for their function is to explain, illustrate, discuss, or prove the thesis statement. Keep in mind these points about body paragraphs: 1. Each body paragraph discusses one aspect of the main topic. If, for example, you were asked to write a paper about the effects of smoking cigarettes on a persons health, then each paragraph should have an effect as its topic. 2. The controlling idea in the body paragraph should echo the central idea in the thesis statement. If your thesis statement about the effects of smoking cigarettes is Cigarette smoking is a destructive habit, then the controlling idea in each paragraph should have something to do with the destructiveness of the effects. 3. The body paragraphs should have coherence and unity. The order of the paragraphs should not be random. Just as sentences need to flow smoothly in a paragraph, the train of thought at the end of one paragraph should be picked up at the beginning of the next; this can be achieved through the use of transitions.
Each body paragraph discusses an aspect of the main topic expressed in the thesis statement. Once you have decided on your thesis, you need to break the thesis down logically into topics for your paragraphs. These topics are, in essence, supporting points for your thesis. How you break down your thesis into topics depends on your thesis statement. There are several principles for logically breaking down your thesis. You can break it into topics according to causes, effects (benefits, advantages, disadvantages, results), steps in a process, types (kinds, categories, classes), examples, points of comparison and contrast, and reasons.
Here are some thesis statements and possible breakdowns into topics for the body paragraphs: 1. Thesis statement: The village is the best environment for one to live in. What makes it a good environment? the cooperation among people its lack of pollution its security The central idea in the thesis is best environment, so this is a logical basis for a breakdown. Each paragraph would discuss a different element of the environment that is attractive to the writer.
2. Thesis statement: In order to make a good impression at a job interview, one should prepare well for it. What should one do to prepare for the interview? plan answers to the possible questions plan and prepare what to wear make sure to arrive on time The central idea of the thesis is prepare well. Here the writer chose to break down the thesis into steps of a process.
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3. Thesis statement: Watching television is not a waste of time. Why is it not a waste of time? it is a valuable educational tool it helps people relax it provides something for families to discuss With the central idea of not a waste of time, the writers approach here is to discuss the reasons television is not a waste of time in other words, to discuss the advantages of having television.
4. New York and Hong Kong are more alike than people think. In what ways are they alike? they are both enormous both have many different ethnic groups both are port cities In this breakdown, the writer selected points of similarity to develop the thesis.
5. Thesis statement: Students should be allowed to manage the bookstore. Why should they be allowed to manage it? it would benefit the students the bookstore would benefit the school would benefit In this essay, the writer discusses the reasons for allowing students to manage the bookstore, and in this case the reasons are the benefits.
One of the challenges in essay writing is finding the right support to back up the thesis statement. Without sufficient support, an essay becomes vague. Writing in English is usually specific. The writer tries to convince the reader with concrete examples, illustrations, and facts, and does not leave the reader to guess what the writer means. The essay below is vague because the writer has not given enough support for a reader to be convinced. Charge it! Almost all Americans use credit cards. Over the past few decades, credit cards have become the most common method of payment for almost anything. The use of credit cards is a danger to the economy. First of all, credit cards are too easy to get. Since the companies which offer the cards are very big, they cannot check on the financial situation of every person who applies. For this reason, almost any person can get a card whether that person is responsible with money or not. Secondly, the cards are too easy to use. They are accepted everywhere. There are many places where you cannot use a check, but you can always use your credit card. There are also many times when you absolutely need a credit card, for example when you buy online. In addition, you can charge large amounts of purchases on your credit cards since the card companies give you generous credit limits. Thirdly, you can spread out your payments over a very long time. You do not have to pay the whole amount right away; on the contrary, you only have to pay a little every month. Of course, most of what you pay is the interest that the company charges. In this way, it is easy to buy a lot more than you can really afford, but you do not notice it. In conclusion, credit cards are dangerous for the economy because people get them too easily, use them too often, and never have to pay off their debts. In this way, many Americans are living beyond their means.
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The essay above is quite vague because it is too general. It needs more specific facts and examples to make it into a really good essay. Below are some aspects that would add support to the body paragraphs in the essay: market share of credit cards number of major bank cards issued in the US percentage of households with credit cards average yearly interest rates average monthly minimum payment required use of credit cards places where credit cards are preferred By adding this information, the writer would enrich the discussion and would be able to convince the reader of the point defended more easily.
Now read the following essay and notice how facts and examples help convince the reader of the writers point of view.
Greenpeace The Greenpeace Foundation is an organization which consists of environmentalists from around the world. It began in the early seventies as a response to the increasing disregard from human and non-human life on our planet. Greenpeace primarily fights for the preservation of life against three situations: nuclear testing, whale hunting and seal hunting. The first major protest of Greenpeace happened at Amchitka. This is a small island in the North Pacific off the coast of Alaska. The United States had been using this area for testing nuclear bombs underground, and another test was scheduled for 1971. The members of Greenpeace decided to invade the waters around the island. They thought that the US would not explode a bomb and take human lives. Unfortunately for Greenpeace, the ships carrying its members to Amchitka were stopped, and the test happened anyway later that year. However, Greenpeace did manage to embarrass the US, and, in 1972, it decided no longer to use Amchitka for nuclear testing. Protesting nuclear testing, however, is not all that the Greenpeace Foundation does. Greenpeace also fights against Russian, Japanese and Australian whalers. The first fight happened in 1975 in the North Pacific and was against Russian whalers. Greenpeace volunteers put their ship and themselves between whaling boats and the whales. On this first trip, Greenpeace got the whalers to stop. The Russians decided that they did not want to kill people as well as whales. Since that first victory, there have been yearly whaling expeditions by Greenpeace to save whales from whalers. Greenpeaces goal is to save whales from becoming extinct. The Greenpeace Foundation also wishes to save the harp seal from becoming extinct. Norwegian and Canadian seal hunters kill thousands of seals each year in order to get their pelts and sell them. Greenpeaces first seal expedition took place in 1976 off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador. During this journey, Greenpeace could not prevent the killing of 169,000 harp seals, but the workers did get the worlds attention. As it does with the whale expeditions, Greenpeace continues to fight against harp seal hunting. In short, the Greenpeace Foundation has grown to be a true defender of the environment. Since the early 1970s, it has protested in substantial ways against nuclear testing, whale hunting and harp seal hunting. Their greatest victory has been to focus the worlds attention on these environmental problems, and, in this way, they have gotten the countries and people responsible to at least slow down their destruction of the environment.
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WRITING WITH TRANSITIONS

Transitions are special words and phrases used in English, especially in formal writing. They show the logical relationship between sentences and ideas. Also, a transition sentence frequently is used to link one paragraph to the next paragraph. Because academic papers use more formal language than other kinds of writing, you can expect to see more transitions in academic writing. You have practiced using transitions in a conclusion. The transition used then signaled the reader that you were about to finish your essay. Now we will see transitions that signal other meanings.
FREQUENTLY USED TRANSITIONS Here are groups of frequently used transition words with punctuation and example sentences of how they can be used. for additional information: and, also, too, another, furthermore, moreover, in addition 1. The country was in confusion, and the president could not do anything about it. The President decided to call a special session of Congress. He also wanted to call together some important political leaders. 2. He called the governors of the states, too. 3. Another group he called was the Cabinet. 4. The President decided to call a special session of Congress. Furthermore, (Moreover, / In addition,) he was considering bringing the governors together.
for clarification: in fact, as a matter of fact, that is, in other words 1. There are some people who like Gloria Estefan. In fact, they adore her. 2. As a matter of fact, there are people who worship the ground she walks on. 3. That is, (In other words,) they follow after her, watch or keep track of her every move, by every recording she makes, and organize Gloria Estefan fan clubs.
for examples: for example, for instance, to illustrate, such as 1. Firefighters must receive training to be effective. For example, (For instance,) they must learn how to protect themselves from various kinds of fires and how to rescue people from all sizes of buildings. 2. To illustrate their ability, the firefighters demonstrated rescuing people from high-rise buildings on the corner of Main and Center Streets yesterday at noon. 3. They did activities such as climbing tall ladders to open windows on the seventh floor, carrying stuffed figures down the ladders over their shoulders, and dropping the figures into safety nets.
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for contrast: by contrast, on the other hand, however, but 1. A Porsche is an expensive car. By contrast, a Nissan is quite inexpensive. 2. A Mercedes is more comfortable than a Dodge. On the other hand, a Dodge is more economical. 3. A Ford is less expensive than a Mercedes; however, (, but) it is not as comfortable.
for cause: because, since, for this reason 1. Because (Since) he got to class late, he started the final exam 30 minutes after the rest of the students. 2. He started the final exam 30 minutes after the rest of the students because (since) he got to class late. 3. He got to class late. For this reason, he started the final exam 30 minutes after the rest of the students.
for effect: Consequently, As a consequence, As a result, Therefore, 1. He started the final exam late. Consequently, (As a consequence, / As a result,) his grade was lower than he hoped. 2. He started the final exam late; therefore, his grade was lower than he hoped.
for order: First (Firstly) First of all Before More important Second (Secondly) Now Next One way After After that Later Another way Last Finally Most important
1. Scientists try to explain why dinosaurs became extinct. First, (First of all,) they think the world became colder. Second, (Next,) they think the colder temperature destroyed many plants that dinosaurs ate. Finally, (Last,) they think dinosaurs were not able to adapt to these new conditions. 2. Before scientists realized the big bones of dinosaurs were from an extinct group of animals, they thought they were mammoth bones. After they collected all the bones they could find, they put them together. 3. Now when scientists find dinosaur bones, they put them in plaster. Later they carefully take off the plaster and reconstruct the skeletons. 4. One way to take off the plaster is with small chisels. Another way is with soft brushes. 5. It is important to study fossil bones where they are found. More important is to study the position they are in and the surroundings of the site. Most important is to carefully preserve the bones for posterity.
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PRATICE 1 Comparing Paragraphs with or without Transitions Read and compare paragraphs 1A with 1B and 2A with 2B. Circle the transitions. Write the meaning of each transition in the margin. Describe the differences you see between A and B. Which paragraph is easier to understand?
Paragraph 1 Apples
A. An economic reason for keeping apples in cold storage is the constant demand for them in the grocery store. Parents are still sending apple in school lunches in April and during the peak apple harvest season of September and October. Products made with fresh apples are in constant demand. If apples are too costly, the demand goes down. The cost of storing apples is spread over the total price charged year round.
B. An economic reason for keeping apples in cold storage is the constant demand for them in the grocery store. For instance, parents are still sending apples in school lunches in April as often as during the peak apple harvest season of September and October. Furthermore, products made with fresh apples, such as apple pie and cakes, are in constant demand. However, if apples are too costly, the demand goes down. Consequently, the cost of storing apples is spread over the total price charged yeararound.
Your comments: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 2 Flu and Colds
A. When the cold and flu season hits, parents and children need all the help they can get. Children get colds about six times a year or more and get the flu at least once a year. Colds develop slowly with sneezing, stuffiness, runny nose, thick coughing, and a raspy sore throat. Sometimes children have a mild fever. Flu comes on very fast with sudden chills and fever, an upset stomach, and a headache. These seasonal illnesses are no fun for the parents. They are no fun for the children.
B. When the cold and flu season hits, parents and children need all the help they can get. As a matter of fact, children get colds about six times a year or more, and, similarly, get the flu at least once a year. Colds develop slowly with sneezing, stuffiness, runny nose, thick coughing, and a raspy sore throat. Furthermore, sometimes children have a mild fever. Flu, on the other hand, comes on very fast with sudden chills and fever, an upset stomach, and a headache. These seasonal illnesses are no fun for either the parents or the children.
Your comments: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
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PRATICE 2 Adding Transitions Read the paragraphs that follow. Rewrite each paragraph and add transitions. Be sure to keep the writers meaning. Use correct punctuation.
Paragraph 1 Vaccines Parents usually try to keep their children safe from different dangers common in our day. Violence, drugs, immorality, delinquency, and other bad habits are some factors. There is a danger, an invisible but real danger, called viruses, that can attack without any notice. Specific vaccines can be used in order to avoid diseases caused by viruses. These vaccines can start in childhood as early as the second month of life and can be given through adulthood. Immunization is the only way to protect against this invisible but real danger. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 2 A Blind Date A blind date is a date with a person you have not met. Some people are too shy to meet a boyfriend or girlfriend. They need help. A friend calls a shy friend and says, I know a wonderful person, and I think you two would get along. Would you let me make a date for you to go together to the next baseball game? These two strangers go on a date together. It can be terrible. It can be a waste of time. It can be fun. It can be the first step to meeting your marriage partner. You will never know unless you decide to try it. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
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DEFENDING YOUR POSITION

An academic-argument or position essay is one that states a clear opinion of one side of an issue and supports that opinion with logical reasoning, facts, explanations, and reliable opinions of others. The audience is more interested in how convincingly you support your opinion than in the actual side you take. Academic-argument papers use many organizational models: summary report, cause-andeffect, comparison-and-contrast, pro-con, among others. In showing your side of the issue, you must use the model that will best explain your point of view. No matter what model you use, you must make a clear connection between your opinion and the facts and avoid using emotional reasoning. Therefore, as you write your essay, you must make sure that you have: given enough facts, reasons, and details to make your view believable; included facts or reasons that are logical and clearly related to defending one side of the topic; explained the details of the facts or reasons (not simply listed them); answered the question / discussed the quotation without getting off the topic. Academic-argument papers should use formal language and avoid over-generalizing words, such as always and never. Unsupported feelings do not belong in this type of paper because facts and ideas, not emotions, prove your opinion. Transitions become very important in an essay of this type. They help the reader follow your reasoning and your proof. If transitions are lacking, the reader will have a hard time seeing relationships of one idea to another in your argument. Also, transitions are an important part of the formal language necessary in an academic-argument paper. When writing this type of paper, assume that no one knows enough about the subject to agree with your position. You must not only educate but convince the reader that your position is correct. By taking this attitude, your paper will be more effective. Finally, a strong conclusion in an academic-argument paper is vital. If the reasoning in the body of the paper is presented in a clear, convincing order, the summary of the main points and your resulting opinion will also be strong. If the body of the paper is weak, the conclusion will be weak as well, and the reader will not be convinced or even sympathetic to your position.
PRACTICE 1 Looking at an Argument Read the following argument essay. How does the writer try to convince you to eat dirt?
Eat Dirt! As our lives become busier, good nutrition and money are often sacrificed. It is all too easy to stop by a vending machine or fast-food restaurant for a quick, but expensive meal. Dirt is a reasonable solution to the problem and it can be a very important part of your diet. First, soil is easy to find and it is very inexpensive. Bucketful after bucketful can be found in your own garden or practically anywhere. In addition to being readily available, most soil is free. Second, not only is dirt free, but it is also full of nutrients. The human body requires certain minerals that are essential for health. Among these important minerals are iron,
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copper, and zinc (Zimmerman, 1992). Lambert and Linch (1991) cite studies carried out by the National soil Society in which 20-milligram soil samples taken from every state in the union showed enough traces of iron, copper, and zinc to meet or exceed the U.S.R.D.A. daily requirements. Third, and perhaps the most important of all, many people find that soil has a pleasant taste. In a recent survey conducted by the Department of Food and Nutrition at Cook Well University, 49 out of 50 students rated traditional recipes substituting dirt for flour as tasting superior to the recipes made in the traditional way with flour. In fact, many students admitted they enjoyed eating dirt all by itself (Johnson, 1991). In sum, dirt can be a viable option for our busy, yet poor lifestyles. It is probably faster to fill a cup full of dirt from the front yard than to go to the local McDonalds. It is certainly less expensive and probably more nutritious.
ACADEMIC-ARGUMENT MODELS Academic-argument papers have organizational patterns that can be illustrated with models. Some models for academic arguments are below:
Model 1 I. Introduction with thesis statement hook the reader with an interesting beginning describe or give background information on your topic thesis statement your position or opinion about the topic II. Body paragraph 1: other viewpoint show the arguments that are against your opinion (make this part short) transition agree that these arguments are true, but you will show that your arguments are better III. Body paragraph 2: your first argument show the first argument that will support your opinion use facts and examples to prove your point IV. Body paragraph 3: your second argument show the first argument that will support your opinion use facts and examples to prove your point V. Body paragraph 4: your third argument show the first argument that will support your opinion use facts and examples to prove your point (There may be more body paragraphs.) VI. Concluding paragraph restate your position about the topic review all the reasons (in a short form) why your opinion is the most correct end with a statement that ties it up for the reader
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Model 2 I. Introduction with thesis statement hook the reader with an interesting beginning describe or give background information on your topic thesis statement your position or opinion about the topic II. Body paragraph 1: your first argument show the first argument that will support your opinion use facts and examples to prove your point III. Body paragraph 2: your second argument show the first argument that will support your opinion use facts and examples to prove your point IV. Body paragraph 3: your third argument show the first argument that will support your opinion use facts and examples to prove your point (There may be more body paragraphs.) V. Body paragraph 4: other viewpoint transition state that even though your position is valid, others disagree show the arguments that are against your opinion (make this part short) VI. Concluding paragraph restate your position about the topic review all the reasons (in a short form) why your opinion is the most correct end with a statement that ties it up for the reader
Model 3 I. Introduction with thesis statement hook the reader with an interesting beginning describe or give background information on your topic thesis statement your position or opinion about the topic II. Body paragraph 1: opposition between the other viewpoint and your viewpoint first aspect show the other side first and then your side III. Body paragraph 2: opposition between the other viewpoint and your viewpoint second aspect show the other side first and then your side IV. Body paragraph 3: opposition between the other viewpoint and your viewpoint third aspect show the other side first and then your side (There may be more body paragraphs.) VI. Concluding paragraph restate your position about the topic review all the reasons (in a short form) why your opinion is the most correct end with a statement that ties it up for the reader
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PRACTICE 2 Sample Academic-Argument Essay Read the following essay and decide what model it uses. Underline all the transitions. Early Steady Dating 1 Young people in the U.S. are steady-dating too early. Some even constantly date the same person from as young as 13 years old. Some people think that this trend is fine because everyone has the right to choose when to begin dating and for how long. But more and more professionals who work with teenagers are saying that early dating damages social developments, causes false love, and creates early, unstable marriages. Developing socially is a very important part of becoming a contributing member of society. Having many friends of both sexes has been seen as a vital factor in this social development. People who group-date during their teens or who date many different people before they finally get married seem to have a variety of friends during their adult life, can relate to other people in more positive and accepting ways, and have a more lasting relationship in their marriage. If a young teenager focuses socially on only one person, a type of social handicap can occur because only one person is the major stimulus for learning how to get along with others. Usually the cause of early steady-dating is that one or both of the partners have unmet love needs; therefore, they develop a dependency that is misinterpreted as true love. Perhaps their parents were divorced or abusive, so they did not feel the love that is necessary for a healthy self-image. They find someone who fills those strong needs and they become emotionally bonded to that person to the exclusion of all others. This is a very dangerous situation because the teen years are a time of numerous emotional and physical changes. These changes may not occur in both people at the same time, or the changes in emotional needs may conflict so that one person in the couple suddenly becomes disinterested in the other. Therefore, a person who bonds with a partner early could very well be abruptly abandoned for someone else. This abandonment might cause further damage to the persons self-value, and he or she will go looking for someone else who can fill the growing and driving need for love. There is also a danger of marrying too young and having children too soon in these early steady-dating situations. Because the emotional bond that young people feel may be misinterpreted as love, teen marriage sometimes occurs often against the better judgment of parents and older friends and even some peers. The young people might argue, Arent we able to choose for ourselves? Have you forgotten what true love really is? The arguments continue until they get their way or run away to get married. In a marriage based on false love, the emotional entanglements become even more complex. What was thought to be a solution now becomes a complex problem. She is left at home alone with the baby while he goes off to job he must have because they have bills to pay. He might go out with the boys in the evening, something he never did before because he was going out with only her. Moreover, he was the only one she cared to know and associate with during high school, but now she begins thinking about the boys in her class who are preparing for a profession or vocation and wondering How would it have been if? Therefore, because of the false expectations before marriage and the reality of the situation after marriage, both people could feel betrayed and even more lonely and unloved. In young marriages, growing up together is so painful that divorce is very likely. Although there is strong evidence against early steady-dating, those who are against any age restraints claim that they are defending a young persons right to choose. They say that establishing an age for steady-dating is damaging to the ego of young people and causes rebellion. Rather than more rules, they say that youth need more freedom so that better adult-youth relationships can develop. In other words, when adults respond to the pressure of teens to do what they want, peace will reign. These claims may have some degree of truth, but total freedom is not the answer to the problems caused by steady-dating too young. In conclusion, early steady-dating can be detrimental to a young persons social development. Furthermore, relationships based on false love often result in early
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marriage, which throws young people into the raw realities of the demands of family. The marriage becomes unstable, and divorce occurs. Research and experience teach that having an age limit for steady-dating is not only wise, but highly advisable.
STATING OPINIONS WITH MODALS Because most academic-argument papers discuss issues on which people have opinions one way or the other, modals play a very important part in trying to convince the reader about a certain position. Modals that are commonly used to persuade or argue are: can may will must should had better could might would have to ought to The following examples show the meaning and use of modals for academic-argument writing.
for an opinion or possibility: may, might, can, could Different government laws may (might, can, could) have an effect on the number of legal immigrants.
for degrees of possibility (if the conditions are met): weak possibility: may, might, can, could A new law might create future problems. moderate possibility: would The citizens would be quite upset if there were a great change in immigration policies. strong possibility: will Illegal immigration will spread if authorities are not given greater power.
for a strong opinion should, ought to Immigration should (ought to) be controlled in order to make sure that there are jobs for Americans who pay taxes.
for a strong need: must, have to In order to make sure that there are jobs for Americans, immigration must be controlled. People have to become educated about the types of jobs available.
Negative forms of modals also have a very strong influence on an argument and can be used in academic-argument writing as well. Here are some that might help strengthen your paper. not advisable or possible: may not, might not, should not The new legislature may not (might not) want to pay for more police officers to control gangs, but they should not change the programs they have already approved. strongly not advisable or possible: would not It would not be a good idea for citizens to take up arms against these gangs.
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impossible: cannot, will not We cannot have gangs controlling our cities! New laws will not have any effect unless there is some way to enforce them.
PRACTICE 3 Recognizing Modals in Arguments Read each paragraph of the following essay. Circle all the modals. Write the meaning of each modal circled in the margin.
Euthanasia Paragraph 1 Supporters of euthanasia emphasize that it should be legalized. But a patients trust in the doctors wholehearted service would be hard to maintain if doctors are licensed to kill patients (Leon, 1988). Suppose that you are old, homeless, in poor health, and alone in the world. Maybe you are brought to a free hospital. Since doctors have the right to kill you, you may not be able to sleep at night, being fearful that a nurse or intern may enter with a syringe full of lethal medicine. Even if a nurse comes in with a syringe full of penicillin, it would be difficult for you to believe him or her. Lack of trust, may make other treatments less effective, too. As a consequence, fewer patients would receive the care they really need. So legalization of euthanasia should not be accepted.
Paragraph 2 If euthanasia is legalized, it would bring destruction to the autonomy and dignity of humankind. For example, doctors might be given supreme power over their patients lives, especially when the patients are unable to think for themselves, such as those in a comatose state or with severe mental illness. That could mean that the right to choose ones own death could be changed to the right of someone else to request anothers death. Doctors might also be tempted to kill their patients who suffer from terrible pain. Only the law prevents this from happening. In Holland, where euthanasia is legal, a recent survey of 300 physicians shows that over 40 percent had performed euthanasia more than five times (Leon, 1988). If euthanasia is legalized in the United States, physicians would have the overwhelming burden of deciding when to take away the autonomy and dignity of their patients.
Paragraph 3 Lastly, if euthanasia for terminally ill people becomes legalized, the number of teenage suicides might increase. For instance, when adolescents see that it is permissible for sick people to choose to kill themselves, they may judge it to be permissible for them to do the same thing when they are in pain, even though much teenage pain is psychological rather than physical. Therefore, it will put young people in serious danger if the government accepts the legalization of euthanasia.
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THE PROCESS ESSAY

A process is a series of actions leading to an expected or planned outcome. There are two types of process analysis: those that instruct or direct and those that explain or analyze. Directional process essays tell how to do something. For example, a directional process might explain how to find an apartment. The purpose of this type of essay is to clarify the steps in the procedure so that the reader can recreate the steps and the results. The informational process essay has a different purpose from a directional process essay. Its main purpose is to inform, explain or analyze. The reader is gaining an understanding of the process; he or she does not necessarily expect to be able to recreate the process. For example, you could explain how World War II began or how hurricanes form. Although process essays that explain or instruct have different purposes, they can be developed using the same pattern of development and organization.
When you are planning your essay, you should bear in mind the following advice: 1. Be aware of the audience. When you are planning a process essay, your first question should be, What do my readers know about the topic? Identifying the audience is important in deciding what to include and what to omit in the essay. For instance, suppose that you decided to explain how to paint a room to an inexperienced audience people who have never painted a room before. You would have to be very specific and assume that the readers know little or nothing about the process. However, if your audience is made up of professional or experienced painters, you would have to approach the assignment differently. In this case, you would probably explain a special technique that your audience might not be aware of. In general, though, you should assume that readers know little about the topic being explained, but have the same general knowledge you do. For instance, it can be assumed that most people know what a paintbrush is, but it cannot be assumed that your readers know which kind of brush is best to use with a certain type of paint.
2. Order the steps chronologically. Since a process paper describes a sequence of steps leading to some preconceived end, it is important that the steps be discussed in the order that they occur; in other words, the steps should be arranged in chronological order. This principle of organization is the same as the one used for narration. In a process essay, ordering ideas chronologically is vital, especially if readers are to be able to recreate the process. The only time to break from chronological order is when you explain some unfamiliar term or give some word of advice or caution.
3. Make sure that the process is complete. Whether you are explaining how to do something or how something was done, make sure to include all the steps in the process. Obviously, if you are explaining how to do something and leave out one of the steps, your readers will not be able to recreate the process and get the same result. A good way to test the thoroughness of the steps of a process is to have someone follow each step exactly as explained. For example, if you wanted to write an essay for the campus International Student Associations newsletter about how to get a drivers license. You might list the steps as follows: a) Go to the Motor Vehicle Department in your area. b) At the Motor Vehicle Department, the first thing you will do is take a vision test. c) After that, you will take a written test.
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d) Then you will take a driving test. e) Finally, you will pay the fee. Is this list complete? Certainly, these are the major steps involved, but there are many other things that the reader will need to know to get a drivers license. The following is an example of the expanded list of steps: a) First obtain a pamphlet with the driving rules from the Motor Vehicle Department. You can do this by telephoning them at 555-3333 and asking them to mail you the pamphlet. b) Study the pamphlet carefully. c) Before you go to the Motor Vehicle Department, be sure that your car is in proper working order. d) Bring your birth certificate or your passport with you. e) Bring $30 in cash. f) Have a friend drive you to the MVD on Main Street and Vine Avenue. You can park at the rear of the building. g) Get in the line marked Drivers License Exam. h) Fill out the information on the card they give you. i) Take the vision test. j) Then take the written exam. k) If you pass, then you will take the driving test. l) If you pass that, you can pay the fee of $30. This version is certainly more thorough than the original list, but it is still incomplete. For example, it would be a good idea to give the reader some more instructions about taking the written and the driving tests. The more detailed, the better the process essay is.
4. Be sure to define new or unfamiliar terms. This is especially true of process essays that give instructions. Sometimes a process description may introduce a word or phrase that the reader might not understand. Since it makes little sense to have the reader attempt to complete a process without understanding the particular terms involved, always define what he or she might not know. If you are explaining how to repair a flat tire, for example, you might have to describe or define what a lug wrench is; otherwise, the reader would not know which tool is being discussed and could not continue with the process. In the example of the process of getting a drivers license, it might be necessary to explain the meaning of a few terms that will be used during the test, for example oncoming traffic or Class A license: When you are filling out the form, check the box that says Class A. A Class A license is for those who want to drive automobiles, not trucks or motorcycles.
5. Warn your reader of difficulties in the process. When planning a process essay, try to anticipate what problems the reader might have in understanding or recreating the process. If one step is particularly difficult, warn the reader of this. Be sure to warn the reader of what not to do as well. For example, if you are explaining how to get a drivers license, it is a good idea to warn the reader about some of the tricky things that might come up during the driving test. Perhaps you should warn your reader to practice parallel parking before going to take the driving test, or advise the reader to fill out the forms carefully and to ask questions if he or she is confused. You might also advise the reader what to do if the car stalls.
6. Explain the purpose of a step when necessary. A process essay is more than just a list of steps. Expect the reader to want to understand the process, whether he or she will attempt to recreate it or merely to read it.
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Therefore, you should explain the rationale behind the steps when the rationale is not obvious. In other words, try to explain if only briefly the purpose of the step. This kind of explanation is especially useful when the reader may skip the step because he or she thinks that it does not serve any real purpose. For example, in step c) of the drivers license process, explain why the reader should see to it that the car is in proper working order. (For example, the driver may get a citation for having a brake light out.)
7. Try to make your thesis statement persuasive. A thesis statement for a process essay does not have to have a strong central idea; in fact, it can be as simple as, There are three major steps involved in changing a flat tire. However, since the essay has its underlying purpose more than just a list of steps (because those steps should be explained and analyzed), it is a good idea to have a thesis that contains a strong central idea. The thesis statement might be, Changing a flat tire is really quite easy. This statement will require showing that the process is indeed easy. However, if the thesis is, Changing a flat tire is a horrible experience, it would be necessary to show how horrible the process is.
One of the challenges of writing a process essay is deciding where to divide the essay into paragraphs. Generally speaking, most processes break down into a beginning, a middle and an end. Here are a few pointers for dividing process steps logically into paragraphs: Introduction: The introductory paragraph should introduce the topic and establish the purpose for writing the process. The reader should understand why the process is being described and in what situations the process is used. Body: The actual description of the process usually begins in the first body paragraph. However, if you are describing how to do something and the process requires that the reader obtain some items first, then you may need to point out in the first body paragraph what items are needed. The actual steps of the process usually can be divided into three or four major steps. For example, if you were explaining how to change a flat tire, the first section could deal with getting the car jacked up; the next section could deal with removing and replacing the tire; and the last section could deal with removing the jack. In most cases, each major section can be described in a separate paragraph. Note, too, that the topic sentence in a process essay is often implied rather than stated directly. Conclusion: How to conclude a process essay depends on the type of process being described. Often the conclusion discusses the results of the process.
Now that you are familiar with some of the major points concerning process essays, look at the following process essay. Observe the paragraphing, locate the thesis, and determine if there is a central idea and if that idea is carried out in the process. Also, try to find explanations, examples, warnings, and definitions in the essay. Finally, note if the process description is complete.
Math is probably the most difficult course for most people. However, what makes math difficult is the power that the term mathematics has upon peoples minds. Most students are afraid of not passing because of the reputation the course has of being hard. The study of math
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needs much concentration and practice, but it is not really hard; it just deals with the relationship and symbolism of numbers and magnitudes. The most difficult part of math is probably working problems progressively. When they study math, students should follow some guidelines in order to feel less nervous about the subject. Concentration is the first thing that a student should acquire before even trying to think about studying math. Full concentration is needed to study math, as well as to be free of any thoughts outside the study of math. Preparing to study starts the concentration because at that moment the student starts to think about what he or she is going to cover or what he or she will need in order to solve some problems. Also, a student should be completely rested, because if a student is tired, he or she may end up taking much longer to accomplish what he or she is supposed to. In order for the student to understand the material involved, the student should read all sections completely. The most appropriate way of doing this is first by reading a section completely. Then, the student should analyze that section, and he or she should take all the formulas and write them down on a separate sheet in order to memorize and analyze them completely. Right after this, the student should take a break of about ten minutes in order to be relaxed to work some of the problems given in the section. Most students do all the problems at once, but that is not the appropriate way. A student should only do the problems he or she can figure out. If he or she cannot do one of the problems in the section, he or she should leave it and go on to the next one. Then the student should take another short break. After that, he or she is ready to read the next section and follow the same procedure. Right after a student has read all sections, he or she should look at the problems that he or she could not do. The student should try again to work them out, but only to a limit. The student should not have to think more than five or ten minutes to figure out what is going on. Instead, a student should take those problems to the professor in order to get a complete understanding of the problems. If a student takes too much time to do a problem, he or she will get burned out and will end up hating the material. Then right after the student has finished all sections, he or she should start doing the problems in the review section in order to have a better understanding and to increase his or her speed while working out a problem. At this stage, the student should find a partner to work with. Believe it or not, working with a partner is of great help, because if a problem comes into action, there are two minds that will solve the problem easily. Math can be difficult if an individual thinks that it is difficult. But if a student follows some of these guidelines, he or she will certainly do well and will like the material.
Now look at a different kind of process essay. Determine whether it is an informational or directional process explanation.
Cognitive Development When I was talking to my three-year-old niece on the telephone, I asked her if she liked preschool. I heard nothing. I asked her again, but still there was no response. Then her mother took the telephone and told me that my niece had been nodding her head to indicate yes. At age three, my niece was not able to understand that I could not see what she could see or do while she was on the phone talking to me. This kind of observation of children let the great Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget to conclude that children are not born with a cognitive structure. He argued that childrens cognitive understanding of the world emerges with experience; in other words, it develops. Knowledge, then, is a process rather than a state. A child knows or understands an object by interacting with it, and from this interaction he expands his ability to comprehend. According to Piaget, just as all children grow and mature physically in the same basic sequence, they also develop cognitively in a process that is the
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same for all children, regardless of cultural upbringing. Piaget called the first stage that children go through the sensorimotor period, which extends from birth to around age two. The child develops a sense of the objects around her by her motor, or physical, action on the objects. Her understanding of the world is limited to her physical actions on the objects in her world. For example, newborns have certain reflexes, such as sucking and grasping a finger that touches their hand. From these reflexes, the infant begins to learn about and recognize objects, and she can generalize to other objects. At about eight to 12 months, the infant is able to act intentionally and even plan her actions. If she kicks hard enough, the rattle in the crib will make the noise she wants to hear. An important developmental milestone during this stage is what Piaget terms object permanence. By the end of this stage, the infant recognizes that an object continues to exist even when she cannot see it or touch it. For instance, a person who walks behind a screen is still there even though the infant cannot see her. Object permanence is the beginning of the childs awareness that people and objects exist independent from him, but this is only the beginning. The achievements of the sensorimotor stage just prepare him for the next stage, called the preoperational period, lasting from about age two to seven. During this stage, a child perceives and interprets the world in terms of self. He cannot comprehend that another person sees objects differently. He thinks other people see and hear what he does. Thus, my three-year-old niece nodded her head to indicate yes because she assumed I could see her. During this stage, Piaget describes children as being rigid in thought. They base their conclusions on one obvious factor of feature of an object. For instance, if a bowl of water is poured into a tall jar, the child will conclude that the tall jar has more water because its level is higher. But toward the end of this period, the child is beginning to learn about objects in a new way. For instance, he begins to understand that water poured from the bowl into the tall jar is still the same water; that is, an object can change its shape but still be the same basic object. A good example is that a child now understands that if a person puts on a mask he or she is still the same person. The child is developing representational thought. This increasing flexibility prepares the child for what Piaget called the concrete operational period. From about seven to 11 years old, a child makes great strides in her cognitive development. She develops the ability to make mental transformations with regard to concrete objects. A child begins to comprehend the concepts of reversibility, compensation, and addition and subtraction. Piaget uses the concept of conservation to illustrate this development. If you pour the water back from the tall jar to the bowl, during this stage the child can understand that the amount of water that was in the jar is the same as what is in the bowl, even though the water levels are different. She can understand that the width of the bowl makes up or compensates for its lack of height. The child also understands that no water has been removed or added. In the next stage, called the formal operational period, from about 11 to 15 years old, the child develops more sophisticated reasoning abilities. He can reason now; he can see more logical relationships between objects and can think more systematically before acting. In other words, he can think in more abstract terms; he can use information from the past to predict consequences. One game that requires such skills is chess. During this stage of development, a child can learn not only the rules and movements involved but also can use strategies. Refinement of cognitive skills continues on into adulthood, but Piaget felt that the development of structure of thought is achieved by about age 15. After that, the content and quality of thought may develop. Although not all researchers in cognitive development agree with Piagets scheme and all of his conclusions, he can be credited for having a tremendous impact on our understanding of how children develop their understanding of the world around them. Children are not miniature adults who reason as adults do; they understand and interpret their environment in terms of their cognitive development. This is important to realize if we want to understand our children and ourselves better.
(Adapted from Patricia H. Miller, Theories of Developmental Psychology New York: W. H. Freeman, 1983)
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CHRONOLOGICAL LINKING WORDS Read the essay below carefully.
How to make Taffy

Americans are well known for their hunger for sweet things. They love chocolate, ice cream, cakes, cookies; in fact, they love anything sweet. A traditional American favorite is taffy. Making taffy is very easy if you follow these steps. First, you need to assemble the ingredients and the equipment. You will need sugar, corn syrup, cornstarch, butter, salt, and vanilla. You will also need a 2-quart saucepan and a square 8 x 8-inch cakepan. In addition, you will need a candy thermometer. This is a special thermometer that you can put into boiling liquid to register the temperature. You will also need scissors and some plastic wrap. Now you are ready to start cooking your taffy. Second, butter the cakepan and set it aside. Mix 1 cup of sugar, cup of corn syrup, 2/3 cup of water, 1 tablespoon of cornstarch, 2 tablespoons of butter, and 1 teaspoon of salt in the saucepan. Heat the mixture to boiling over medium heat while you stir constantly. Then, cook it without stirring to 256oF on the candy thermometer. At this point, remove the pan from the heat, and stir in 2 teaspoons of vanilla. Pour the candy mixture into the cakepan immediately. After you have cooked this mixture, you need to let it cool for about 15-20 minutes. When it is just cool enough to handle, pull the taffy hard with both hands until it becomes shiny, light in color, and stiff. If it gets sticky, butter your hands a little. Pull it into long strips of about inch wide. Cut the strips into pieces with scissors. When you have pulled it like this, wrap each piece in plastic wrap. This is necessary for the candy to hold its shape. When it is completely hard, the final step is easy: eat a piece and enjoy it. As you can see, taffy is a kind of candy that is quite simple to make. It is certainly very sweet, and only for sugar lovers. Moreover, having a taffy-pull party with your friends is every bit as much fun as eating it.
Linking words are those used to make a piece of writing hold together as a text. They help connect sentences. Grammatically they are of several different types. They can be conjunctions (words that introduce causes), adverbs, prepositions, or transitions. conjunctions subordinate: after, before, while, when coordinate: and adverbs: immediately, constantly prepositions one-word: after, before, since mutli-word: in addition to, prior to transitions: first, second, at first, next, after that, later on, finally, now
Notice how they are used in sentences from the essay above: 1. First, you need to assemble the ingredients and the equipment. 2. In addition to these items, you will need a candy thermometer. 3. Now, you are ready to start cooking your taffy. 4. Second, butter the cake pan and set it aside. 5. Heat the mixture to boiling over medium heat while you stir constantly.
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6. Then, cook it without stirring to 256F on the candy thermometer. 7. At this point, remove the pan from the heat, and stir in two teaspoons of vanilla. 8. Pour the candy mixture in to the cakepan immediately. 9. After you have cooked it, you need to let it cool for about 15-20 minutes. 10. When it is just cool enough to handle, pull the taffy hard with both hands until it becomes shiny, light in color and stiff.
Now look at the punctuation used with these linking words. a) Subordinator + dependent clause, independent clause. (Examples: #9 and 10) b) Independent clause + subordinator + dependent clause. (Examples: #5 and 10) c) Transition, independent clause. (Examples: #1, 3, 4, 6, and 7) d) Preposition (noun phrase), independent clause. (Example: #2)
As you have seen, chronological transitions are followed by a comma when they occur at the beginning of a sentence. This is true for all transitions. The typical patterns are: Independent clause. Transition, independent clause. OR Independent clause; transition, independent clause.
Here are a few examples following these patterns: 1. Your first reason is clear. However, your second is unclear. / Your first reason is clear; however, your second is unclear. 2. It is raining today. Therefore, the children cannot go outside. / It is raining today; therefore, the children cannot go outside. 3. She tore up all her old love letters. Then, she filed for divorce. / She tore up all her old love letters; then, she filed for divorce.
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THE CLASSIFICATION ESSAY

When analyzing a subject, you break it down into parts to study or determine the relationship of the parts or the nature of the parts. For example, analyzing an engine involves examining the parts to see how they make the engine run. If you were analyzing the United States government, you would probably begin by dividing the government into its three branches the legislative, executive, and judicial and then by studying how these branches operate to make up the government. If you were studying psychology and were interested in dreams, you would probably begin by sorting the drams into categories that share common characteristics, and by so doing you might learn something about the various kinds of dreams. Taking one thing such as the government and breaking it down into parts is analysis by division; taking a large group of things such as governments and separating the group into categories is analysis by classification. Since classification and division are very similar processes of analysis, and since as patterns of exposition they are even more similar, the general rhetorical term classification is used to refer to the general pattern. Take the essay below as an example.
Motivation By studying motivation, marketers can analyze the major forces influencing consumers to buy or not buy products. When you buy a product, you usually do so to fulfill some kind of need. These needs become motives when aroused sufficiently. For instance, suppose this morning you were so hungry before class that you needed to eat something. In response to that need, you stopped at McDonalds for an Egg McMuffin. In other words, you were motivated by hunger to stop at McDonalds. Motives are the driving forces that cause a person to take action to satisfy specific needs. Why are people driven by particular needs at particular times? One popular theory is Maslows hierarchy of needs, which arranges needs in ascending order of importance: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. As a person fulfills one need, a higher level need becomes more important. The most basic human needs are physiological that is, needs for food, water, and shelter. Because they are essential to survival, these needs must be satisfied first. Ads showing a juicy hamburger or a runner gulping down Gatorade after a marathon exemplify the use of appeals to satisfy physiological needs. Safety needs include security and freedom from pain and discomfort. Marketers often exploit consumers fears and anxieties about safety to sell their products. For example, Volvo ad campaigns have featured testimonials from real people who believe they survived terrible car crashes because they were driving a Volvo. Consumer demand for products containing Vitamin E have been soaring following several scientific studies that suggest the vitamin inhibits agents that attack cells and cause deterioration. Marketers have promoted other studies that conclude Vitamin E may also help ward off degenerative ailments such as heart disease and cancer and some symptoms of aging. After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, social needs especially love and a sense of belonging become the focus. Love includes acceptance by ones peers as well as sex and romantic love. Marketing managers probably appeal more to this need than to any other. Ads for clothes, cosmetics, and vacation packages suggest that buying the product can bring love. The need to belong is also a favorite of marketers. Nike promotes its Air Jordan athletic shoes, for instance, as not just plain old sneakers; they are part fashion statement, part athletic statement. Lace them up, and the wearer looks cool and plays cool just like Michael Jordan, the shoes spokesperson and namesake. Love is acceptance without regard to ones contribution. Esteem is acceptance based on ones contribution to the group. Self-esteem needs to include self-respect and a sense of accomplishment. Esteem needs also to include prestige, fame, and recognition of ones accomplishment. Mont Blanc pens, Mercedes-Benz automobiles, and Neiman Marcus stores all
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appeal to esteem needs. The highest human need is self-actualization. It refers to finding self-fulfillment and self-expression, reaching the point in life at which people are what they feel they should be. Maslow felt that very few people ever attain this level. Even so, advertisements may focus on this type of need. For example, American Express ads convey the message that acquiring its card is one of the highest attainments in life. Likewise, the US Armed Forces slogan urges young people to Be all that you can be.
(Adapted from Marketing, by Charles Lamb Jr., Joseph Hair Jr. and Carl McDaniel. 1998.
THE PRINCIPLE OF CLASSIFICATION When you classify, you divide the members of a group into categories whose members share similar characteristics. Bu on what basis do you assign the members to categories? When you classify, you need a principle of classification a guideline for your classifying procedure. For example, the students in your English class might be classified according to the languages they speak natively: Spanish speakers, Vietnamese speakers, Japanese speakers, Dutch speakers, Arabic speakers, and so on. However, including a group such as hard-working students disrupts the classification by switching principles of classification. Members of the hard-working group could also be members of any of the other groups. Using more than one principle in this way causes categories to overlap; that is, the members of one category could also fit into one or more of the other categories. Just what principle of classification to choose is up to you. There are any number of principles available; the important thing to remember is to use only one principle of classification in an essay. To illustrate, consider the topic students. This topic could be classified according to: how many credits the students have completed: first-year students, sophomores, juniors, seniors; age: under 18, 19-25, 26 and older; majors: biology, history, science; where they usually sit in class: front row, back row, side walls, middle; attitude toward school: a place to improve ones general knowledge, a place to socialize, a place to get rid of as soon as possible; style of dress: formal, semiformal, casual. Once you have decided on a principle of classification, check to see if the classification includes all members of the group. For instance, if you are classifying the students in a class, the categories might cover each and every one of the students in that class, if at all possible. If the students of a class were classified as formally and casually dressed, the semiformally dressed students would be left out. To avoid omitting members and oversimplifying the analysis, then, it is generally a good idea to divide the group into more than two categories. For most college essays, three or four categories are the average. When you divide a large group into categories whose members share common characteristics, there will be some members that do not fit perfectly into a category. For instance, you might classify politicians as liberals or conservatives, but since some politicians may be liberal concerning some issues and conservative concerning others, it would be wise to admit any variations or complications in the classification. It is also a good idea to note what the primary characteristics of the members are. For instance, do these politicians vote conservatively most of the time? If so, then placing them in the conservative category and mentioning that they vote liberally on some issues could be justified.
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ORGANIZING THE CLASSIFICATION ESSAY After deciding on the principle of classification and dividing the group into categories, you need to discuss each of those categories. In the body paragraphs, it is useful to devote one paragraph to each category. When discussing the category, include the following points: Identify the group. If it has a special name, identify it. Describe or define the category. What are the general characteristics of the members of this category? Once you have established what the category is according to your classification, discuss the common characteristics of the members. Give examples. It is often helpful to illustrate the characteristics (which are actually generalizations) by giving one or two examples of typical members of the category. In the second and subsequent body paragraphs, distinguish the first category from the other categories. Discuss the characteristics of the second category by comparing and contrasting them with those of the first category. Doing this will help to distinguish between the categories. How does group 1 really differ from group 2? In an introductory paragraph, it is often a good idea to introduce the categories by mentioning the names of the groups. Although there is no law that says the categories must be identified in the introduction, identifying them will help keep the essay organized. The thesis statement for the classification essay can be one that simply introduces the classification and the categories: The teachers in this college can be classified according to the way they dress: those who dress formally, those who dress semiformally, and those who dress casually. There are basically three types of burns: first degree, second degree, and third degree. Drugs fall into three categories: stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens.
When you name the categories in the introduction, express them in parallel structure, that is, express them in the same parts of speech. If you identify a category using a clause, then all of your categories should be identified using clauses. There are those who like movies, those who hate movies, and those who are indifferent toward movies. (clauses) There are basically three types of bus drivers: friendly, indifferent, and mean. (adjectives) Most people respond in one of three ways: eagerly, indifferently, or reluctantly. (adverbs) The student in this class fit into the following categories: first-year students, sophomores, juniors, or seniors. (nouns)
PRACTICE 1 Read the essay below and identify the following: the thesis statement; the principle of classification; the categories; examples; categories expressed in parallel structures.
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Cold Remedies Cold remedies have a long if not glorious history. Pliny the Younger, a first-century A.D cold expert, advised kissing the hairy muzzle of a mouse. Sixteen hundred years later, colonial Americans fought colds by applying kerosene plasters to the chest or by stuffing a dirty sock with salted pork and onion and then wrapping it about the neck. While todays remedies smell better, they still do not cure the common cold. However, they are an improvement over past cold remedies and can relieve some of the symptoms. But the cold sufferer should beware. Most of the cold products contain up to seven different drugs. Since people differ greatly in their cold symptoms, users of these multidrug remedies often end up paying for unnecessary drugs that increase the risk of side effects. Thus, it may be a good idea for cold sufferers to look for effective single-ingredient drugs. These drugs can be classified according to the symptoms they are targeted to alleviate. The first type of cold remedy is for congestion, which is the most common cold symptom. Decongestants reduce the swelling of the mucous membranes in the nose, resulting in easier breathing and better drainage. There are two kinds of decongestants: topical and oral. Topical decongestants, which include sprays and drops, work rapidly, but there is a potential problem. If used too much, they can cause rebound congestion, which means worse congestion than there was originally, so they should be used sparingly. Examples of topical decongestants include those which contain the active ingredient phenylephrine; those which contain oxymetazoline; those which contain xylometazoline. Oral decongestants, such as Sudafed and Oramyl, both of which contain pseudoephedrine, take longer to be effective but do not produce rebound congestion. However, potential side effects include dry mouth, sleep disturbances, and an increase in blood pressure. While most cold sufferers have congestion, only a little over a third suffer from the aches and pains so often mentioned in commercials; in fact, only about 25 percent suffer from headaches, 10 percent from muscle pain and 1 percent from mild fever. The three standard pain-relieving ingredients for aches and pains include aspirin, acetaminophen, and ibuprofen. There is one caution about aspirin. Studies have shown a link between aspirin and Reyes syndrome, a rare but potentially fatal illness that strikes children and teenagers. Therefore, children and teens should not be given aspirin when they have cold symptoms. Alternatives to aspirin include acetaminophen and ibuprofen. About half of cold sufferers also have a cough. Cough remedies approach this symptom in different ways. Suppressants act on the brain to depress the cough reflex. For this purpose, such products contain dextromethorphan. Another active ingredient used is diphenhydramine. However, since this is an antihistamine, it can cause drowsiness. The main problem with cough suppressants is that it may not be wise to suppress the cough, particularly for people with lung ailments. Medicated lozenges, on the other hand, act locally on the throat to ease coughs. Lozenges which contain more than 5 milligrams of menthol may help. Expectorants, in contrast to suppressants, supposedly help liquefy and loosen phlegm, making it easier to cough up. Finally, the last major symptom of the cold is the one that occurs first the sore throat. About 50 percent of cold sufferers get a sore throat. There are many medicated lozenges and sprays available for such relief. Since a sore throat is also symptomatic of other illnesses, if the sore throat persists one should see a doctor. While it may be easier to purchase a cold remedy that contains multiple ingredients, it may not be wise. The prudent cold sufferer should consider remedies targeted for specific single symptoms. Nevertheless, all sufferers should remember that there is no cure for the common cold; it will still have to run its course. Finally, when in doubt, people with cold should always consult their physicians.
(Adapted from Cold Remedies: which ones work best? In: Consumer Reports, January 1989)
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Practice 2 Introductory Paragraphs in Classification Essays Imagine that your assignment is to classify the group human food into categories according to the principle origin, that is, where the food comes from. The categories will be: 1. plant food (fruit, vegetables, grains, etc.) 2. animal food (meat, chicken, fish, etc.) 3. animals products (milk, eggs)
Read the introductory paragraph below. This is an introduction with an anecdote. Write another type of introduction to the same essay, using the same thesis statement. Food Groups I know a little boy who will only eat four things: peanut butter sandwiches, yogurt, hot dogs, and scrambled eggs. The only thing he will drink is apple juice. His mother has been battling with him since he was one year old to try to get him to eat other dishes, but without success. He simply refuses. One time he didnt eat anything for three days because she wouldnt give him those things. Now, however, she doesnt worry anymore; her son is really getting what he needs! He is eating something from each of the major food groups, and he is not going to die of malnutrition. These major food groups are: plant food, animal food, and animal products.
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Practice 3 Supporting Paragraphs in Classification Essays In order to complete a classification, it is necessary to choose detailed examples and descriptions to convince your reader that your categories are reasonable. For example, let us say that you have divided the group my friends into three categories: the worrywarts (people who worry all the time about everything), the bookworms (people who study all the time), and the fatalists (people who feel that life is outside their control). It is your thesis that all of your friends fall into one of these three groups. Now, however, you need to show your reader exactly what makes the people in one group different from those in the other two. To do this you think: How does a worrywart act? How does this person feel and behave in certain situations where the others would feed and behave very differently? How do I feel when I am with a person like this? When you think about it, you will realize that there is a characteristic behavior of each type of people, and the description of these behaviors are what you should include in your body paragraphs.
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Describe what each type of person would do in these situations:
1. It is 8 A.M., and the class starts at 8:30 A.M. The bus should have left at 7:45 A.M., but it is late, and your friend will not get to class on time. What would this person do? a. a worrywart: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ b. a bookworm: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ c. a fatalist: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
2. Your friend was in a car accident. He was not hurt badly, but the insurance company says it was his fault, and it will not pay for the damages to his car. What would this person do? a. a worrywart: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ b. a bookworm: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ c. a fatalist: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
3. The international TOEFL test is two weeks from now. Your friend must get a score of 500 to be accepted to the college she wants to go to. What would this person do? a. a worrywart: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
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b. a bookworm: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ c. a fatalist: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
LINKING WORDS In classification essays, the use of such linking words as transitions, phrases, or adverbs of example is crucial. In order for your reader to clearly grasp how you are classifying, you need to give at least one example of each category. In addition, you will frequently want to use liking words of consequence in the concluding sentence of a paragraph to summarize for your reader how your examples relate to your classification principle. Look at these examples below.
Linking Words for Examples for example Some of my friends are introspective and quiet people. For example, Ching and Hirofumi never say much when we are together with other people. for instance Rural people are quite different from urban people. My uncle, who is a farmer, is never in a hurry. Once, for instance, he spent the whole day sharpening all the knives in the house, a task that an impatient city person would have taken care of in an hour. another example is One such metropolis is Mexico City. Another example is Rio de Janeiro.
Linking Words of Consequence therefore I really enjoy the peaceful company of good friends. Therefore, the relaxed calm of both Carlos and Maria is a quality I appreciate in a friend. for this reason Change makes life exciting; for this reason, life in a city is more desirable than life on a farm or in the suburbs for me. as a result / as a consequence The poverty of the barrio is not that different from the poverty of the ghetto. As a result, urban improvement through city planning alone is practically impossible. consequently Fuel economy has come to be an essential aspect in choosing a car. Consequently, smaller and more efficient cars sell better today than they did 20 years ago.
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THE COMPARISON AND CONTRAST ESSAY

What is the meaning of comparison and contrast? To compare means to see what certain things have in common. We ask, How are these items the same or similar? To contrast means to look at several things to see how they are not the same. We ask, How are these things different from each other? We make comparisons between all sorts of things in our daily lives. To compare and contrast accurately, one must look at details very carefully. Then one must decide which details are the same and which details are different. One way of seeing comparisons and contrasts is to create a Venn diagram. A Venn diagram helps to show the similarities and differences between items. It looks like this:
In this diagram, it is possible to identify the characteristics which are exclusive to each item and the similarities between both items, that is, the characteristics shared by both items. We have many reasons for comparing and contrasting. There is one thing to keep in mind, however: with comparison and contrast, the purpose is not just to point out similarities and differences or advantages and disadvantages; the purpose is to persuade, explain, or inform. Comparison and contrast is a method of development not a purpose for writing. When comparing and contrasting, it is best to restrict the points of comparison to two to four. Therefore, be selective and choose the most significant points for comparison that will support the central idea in your essay. For instance, If you were asked to compare two politicians, you would not bother comparing and contrasting their tastes in food because this point would be irrelevant. In a comparison and contrast essay, the emphasis is usually on one or the other; that is, you spend more time either comparing or contrasting, depending on your purpose. If you are comparing two rather similar things, you should acknowledge the obvious similarities but focus on the differences. If you are comparing two obviously dissimilar things, you should acknowledge the obvious contrasts but emphasize the less obvious similarities. Take the essay below as an example.
Conversational Ballgames After I was married and had lived in Japan for a while, my Japanese gradually improved to the point where I could take part in simple conversations with my husband, his friends and family. And I began to notice that often, when I joined in, the others would look startled, and the conversational topic would come to a halt. After this happened several times, it became clear to me that I was doing something wrong. But for a long time, I did not know what it was. After listening carefully to many Japanese conversations, I discovered what my problem was. Even though I was speaking Japanese, I was handling the conversation in a
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Western way. Japanese-style conversations develop quite differently from Western-style conversations. And the difference is not only in the languages. I realized that just as I kept trying to hold Western-style conversations even when I was speaking Japanese, so my English students kept trying to hold Japanese-style conversations even when they were speaking English. We were unconsciously playing entirely different conversational ballgames. A Western-style conversation between two people is like a game of tennis. If I introduce a topic, a conversational ball, I expect you to hit it back. If you agree with me, I do not expect you simply to agree and do nothing more. I expect you to add something a reason for agreeing, another example, or an elaboration to carry the idea further. But I do not expect you always to agree. I am just as happy if you question me, or challenge me, or completely disagree with me. Whether you agree or disagree, your response will return the ball to me. And then it is my turn again. I do not serve a new ball from my original starting line. I hit your ball back again from where it has bounced. I carry your idea further, or answer your questions or objections or challenge or question you. And so the ball goes back and forth, with each of us doing our best to give it a new twist, an original spin, or a powerful smash. And the more vigorous the action, the more interesting and exciting the game. Of course, if one of us gets angry, it spoils the conversation, just as it spoils a tennis game. But getting excited is not at all the same as getting angry. After all, we are not trying to hit each other. We are trying to hit the ball. So long as we attack only each others opinions, and do not attack each other personally, we do not expect anyone to get hurt. A good conversation is supposed to be interesting and exciting. If there are more than two people in the conversation, then it is like doubles in tennis, or like volleyball. There is no waiting in line. Whoever is nearest and quickest hits the ball, and if you step back, someone else will hit it. No one stops the game to give you a turn. You are responsible for taking your own turn. But whether it is two players or a group, everyone does his best to keep the ball going, and no one person has the ball for very long. A Japanese-style conversation, however, is not at all like tennis of volleyball. It is like bowling. You wait for your turn. And you always know your place in line. It depends on such things as whether you are older or younger, a close friend or a relative stranger to the previous speaker, in a senior or junior position, and so on. When your turn comes, you step up to the starting line with your bowling ball, and carefully bowl it. Everyone else stands back and watches politely, murmuring encouragement. Everyone waits until the ball has reached the end of the ally, and watches to see if it knocks down all the pins, or only some of them, or none of them. There is a pause, while everyone registers your score. Then, after everyone is sure that you have completely finished your turn, the next person in line steps up to the same starting line, with a different ball. He does not return your ball, and he does not begin from where your ball stopped. There is no back and forth at all. All the balls run parallel. And there is always a suitable pause between turns. There is no rush, no excitement, no scramble for the ball. No wonder everyone looked startled when I took part in Japanese conversations. I paid no attention to whose turn it was, and kept snatching the ball halfway down the alley and throwing it back at the bowler. Of course the conversation died. I was playing the wrong game. This explains why it is almost impossible to get a Western-style conversation or discussion going with English students in Japan. I used to think that the problem was their lack of English language ability. But I finally came to realize that the biggest problem is that they, too, are playing the wrong game. Whenever I serve a volleyball, everyone just stands back and watches it fall, with occasional murmurs of encouragement. No one hits it back. Everyone waits until I call on someone to take a turn. And when that person speaks, he does not hit my ball back. He serves a new ball. Again, everyone just watches it fall. So I call on someone else. This person does not refer to what the previous speaker has said. He also serves a new ball. Nobody seems to have paid any attention to what anyone else has said. Everyone begins again from the same starting line, and all the balls run parallel.
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There is never any back and forth. Everyone is trying to bowl with a volleyball. Now that you know about the difference in the conversational ballgames, you may think that all your troubles are over. But if you have been trained all your life to play one game, it is no simple matter to switch to another, even if you know the rules. Knowing the rules is not at all the same thing as playing the game. Even now, during a conversation in Japanese I will notice a startled reaction, and belatedly realize that once again I have rudely interrupted by instinctively trying to hit back the other persons bowling ball. It is no easier for me to just listen during a conversation than it is for my Japanese students to just relax when speaking with foreigners. Now I can truly sympathize with how hard they must find it to carry on a Western-style conversation.
(Adapted from Polite Fictions by Nancy Masterson Sakamoto. 1982.)
There are different ways of organizing essays which use the comparison and contrast rhetorical pattern. They can be described in this way: 1. Model 1 (block style a block for each item being compared and contrasted) I. Introduction with thesis statement II. Body paragraph 1: Describe X (point 1; point 2; point 3; point 4; etc.) III. Body paragraph 2: Describe Y with reference to X (point 1: Y vs. X; point 2: Y vs. X; point 3: Y vs. X; point 4: Y vs. X; etc.) IV. Concluding paragraph
2. Model 2 (block style a block for comparison and a block for contrast) I. Introduction with thesis statement II. Body paragraph 1: similarities of (or differences between) X and Y (first similarity; second similarity; third similarity; etc.) III. Body paragraph 2: differences between (or similarities of) X and Y (first difference; second difference; third difference; etc.) IV. Concluding paragraph
3. Model 3 (point-by-point comparison) I. Introduction with thesis statement II. Body paragraph 1: first point of comparison X (examples of X according to point 1) and Y (examples of Y according to point 1) III. Body paragraph 2: second point of comparison X (examples of X according to point 2) and Y (examples of Y according to point 2) IV. Body paragraph 3: third point of comparison X (examples of X according to point 3) and Y (examples of Y according to point 3) (There may be more body paragraphs.) V. Concluding paragraph
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An essay written in Model 1 will usually have a longer second body paragraph than the first body paragraph because this is the paragraph where most of the comparison takes place. Similarly, in Model 2, you need to decide whether the similarities or the differences are more important. The body paragraph that contains most of the comparisons from the controlling idea in the thesis statement will be longer than the first body paragraph. In a Model 3 (point-bypoint comparison), there will be as many body paragraphs as there are points on which items are compared.
PRACTICE 1 Identifying Methods of Organization Read the essays below carefully. Which method of organization is used in each of them? Essay 1: ______________________________________________________________________ Essay 2: ______________________________________________________________________ Essay 3: ______________________________________________________________________ Essay 4: ______________________________________________________________________ Essay 5: ______________________________________________________________________
Essay 1
A Tale of Two Cities Where do you come from? is a question many Americans cannot answer. Many Americans were born in one place, lived a few years in another, went to elementary school in a third town, and so on. In my native country, we usually live in the town where we are born all our lives, but my family is different. We moved from one small town to another when I was 12 years old. For this reason, I have two home towns. Although the inhabitants of the two towns think that they have nothing in common, in my opinion, they have far more similarities than differences. The first obvious similarity lies in the location of the two cities. They are both seaside towns, lying on the south coast of Norway. They are sheltered by a large group of islands and backed by hills that cover them from the cold winter winds. There are a few minor differences in their location, of course: Kristiansand, my childhood city, spreads out onto many of the protecting islands, while Arendal, my teenage town, needs all the cover it can get from its islands. Secondly, both Kristiansand and Arendal are small. Compared to the great continental cities of Paris and Rome, they are not even dots on a map. Kristiansand is a little larger with 40,000 inhabitants, while Arendal has only about 35,000, but neither can be called a metropolis. Furthermore, at least to a visitor, they are quite similar in their natural beauty. The islands are rough and rocky. The houses of both towns are mostly small wood structures painted white, and the vegetation is almost exactly the same: birches, a few fir trees, low bushes, and moss. In addition, the ocean influences the lifestyle of both towns, and the weather forecast is the major topic of conversation. The economies of the two towns are also based on the same business: tourism. Both native Norwegians and foreigners go on summer vacation to the two cities, and in winter, business is very slow. Of course, there are a few differences here as well. In Arendal, there are still several fishermen making a living from the sea, while Kristiansand is a busy port for large commercial ships. Still, I doubt that either city could support the population it has without the tourists.
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Finally, despite the opinions of the natives of Kristiansand and Arendal, I think that the people there are very similar. Because of the size of the towns, people are mostly interested in what their neighbors do and say, and they do not care very much about what is happening in the big world. In addition, the inhabitants of the two towns have a love-hate relationship with the necessary tourists. These tourists bring in business and money in the summer, so the natives smile at them when they meet them. However, behind their backs, the townspeople wish that they would spend their money and go home. Thus, while there are a few differences between Arendal and Kristiansand, I think that the similarities are by far more obvious. In location, size, scenery, business, and inhabitants they are very much alike. Although I sometimes feel they are too small for me, they are my home towns, and there is no place like home.
Essay 2 My Two Sisters My grandfather, who was interested in genealogy, once traced our family tree as far back as he could, but he could not get further back than to 1759. In that year a ship of unknown origin visited our little town, and nine months later a baby boy was born to the only daughter of the small fishing family from which our family came. No one knows what nationality that sailor was, but the genes he passed on have been playing tricks with our family ever since. In every generation someone shows up who is radically different from all the others. In my generation, it is one of my sisters, Lisa, who is different. Lisa and Ellen, who is my other sister, are as opposite as night and day. Lisa, who typifies the night side of the family, is my older sister. Lisa is tall, slim, and elegant, with long, dark hair and brown eyes. She looks tanned even in winter and is always the first person in spring to start wearing shorts. Her personality fits her looks. When Lisa gets angry, she does not just do it in a small way; she blows up so loudly that it can be heard in the next town. When she is happy, she is ecstatic. When Lisa found out that she had passed her university entrance exam, she danced in bare feet through the whole town and partied for two solid weeks. She is always on the lookout for new and exciting experiences, and she never does anything halfheartedly. Her passion for life extends from love to politics; she is a dedicated socialist, divorced with three daughters by two different husbands. There is nothing ordinary about Lisa. Ellen, my younger sister, is her exact opposite. Where Lisa is tall and dark, Ellen is short (5 feet 2 inches) and blond. Lisa wears her hair long and swinging, but Ellen has no time for such nonsense and wears her blond hair in a short and unfussy style. Ellens eyes are summersky blue, clear and untroubled. In summer, Lisa tans, but Ellen gets sunburned easily, and always carries bottles of suntan lotion for herself and her equally bond children. Ellen is as calm as Lisa is excitable. I have never yet heard her raise her voice at anyone, and her laugh is a gentle breeze in contrast to Lisas gale. Unlike Lisa, Ellen has never changed husbands, nor does she have any intention to do so. On her wedding day, Ellen smiled softly and dressed in a traditional white dress. Lisa, on the other hand, wore a red mini-dress at her first wedding and blue jeans at her second. Ellen is a summer day, a calm ocean. She devotes herself entirely to her children and her home. Visiting Ellens house is like coming home. How can two such opposites be born to the same family? Until genetic research can come up with an answer, I am content to believe the story of the unknown sailor. In fact, even if a scientist should find the real answer, I would rather not know. Some things are more interesting when left in the dark.
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Essay 3 Community Colleges and Universities After a student finishes high school, he or she has many choices. The student can try to get a job, start vocational training, or pick a college or university for further study. Community colleges and universities have some differences, but for the most part they are similar. The first difference is the length of study in the two schools. A community college usually offers only two years of instruction, while a university has both four-year undergraduate programs and graduate studies. Unlike universities, community colleges have special two-year programs leading to an Associate degree. You can, for example, study nursing, airplane mechanics, fashion design, or liberal arts in such a program. In addition, the classes are usually smaller at community colleges than at universities, and the atmosphere is less competitive. Community colleges are also different from universities in the amount of counseling they give new students. You will find more people trained in helping you to make your choices at a community college than at a university. However, while they do have some differences, the two types of schools have many more similarities. First of all, they both offer two years of undergraduate, general education courses. In fact, with the help of a counselor, you can take almost exactly the same classes at a community college as at a university. With an Associate degree from a good community college, you should be able to transfer with most of your credits to a four-year university where you can complete your Bachelors degree in two additional years. Furthermore, many community colleges have a campus-like setting, just as most universities do. Students are as serious as students anywhere else, and you will find the library equally crowded at a community college as you will at a major university. In addition, the quality of the instructional staff is high at both types of schools. With the current intense competition for teaching jobs, community colleges are able to attract just as well qualified teachers as universities. Finally, teaching methods are fairly much the same at both schools: lectures, seminars, and laboratory work. Which school is right for you? The answer depends on your plans for the future. If you are convinced that a professional school (law, medicine, etc.) is the only place for you, then you should probably pick the most famous university you can get into. On the other hand, if you have not completely planned out your life and you need some more time to think before you commit yourself, you may find that a community college serves your needs very well.
Essay 4
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven were the greatest composers of the 18th century. They knew each other. In fact, Haydn influenced Mozarts music, and he was one of Beethovens teachers. Even though they associated with each other, they had their own lives. Mozart died earlier than the other two, and Beethoven was deaf. Therefore, it is interesting to compare their musical educations, working styles, and achievements. These three composers had some differences in their musical education. Haydn was born in an ordinary farmhouse, liked to sing songs with his parents, and mimic playing the violin. His father wanted him to be a musician, so he entered music school at age six. Like Haydn, Mozarts family was also musical. His father was a good violinist. At an early age Mozart could remember tunes and recognize easy chords on the harpsichord. But unlike Haydn, who went to school at an early age, Mozart started composing at age five and performing at age six. Although Beethoven was also born into a musical family, his music education began later in his childhood. A chapel organist taught him to play the organ and he became a cymbalist in a theater orchestra at age twelve. Their working styles were more different than their education. Haydn liked a calm, quiet
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place to work, and he always wore neat, clean clothes while he was composing. By contrast, Mozart did not care where he composed. According to Konard (1992), He was able to jot down whatever works he liked, whenever he liked, wherever he happened to be. He even composed while he was playing billiards. Beethovens style was not like Haydns of Mozarts. Beethoven was only able to compose when he felt strong emotion. Sometimes these moments happened even when he was taking a walk. The achievements of these three composers were also different. Although they all composed instrumental music, Haydn tried to use different instruments together to make rich sounds. He was also the founder of secular music, because he was interested in different peoples songs and dances. Mozarts musical emphasis was different from Haydns. He wrote music for symphonies, concertos, and string quartets. He also developed sacred music. Beethoven, however, worked to join the intellectual part of music with the emotions. To do this, he changed the traditional use of the instruments and enlarged their scale. In conclusion, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven had different musical educations, working styles, and achievements. Their lives, their compositions, and their greatness came out of all these features, and they used their talents faithfully. Even though there are many other composers in the world, these three will remain the greatest of the 18th century.
Essay 5
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven were the greatest composers of eighteenth century. They knew each other. In fact, Haydn influenced Mozarts music, and he was one of Beethovens teachers. Even though they associated with each other, they had their own lives. Mozart died earlier than the other two, and Beethoven was deaf. Therefore, it is interesting to compare their musical educations, working styles, and achievements. Haydn was born in an ordinary farmhouse, liked to sing songs with his parents, and mimic playing the violin. His father wanted him to be a musician, so he entered music school at age six. Haydn liked a calm, quiet place to work, and he always wore neat, clean clothes while he was composing. Haydn tried to use different instruments together to make rich sounds. He was also the founder of secular music, because he was interested in different peoples song and dances. Like Haydn, Mozarts family was also musical. His father was a good violinist. At an early age Mozart could remember tunes and recognize easy chords on the harpsichord. But unlike Haydn, who went to school at an early age, Mozart started composing at age five and performing at age six. Also, Mozart did not care where he composed. According to Konard (1992), He was able to jot down whatever works he liked, whenever he liked, wherever he happened to be. He even composed while he was playing billiards. Furthermore, Mozarts musical emphasis was different from Haydns. He wrote music for symphonies, concertos, and string quartets. He also developed sacred music. Similarly, Beethoven was also born into a musical family, but his formal education in music began later in his childhood. A chapel organist taught him to play the organ and he became a cymbalist in a theater orchestra at age twelve. Beethovens style was not like Haydns or Mozarts. Beethoven was only able to compose when he felt strong emotions. Sometimes these moments happened even when he was taking a walk. Beethovens achievements were also a little different from those of the other two composers. He worked to join the intellectual part of music with the emotions. To do this, he changed the traditional use of the instruments an enlarged their scale. In conclusion, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven had different musical educations, working styles, and achievements. Their lives, their compositions, and their greatness came out of all these features, and they used their talents faithfully. Even though there are many other composers in the word, these three will remain the greatest of the 18th century.
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LINKING WORDS As with chronological linking words, comparison and contrast words are of the four types: conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, and transitions. Below are examples of their use in comparing the two imaginary towns: Stonecreekand Linden. Showing Differences conjunctions (subordinators) Stonecreek is small, whereas Linden is large. While Stonecreek is small, Linden is large. conjunctions (coordinators) Stonecreeek is small, but Linden is large. Linden is large, yet Stonecreek is small. adverbs The two cities governments function differently. Stonecreek and Linden handle their respective problems dissimilarly. prepositions / prepositional phrases Unlike Stonecreek, Linden has many traffic problems. Stonecreek has many traffic problems in contrast to Linden. Instead of Lindens traffic problems Stonecreek has calm and quiet streets. Linden is different from Stonecreek in its traffic problems. transitions Linden is exciting. On the other hand, Stonecreek is dull. Stonecreek is dull; however, Linden is exciting. Linden is exciting. Stonecreek, by contrast, is dull Note the use of this often misused transitional expression: Stonecreek is not a big town at all. On the contrary, it is quite small. (The expression on the contrary is used to describe a surprising fact something contrary to expectations.)
Showing Similarities conjunctions (Co-ordinators) Both Stonecreek and Linden have much to offer tourists. Neither Linden nor Stonecreek has a drug problem. Not only Linden, but also Stonecreek has famous buildings. adverbs Their city councils function identically. The police departments work alike. prepositions / prepositional phrases Stonecreecks town hall is like Lindens. Linden is similar to Stonecreek in having many tourist attractions. transitions Stonecreek has many famous buildings; likewise, Linden has much to offer tourists. Linden has a town hall built in 1891. Stonecreek, similarly, has a town hall dating from the end of the last century. Stonecreeks inhabitants are very friendly. In the same way, the people of Linden are easy to get to know.
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PRACTICE 2 Using Linking Words Fill in the blanks with linking words from the lists above in this text. In some of the blanks two or more choices are possible. Use the punctuation marks to help you select an appropriate expression. Skiing There are both similarities and differences between waterskiing and downhill snowskiing. First of all, waterskiers use two skis to stand on; ____________________(1), snowskiers fasten their boots to two long skis. In addition, ____________________(2)
waterskiers ____________________(3) snowskiers bend their knees and use their bodies to turn the skis from one side to the snowskiing the two in other. the As a third similarity, waterskiing is speed also at which some it is performed. differences.
____________________(4) ____________________(5),
sports
have
obvious
____________________(6) waterskiing can only take place when it is reasonably warm, snowskiing requires cold weather. Secondly, ____________________(7) a waterskier, a snowskier usually needs two poles for support and control. Another difference lies in the way performers of the sports get their speed. Waterskiers are pulled behind a speedboat on a flat water surface; ____________________(8), downhill skiers push off from the top of a hill and rely on gravity to make them glide down. The skiers also use their bodies
____________________(9). ____________________(10) the waterskier, who leans his body backward while holding on to a rope, the downhiller crouches down as far as possible to minimize wind resistance. Finally, a waterskier is evaluated on the basis of style as well as speed, ____________________(11) for a snowskier style is unimportant. Only time counts. As a result, a person who is quite good at one sport may find that the other is not quite as easy as he or she might have thought.
PRACTICE 3 Choosing Methods of Organization Read the following paragraphs. Rewrite them by using one of the models of organization discussed above (Model 1, 2 or 3). Be sure to divide them into shorter paragraphs. Use appropriate linking words. Thesis statement: There are some interesting parallels between the Roman and Chinese empires even though these empires ended differently. The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean world from about 500 B.C. to about 500 A.D. From a geographic base around Rome, it spread out to include North Africa, the Middle East, and Northern Europe. It developed a higher level of civilization than the areas surrounding it. It had a complex governmental structure and a bureaucracy, while the people surrounding it were barbarians and nomads. These barbarians were a constant threat to the Roman Empire. The leaders of the empire devised three ways to protect it. First, they conquered territory whose outer boundaries were natural barriers. Examples are the Rhine and Danube Rivers. They also built fortifications to keep out invaders. They built some, for example, between the Rhine and Danube and between Scotland and England. Third, they used precautionary buffer states, such as colonies, which were midway between barbarism and civilization. These all helped to protect
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the base of the empire, Rome itself. However, toward the end of the empires rule, some of the buffer states revolted. The final collapse occurred when the German and Slavic barbarians broke through the fortifications. In a short 200 years, the Roman Empire fell to the power of the Germans. The Chinese Empire grew and remained intact from 221 B.C to 1911 A.D. From a geographic base around the Yellow River, it spread northward to Peking, west to the Central Plain, and south to Canton. It developed a higher level of civilization than the areas surrounding it. It became a center for art and philosophy, while the people surrounding it were nomads and barbarians. These barbarians, Huns and Mongols, were a constant threat to the empire. The leaders of the empire devised three ways to deal with them. First, they used natural boundaries such as the Yellow and later the Yangtze Rivers. They built the incredible Great Wall of China, and they used buffer states that learned much from China, becoming civilized in the process. However, at times the barbarians broke through the fortifications and the buffer states. The barbarians did not destroy the Chinese Empire, however. Because they admired the superior culture of China, they set up dynasties imitating the Chinese way of life. Examples are the Chau, Yuan, and Manchu dynasties. In other words, the Chinese Empire absorbed its intruders and lived on. The one exception to this was a short rule by the Mongols, Genghis and Kublai Khan from 1215-1279. The subjugated Chinese dynasty reasserted itself shortly, however. The Chinese Empire continued to decline slowly until the Manchu dynasty ended in 1911 and a republic was declared.
(both paragraphs adapted from A History of Civilization: earliest times to the mid-seventeenth century by C. Harold King. 1964.)
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THE EXEMPLIFICATION ESSAY

The way you develop your topic depends on what the topic is and on what you want to say. Suppose, for example, that you were asked to write about the difficulties of being a university student. How could you develop this topic? You would probably want to develop it with examples that illustrate the difficulties. Could you adequately cover this topic in a single paragraph? Probably not. The topic is simply too broad. You would need to write a longer essay to cover this topic adequately. How many examples you use in an exemplification essay depends on the topic. Some topics require numerous examples, whereas others can be effectively developed with three or four extended examples (illustrations). For instance, the thesis statement San Francisco has some of the most unusual sights in California does not commit the writer to giving numerous examples because the claim is only that it has some unusual sights. Therefore, three or four extended examples should suffice. Some topics, however, require numerous examples for adequate development. A generalization such as Our city streets are in terrible condition based on an insufficient number of examples is called a hasty generalization; in other words, it is a generalization made before examining enough evidence. Making such a generalization without giving sufficient examples for support sacrifices credibility with the reader. In short, thesis statements that state or imply most or all may need numerous examples for adequate support; thesis statements that are more moderate, stating or implying some, can often be supported with fewer, but more developed, examples. Since an example is a representative member of a class or category, the examples you use to develop the thesis statement should be representative examples, that is, examples that fairly support the thesis. Body paragraphs in the example essay must be connected so that they flow smoothly. Just because a paragraph introduces an additional aspect of the topic does not mean that the shift from one topic to the next should be abrupt; indeed, the shift should be smooth so that the reader understands clearly the progression of thought. Remember, just as a paragraph is incoherent if the sentences can be switched around without significant change in meaning, an essay is incoherent if the paragraphs can be switched around without significant change. There are two ways to connect paragraphs in an essay: with transitional expressions and with the repetition of key words and phrases. Study the following essay.
Words That Camouflage People use words to express their thoughts and feelings. And as everyone who has tried to write knows, choosing just the right word to express an idea can be difficult. Nevertheless, it is important to choose words carefully, for words can suggest meanings not intended at all. Words can also be used to deceive. In order to express ourselves accurately and to understand what other people express, we must be aware that words can camouflage real attitudes. English is full of examples. Take, for instance, the language of advertising. Advertisers obviously want to emphasize the virtues of their products and detract from the products faults. To do this, they use carefully chosen words designed to mislead the unwary customer. Car P. Wrighter in his book I Can Sell You Anything has dubbed these expressions weasel words, which the dictionary defines as words used in order to evade or retreat from a direct or forthright statement or position.
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Let us say, for example, that the advertiser wants you to think that using his product will require no work or trouble. He cannot state that the product will be trouble free because there is usually no such guarantee; instead, he suggests it by using the expression virtually, as in this product is virtually trouble free. The careless listener will ignore the qualifier virtually and imagine that the product is no trouble at all. Another misleading expression is up to. During a sale a car dealer may advertise reductions of up to 25 percent. Our inclination again is to ignore up to and think that most of the reductions are 25 percent, but too often we find that only a few products are reduced this much. The other day I saw a sign on a shoe store advertising up to 40 percent off for athletic shoes. Needing some walking shoes and wanting a good bargain, I went in, only to find that there were only a few shoes marked down by 40 percent; most of the shoes were not even on sale. A second example of words that camouflage meaning is euphemisms. A euphemism is defined as the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. We often use euphemisms when our intentions are good. For instance, it is difficult to accept that someone we love has died, so people use all kinds of euphemisms for death such as She passed away, He is gone to meet his maker, or She is no longer with us. To defend against the pain of such a reality some use the humorous euphemism, He has kicked the bucket. To make certain jobs sound less unappealing, people also use euphemisms. A janitor is now a custodial worker or maintenance person. A trash man may be called a sanitation engineer. Such euphemisms are not harmful, but sometimes euphemisms can be used to camouflage potentially controversial or objectionable actions. For example, instead of saying we need to raise taxes, a politician might say we need revenue enhancement measures. When psychologists kill an animal they have experimented with, they prefer to use the term sacrifice the animal. Doctors prefer terminate a pregnancy to abort the fetus. A final example of language that conveys unintended impressions is sexist language. Sexist language refers to expressions that demean females in some way. For instance, when someone refers to a grown woman as a girl, the implication is that she is still a child. Therefore, instead of an employer saying, I will have my girl type that, what should be said is, I will have my assistant (or secretary) type that. Other offensive expressions include young thing, as in, She is a cute young thing. The proper term, girl, should be used in this case, since the thing is a young female. Further, the names of many jobs suggest women should not fill these positions. Thus, we use chair or chairperson instead of the sexist chairman. Likewise, a foreman should be called a supervisor. We must always be careful to choose the words that convey what we really mean. If we do not want to give offense, then we should always be on guard against sexist (as well as racist) language. If we do not want to be misled by advertisements, we must keep our ears open for weasel words. Finally, when we use a euphemism, we should be aware that we are trying to make an idea more acceptable. At times this may be preferable, but let us not forget that euphemisms camouflage reality. After all, coloring the truth is still lying.
Now read the two essays below carefully.
The American Experience To an international student, the United States often seems to be a collection of countries that have little in common. There is a rural, midwestern country with huge, flat prairies and a few small towns here and there; the big city country of New York City, Los Angeles, or Houston; the suburban country with its subdivisions that spread out forever, and so on. Visitors often wonder if there is anything at all that unites people in these diverse areas and makes them all Americans. While they have not become one single culture, the people in
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the U.S. still have some shared experiences that shape them and make them all one people. The primary shared experience is high school. While 12% of students from 14 to 18 attend private schools for part of their school years the majority goes to free public schools. In general, the grade level requirements are similar all over the U.S. This means that a tenth grade student in Topeka, Kansas will, by the end of the year, have learned basically the same as his fellow student in Yakima, Washington. In addition to the regular classroom work, the high school experience includes extracurricular activities which are considered equally important in all corners of this country. Language clubs, debating clubs, and participation in sports are all considered almost as valuable as textbook study in making the children civilized members of society. School sports are particularly important. Being on a team or supporting it from the seats develops school spirit and creates an identification with the school for the students. Anyone who has gone through American high school has been Americanized in this way. The second unifying factor is television. Americans are a television-watching and television influenced people. In 1981 each family with a T.V. set in this country watched it an average of almost 7 hours a day! With three major networks, an extensive public TV system, and a growing number of cable channels, there is always something on for everyone. Different age and social groups watch similar programs, and these form another shared experience. No matter where you live or how much money you have, Johnny Carson appears on your set every evening. The same can be said for the situation comedies, the soap operas, and the news. TV is great at giving shared experiences. Finally, consider the importance of the automobile on American life. Americans like to travel, mostly by car. Countless songs have been written about the romance of movin on, going somewhere else, being on the road. The car makes Americans a mobile people both in terms of traveling and in changing residences. The average American family moves every five years. Such a constant mixing of the population means that more people in this country meet new people and make new friends than in any other country. The need to change the background scenery becomes a basic ingredient in the American soul. In conclusion, although the melting pot view of the United States does not seem to be accurate, Americans do indeed have a lot in common. As a result, if you cannot think of anything to say to a person you meet in this country, try asking him about his high school, his opinion of a current TV show, or his preference in cars. You are sure to get a lively discussion!
Our Airways are Unsafe In 1982, President Ronald Reagan put into effect a program of airline deregulation which had been introduced under the Carter administration. This new law allowed airlines to set their prices as low as they wanted and to offer flights as often as they wanted. In some ways, the program has been a success: ticket prices have indeed gone down, and there are more flights to popular cities than ever before. However, deregulation has also been one of the causes of our current problem of air travel safety. While 1986 had the fewest air travel deaths of any previous year, it was still a year which saw a sharply increasing number of near crashes, and 1987 was even worse. Due to more pilot errors, fewer controllers on the ground, and poor maintenance of airplanes, our airways are more dangerous now than they have ever been. The number of pilot errors which lead to near crashes is increasing at an alarming rate. One example of pilot error happened on July 8, 1987, when a Delta Airlines jumbo jet found itself within 100 feet of another plane. Delta Airlines, usually considered to be one of the industrys most safety-conscious airlines, has had many such near misses. Two separate incidents involving this company occurred on July 19, 1987. Over the state of Virginia, two Delta planes came within 1.3 miles of one another, and on the same day the captain of a Delta Boeing 737 had to change his course quickly to avoid a small, private plane that came as close as 1.300 feet to the jet. Moreover, on that same day a small commuter plane which followed a large jet too closely was bounced about by the 747s exhaust turbulence and fell to within 100 feet of the ground before the pilot could regain control of the aircraft. All of these near
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accidents could have been avoided. A second cause of near collisions is the lack of properly trained air traffic controllers. In 1981 the controllers went on strike for higher pay and better working conditions, and President Reagan fired all of them. Even now, the airports still do not have enough controllers and must deal with controllers with very little experience. Examples of near misses due to controller failure, such as the close encounter of a Pan Am jet and a Venezuelan plane in July, 1987, are numerous. The Pan Am plane had received permission to climb to 2.000 feet, but the controller did not realize that there was another plane also at that altitude. The two planes missed each other by 800 feet. In that same month in Boston, two airplanes were given permission to take off on crossing runways. The collision was avoided when the tower realized what was happening and ordered the USAir aircraft to stop before it taxied right into the path of the Delta flight under full power. The airplane taking off had no way to change its course at that point. It was a very close call. A third example can be seen in the case of a United Airlines flight coming into OHare airport in Chicago on July 19, 1987. This plane had to stop its attempt to land near the airport when the pilot noticed six Air Force F-16s in the process of touching down on a crossing runway. The Air Force plane had also been cleared for landing by the controllers at OHare. With so many plans to keep an eye on, it is not surprising that air traffic controllers make mistakes at times. A third cause of near accidents is poor maintenance of airplanes due to the airlines interest in cutting costs. In February 1987, a mechanic working on a Continental Airlines jet told the planes crew to wait while he went to get some parts. When he returned a few minutes later, the airplane was gone! It had taken off with one of the fuselage doors still hanging open. The plane was ordered to return to the airport, and it landed safely. This could have been a great disaster. In the same year, Eastern Airlines was ordered to pay more than $ 9.5 million in fines for over 78.000 maintenance violations. Maintenance is costly and time-consuming but absolutely necessary. In conclusion, our airways are unsafe. Should all these examples then make you take the train next time you travel? A better way would be to put pressure on government officials to establish rules for pilot training, the number of hours in the air for the crew, the number of flights taking off and landing at any given time, air controller education and training, and procedures for maintenance. With stricter regulations, most of the problems would be solved.
When you are using examples to support an opinion, you need to make sure that your reader is convinced. In one of the essays, the author had only three examples (high school, TV, and cars), but all three were long and well-developed. In the other, the author chose instead to give several examples for each of the three main points. When writing this type of essay, you should always ask yourself, Have I given enough clear examples to convince my reader?
PRACTICE 1 Below are four thesis statements and lists of possible examples to support them. Put a check mark next to those that you would include in an essay with that thesis statement.
1. Thesis: Sports can cause injury. ______ Basketball develops team spirit. ______ Runners often injure their knees. ______ Tennis elbow is painful. ______ Surfing gives you great balance. ______ Swimming makes girls broad-shouldered. ______ Skiing is an exciting sport. ______ Skiers with a leg cast is a common sight.
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2. Thesis: Air pollution is a growing problem. ______ Pollution from the U.S. makes acid rain fall in Canada. ______ Car exhaust is poisonous, and there is an increasing number of cars on the road. ______ Smokers pollute our indoor environment, but there are fewer smokers than before. ______ We should convert to nuclear energy. ______ New plants can be developed that can stand the levels of pollution. ______ 80% of our planets surface is covered with water. ______ Switzerland is losing trees at an alarming rate due to polluted air.
3. Thesis: The Civil War was mostly caused by economic differences in the South and the North. ______ The South was agricultural while the North was industrial. ______ Abraham Lincoln opposed slavery. ______ The war lasted from 1860 to 1865, with great losses on both sides. ______ The South felt it needed slaves to maintain its economy. ______ The living conditions for the factory workers of the North were just as bad as those for the slaves in the South. ______ The economy in the North was based on manufacturing and needed less manpower.
4. Thesis: Community colleges are better for freshmen than universities. ______ A university has an excellent academic reputation. ______ Classes are smaller in a community college. ______ I prefer community colleges. ______ You can get a loan to pay tuition at a university. ______ Community colleges are cheaper than universities. ______ At a university you often have an assistant as a teacher, not the professor. ______ A university has a large library. ______ You can take the same classes at a community college as at a university. ______ Many students transfer from a community college to a university after two years.
PRACTICE 2 Below are three thesis statements for example essays. Write down possible examples you can use to support the theses. 1. Todays literature is exciting. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 2. Having a pet makes your life richer. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 3. Many countries have big city traffic problems. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
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PRACTICE 3 There are many ways to organize your examples for an essay. Most example essays tend to use a least important to most important pattern of organization. Below are two thesis statements and tree lists of examples for each. Decide which one is organized according to the least important to most important pattern.
I. Thesis statement: The quality of modern life is decreasing due to noise pollution. A. 1. home computers making an irritating noise 2. telephones ringing all the time 3. modern music louder than ever 4. more factories more production more noise 5. more cars / planes / trains more noise B. 1. more cars / planes / trains more noise 2. more factories more production more noise 3. modern music louder than ever 4. telephones ringing all the time 5. home computers making an irritating noise C. 1. telephones ringing all the time 2. more cars / planes / trains more noise 3. home computers making an irritating noise 4. more factories more production more noise 5. modern music louder than ever
II. Thesis statement: Construction work in Southern California can be a satisfying job. A. 1. get a feeling of making a mark 2. see a project from beginning to end 3. friendship with fellow workers 4. get a good physical workout 5. get a nice tan from being outside all day B. 1. get a nice tan from being outside all day 2. get a good physical workout 3. friendship with fellow workers 4. getting a feeling of making a mark 5. see a project from beginning to end C. 1. friendship with fellow workers 2. see a project from beginning to end 3. get a good physical workout 4. get a nice tan from working outside all day 5. get a feeling of making a mark.
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THE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT ESSAY

In developing a cause-and-effect essay, we have to analyze causes and effects that are both immediate (recent in time or very directly related to the topic) and remote (farther away in time of less directly related). Considering the nature of the subject, we must decide whether we want to emphasize cause or effect, or if we should place equal emphasis on both. We must often consider the relationships between causes and effects since in some cases one effect may also be a cause, with an effect of its own, as in a chain reaction.
PRACTICE 1 Look at these thesis statements. Decide whether the emphasis in each one is on the cause or the effect of something. __________ 1. Accidents at home are usually the result of carelessness. __________ 2. As a result of a heart attack, the victim may have physical activities limited, suffer a degeneration of other body activities, or even die. __________ 3. My friend lost his job because of his poor work performance and his inability to get along with other workers. __________ 4. TV viewers can suffer from both eye strain and intellectual boredom. __________ 5. Poverty and our nations inability to share the wealth have been pointed out as the reasons why people in our society turn to crime. __________ 6. On a trip to Brazil, I observed how the climate has affected its economy, architecture, and people. __________ 7. The occurrence of a third world war will probably be the result of our leaders inability to communicate with each other and the militarys constant desire for more advanced military weapons. __________ 8. Houseplants die for a variety of reasons, including lack of sufficient sunlight and water.
Many events can cause a chain reaction. For example, suppose you have lost your job. There would be many effects, some of which would be the causes for other effects, such as the following. Cause: loss of job Effect 1: loss of income inability to pay the rent/mortgage loss of home moving in with relatives family tensions Effect 2: loss of daily structure boredom Effect 3: loss of self-esteem depression no confidence in finding a new job
PRACTICE 2 Give as many effects as you can of the following situations. As you write down the effects, notice whether any of them is the cause of another effect (as in a chain reaction). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. You You You You You You move from a large house with a yard to a small apartment. leave the small town where you grew up and knew everyone to move to a large city. leave the large city where you live to move to a small town. lose your eyesight. get married. win a lottery.
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7. You lose your credit card. PRACTICE 3 Give as many causes as you can for the following situations. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A car accident. A persons loss of a job. A students failure to pass a course. The closing of a school. A persons getting elected to public office. Immigration.
PRACTICE 4 Causes and effects can be ordered in several ways, including chain order, chronological order, and order of importance. In each of the following, read the thesis and decide on the best order for the supporting ideas. Number them 1, 2, 3, and so on. For each set, be able to indicate which principle of order you have used. Are there any lists that have more than one possible order?
1. Thesis: Scientists predict a food crisis of great proportion in this century unless population growth is curtailed. __________ Most important, even when enough food is grown, the problem of the cost of distributing it to needy people in the world exists. __________ Population increases by about 100 million yearly. Agricultural output cannot keep up with the need. __________ The cost of farm machinery, the oil to run it, and the technology to improve agriculture are at present prohibitive. __________ Also, agricultural production depends on suitable weather, which is both unpredictable and uncontrollable.
2. Thesis: The action of air both inside and outside the ear causes us to hear sound. __________ Inside the eardrum, a system of small bones vibrates to amplify the movements on the surface of the eardrum. __________ Air moves outside the head to vibrate the eardrum, which is a membrane of tissue. __________ These cells send the impulses to the brain, which then decodes the signals into what we hear. __________ These bones connect to a snail-like section filled with fluid, which is agitated to stimulate nerve cells.
3. Thesis: Many colleges and universities are having financial problems because of the high rate of unemployment. __________ The most obvious effect of unemployment is that people cannot afford to send their children to college. __________ Just as important but less obvious is the fact that with fewer people working, fewer taxes are paid. As a result, states have less money to aid education. __________ Also, students themselves cannot find jobs to help finance their own education. __________ In addition, states spend more on social services, such as unemployment compensation, and less on education.
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4. Thesis: There have been many reasons for the immigration of people from other countries to the United States. __________ In the 20th century, immigrants from Mexico and Central America have come mostly for economic reasons. __________ The first European immigrants in the 17th and 18th centuries came seeking religious freedom and equality. __________ During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, immigrants fled from poverty-stricken countries of Europe, such as Ireland and Poland. __________ Blacks were unwilling immigrants to America, having been brought from Africa as slaves in the 18th century.
PRACTICE 5 Study the paragraphs below. Each one attempts to explain a reason, but not all of the paragraphs are successful. Circle the number of each paragraph that adequately explains the reason given in the topic sentence. Explain your choices.
1. One reason I came to the United States was to learn English. English is the most important language in the world. It is the language spoken at the United Nations; it is also the official language of diplomacy. In addition, English is useful in many occupations. For example, air traffic controllers all over the world must be able to speak English. Since English is so important, I decided to come to the United States. 2. Another reason I came to the United States was to go to college. In my country, only a very small percentage of the applicants to the universities get accepted. Since I was unable to get accepted at a university at home, I had to go to a college outside of my country. I chose this university not only because I was able to get accepted, but also because it offers a program that I want to pursue: computer science. 3. One of the reasons for anxiety among American men is their changing role in society. In the past, it was simple. Men were strong, tough, and aloof. The models for these masculine qualities were movie stars like John Wayne, Humphrey Bogart, and Clint Eastwood. Today, however, most women want men to be more sensitive, more gentle, more understanding, more like Robert Redford, Dustin Hoffman, and Alan Alda. So men who grew up following the old role model are suddenly told that they are not right, not good enough, and that they should be different. They are being asked to change the way they think about themselves and their concept of manhood, and they are being asked to change in their relationships with women. This shift in expectations calls into question mens sense of who they are and how they relate to others, giving rise to self-doubt and problems of identity. Of course, this uncertainty about their role in society can cause men serious anxiety. 4. The major reason for anxiety among American men is their changing role in society. According to all accounts, this anxiety is pervasive. It is particularly so among men in their 30s and 40s, but it can also affect men in their 50s. One psychologist tells of a 56-year-old man who originally supported his wifes desire to go back to work and get a job. But, when she was promoted to a managerial position and began to travel a lot, the husband began to have anxiety attacks. Many men respond to this anxiety by refusing to commit themselves in marriage or by taking refuge in the new macho man, the man who thinks women really do want the strong silent type and he will be that man.
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Read the following essay.
A Nation of Illiterates? Has the electronic age turned our children into a nation of highly technological but culturally illiterate people? This question is being debated at parent-teacher organizations, neighborhood groups and family dinner tables. The invention of television has been widely blamed for the short attention spans of our student in school as well as a decline in the reading done by most school-aged children. However, the more recent video games, computerized information searches, and other electronic inventions seem to threaten the cultural level of the worlds citizens even further with effects that will reach far into the future. Observe the average high school student today. He rushes off for the school bus, toting his computer-generated term paper in fulfillment of a class project while plugged in to his favorite rock star by means of an ipod. In writing his term paper, he has made use of an encyclopedic search program on his personal computer and a graphics design program to make his work more attractive. He does not even have to be able to spell, for the spell-check program of his word processor takes that burden off his shoulders. Arriving at school, he carries his pocket calculator that can perform any of the more sophisticated operations needed in his math class. Mention the technical wizard of his grandparents generation, the slide rule, and almost certainly he will have no idea what you are talking about. Learn multiplication tables? Why? The answer is always at his fingertips, and no careless human mistakes will lower his math grade. In English class, our favorite teen sleeps through the lesson on Hamlet (after all, he can always rent the Mel Gibson version at the video store) and smiles ironically when the teacher encourages reading for pleasure. Why should he read when there is so much entertainment that requires no thought or imagination on his part? Besides, it takes a lot of time to plow through all those pages, and he has scheduled a video game tournament with his friends after school. Everyone knows those contests can last for hours. Even the fairy tales and childrens classics that his parents used to read to him when he was a toddler have become confused, in his mind, with the television and movie versions. Just one more class to get through until he can escape into real life. History class. Yawn. What a bore! Who cares about the industrial revolution when compared with the incredible achievements in the field of technology he has been during his brief lifetime? Hasnt that teacher walked outside of the classroom once in recent years? Doesnt he know that the real world is moving too quickly for the youth of today to dwell on the past? The old belief that we study the past in order to make sense of the present and improve the future holds no truth for our student. Then just when this confident young person believes he is ready to face the challenges of adult life, someone gets the idea that he ought to pass some sort of cultural literacy test. Who is Cervantes, Dante, Aristotle, Copernicus? Where is Thailand, Ethiopia, the Nile River or the capital of his own state? If he could only remember the answers to the questions on that computer trivia game he used to play when he was twelve, maybe he would do all right on the test. Besides, any question he really needs answered can be obtained in a nanosecond on his superpowered, megabyte computer system. Is he culturally illiterate, or is he just so superior to the generation of his teachers and parents in technology that the same standards cannot be applied to him as were applied to his elders? One cannot help but wonder if he will not feel a twinge of regret when he bounces his own child on his knee at some future date and must play a video in order to tell a story. Something important is being lost in our lives even though he may not realize it now.
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Words that are often used to link ideas showing cause and effect fall into six categories with different structures. Notice how an opinion of the author of A Nation of Illiterates? can be expressed as a cause/effect statement in a variety of ways. 1. The indicator may be the verb phrase in the sentence, with the cause in the subject position. Cause
Too much technology
Indicator
may lead to can contribute to could result in is one possible reason (for) may be responsible (for)
Effect
poor cultural literacy levels.
2. The indicator of cause and effect is the verb phrase in the sentence, with the effect in the subject position. Effect
Poor cultural literacy levels
Indicator
may come from can stem from could result from may be the result of can be due to are the possible consequences of
Cause
too much technology.
3. The indicator is a prepositional phrase. Indicator

Due to Because of
Cause
excessive technology,
Effect
students often have poor cultural literacy levels.
4. The indicator of cause and effect joins two independent clauses. In this group, notice the punctuation. Cause
Many young people have a great deal of technology in their lives;
Indicator
consequently, therefore, thus, hence, and so so For this reason, Accordingly,
Effect
they often have poor cultural literacy levels.
Many young people have a great deal of technology in their lives, Many young people have a great deal of technology in their lives.
they often have poor cultural literacy levels. they often have poor cultural literacy levels.
5. The indicator introduces a subordinate clause joined to a main clause. Indicator

Since Because
Cause
many young people have a great deal of technology in their lives,
Effect
they often have poor cultural literacy levels.
6. A conditional structure may be used. Indicator

If
Cause
students have a great deal of technology in their lives,
Effect
they may have poor cultural literacy levels.
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One major use of cause-and-effect essays is science to anayze various kinds ovf cycles, such as biological or chemical chains. Study the following essay, which analyzes a causal chain.
Upsetting the Balance of Nature The members of a living community exist together in a particular, balanced relationship, or ecosystem. One animal species eats another animal species, which in turn eats another. Over the years, a balance is worked out among the plants and animals in a community, and it remains basically stable. It is like a huge puzzle with all of the pieces in their proper places. However, at times this balance in nature is disturbed, resulting in a number of possibly unforeseen effects. Perhaps a disease results in the near extinction of one species, leaving another species with no natural predator. The result can be a terrific increase in that one species population. This could further result in the devastation of a shared food supply, which could in turn affect another species. It is possible for the disruption in the balance of nature to have natural causes: disease, drought, fire. Sometimes, however, human beings intervene in a natural environment, perhaps only slightly and with good intentions. The result is the same. The balance of nature becomes unbalanced and results in an entire chain reaction of unforeseen and unwanted effects. A good example of this occurred in the Antilles in the 1870s. Sugar cane was a major crop there, but rats were eating and nesting in the cane, causing a great deal of damage. The mongoose, a one-and-a-half-foot-long mammal of the East Indies, was known to be an excellent rat hunter. Several males and females were imported in 1872, and laws were established that forbade the killing of them or their offspring. The mongoose flourished in the Antilles. After ten years it had multiplied abundantly and had significantly reduced the rat population. Consequently, damage to the cane fields was greatly reduced. It seemed that the scheme to add another piece to the ecological puzzle in the Antilles had been successful. However, that is not the end of the story. The influence of the mongoose did not stop there. As the rat population decreased and the mongoose population increased, the mongoose needed to enlarge its menu. It attacked young pigs and goats, game, poultry, and began to destroy bananas, maize, and pineapples. Because the mongoose could not be hunted, its numbers increased rapidly, and it became a terrible pest. All of the indigenous animals suffered damage. The mongoose learned to enjoy the native birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles and their eggs. Now, it was specifically these animals that kept the local insect population in check. There were in the ecosystem of the Antilles a number of beetles, borers, and other insects that lived on and in the sugar cane. Until that time, they had not caused significant damage to the cane because they were the natural food of so many local animals that kept their numbers down. However, as the birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles disappeared, the insect population began to increase. With no natural predators to keep them in check, the insects began to do more and more damage to the cane fields. Finally, the people of the Antilles realized that the introduction of the mongoose had caused a finely and delicately balanced system to go awry. The law against killing the mongoose was rescinded, and the mongoose population was reduced. Gradually, the different members of the plant and animal community came back into balance with each other and equilibrium was reestablished. However, the human members of the community would not soon forget that a single change in an ecosystem can cause a chain reaction that results in completely unforeseen and sometimes unwanted effects.
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THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

An argument ensues when people disagree about something. One side gives an opinion and offers reasons in support of it, and the other side gives a different opinion and offers reasons in support of his or her stand. However, people can disagree about many things that cannot be argued effectively. For example, two people might argue that one flavor of ice cream tastes better than another, but there is no way that either party could convince the other party to change his or her preference. It could, however, be argued that one flavor seems to be more popular; in this case, facts about sales could be cited. Two people might also disagree about the existence of God, but again, it is unlikely that one person could convince the other person to change his or her belief, for religious belief is based on faith, not on logic or verifiable facts. Moreover, two people might disagree about who won the national soccer match in 2008, but if they do some research, the argument would be settled using a fact. Therefore, arguments of preference, belief or faith, and fact are not the type of arguments one can effectively and logically deal with in the formal argumentative essay.
The kind of issue that can be argued logically is one based on an opinion that can be supported by evidence such as facts, examples, the opinion of experts, or logical reasoning. For example, say you wanted to argue that college students should be required to take physical education courses. Those arguing for this proposal would support their opinion with relevant facts and logical reasoning, while those opposed to the change would also give their reasons. This is an issue that has two arguable sides; it is not an argument of belief or faith, preference, or fact.
An argumentative essay is one that attempts to change the readers mind, to convince the reader to agree with the point of view or opinion of the writer. Therefore, the argumentative essay attempts to be highly persuasive and logical. The argumentative thesis takes a side of an issue; frequently, too, it proposes a course of action (often expressed with the modal verb should). In the argument for physical education courses, the thesis for a paper on this topic might be, State University should require all students to take one physical education course each semester. Of course, someone else might argue, State University should not require students to take physical education courses.
Here are some examples of argumentative theses: Prospective parents should be required to get licenses in order to have children. Students should have a say in the hiring and firing of teachers. Pornographic books ought to be banned from the library. This university should not have a soccer team. Our government ought to allow more immigrants into our country.
When you write an argumentative paper, you must be acutely aware of your audience the reader. Remember, the purpose of an argumentative essay is to convince the reader that your position is the better one. To begin with, assume that the reader disagrees with you. After all, if he or she did not, there would be no cause to argue. Next, remember that although the reader disagrees with you, that does not mean he or she is any less intelligent than you. Therefore, avoid attacking the reader with such statements as, Anyone who believes all students should take physical education courses must be ignorant or out of touch with reality. Address your reader by writing objectively, logically, and respectfully.
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The most important thing to consider about the members of your audience is why they hold their opinion. What reasons do you think they might use to support their opinion? Trying to identify and understand your opponents point of view is important, if you do not understand your opponents reasons and you just argue your own reasons, you are not likely to convince the reader at all. For example, let us say that you want to argue for a physical education requirement at your college and you give the following reasons: 1. Students enjoy physical education courses. 2. Students learn valuable social skills and teamwork in physical education courses. 3. Students can study more effectively when they are physically fit.
Your reasons might be very good ones, but these points are probably not the points on which your opposition bases its argument; in fact, your opponents will probably agree with you on these points! At the heart of your opponents argument is the issue of responsibility: is it the universitys job to attend to the physical fitness of students? If you do not address that issue and convince your opponents that physical education courses are appropriate requirements at the college level, then you cannot expect to convince them to agree with you. Once you have argued to the points the opposition hold, then you can further support your case by adding the other reasons mentioned earlier.
PRACTICE 1 Read the following thesis statements, and think of the reasons in support of the thesis (pros) and the reasons against (cons) it. List as many reasons as you can for both sides. Then circle the reason that you think is the crucial one, the one at the heart of the issue. 1. 2. 3. 4. A student convicted of cheating on an exam should automatically be expelled from college. A university education should be free to all high school students with a B grade average. Physicians should be allowed to assist people who want to die. The production and sale of cigarettes should be made illegal.
SUBSTANCE The substance of your argument must not be based on a proposition that will gain immediate assent, but rather on one that is open to question. Furthermore, the proposition must be clearly definable: the vaguer the proposition, the less chance there is of persuasion that is, an arguable proposition has definition and uncertainty.
The proposition Some changes in government might be beneficial to the nation lacks definition and therefore is not really arguable. What changes? Beneficial in what ways? This proposition is too unstable to serve as the base for the structure of an argument. The proposition Electing honest officials would improve government is a truism; it does not contain the element of uncertainty. The response to this proposition is So what else is new? The proposition Government financing of presidential election campaigns would make America a more democratic nation is arguable. It has definition and can be questioned.
Besides having definition and uncertainty, arguable topics cannot be resolved strictly by empirical means (facts, figures, experiments). At the present time, we can be quite certain about the distance from the earth to the moon, for we have measured it, but we can never be absolutely certain about whether or not we should spend billions of dollars on moon missions. We can only be more or less convinced, depending on the arguments pro or con that are advanced.
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The substance itself will be the proof of your case your attempt to convince an audience that they should agree with you. You will undoubtedly use logic, and it must not be fallacious; your analogies must hold, must not be false; your examples must be truly representative; your data must be accurate. Nevertheless, persuasion always involves value judgments. When you persuade someone, you are making a claim that such and such should be the case. In its most rudimentary form, an argument contains three elements: the claim (the thesis); data or evidence in support of the claim (supporting arguments); and the link (the relationship established) between the data or evidence and the claim.
In an argumentative essay, one must: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. have a reasonable claim; assemble the evidence to support the claim; make sure that there is a real link between the evidence and the claim; discover any valid reservations to the link; develop adequate backing for the link; qualify the claim if necessary.
TONE Tone is the way in which writers express their attitudes towards the subject matter and audience. Real persuasion results when a persuader and audience achieve that mystic union known as a meeting of minds, which seldom results from browbeating.
It is a mistake to assume that the power of facts or logic inevitably results in persuasion. Both facts and logic indicate that smoking is harmful, but millions of people puff away. The concerned and subtle protests of a family member could well be more effective in persuading one to stop smoking than mountains of data and chains of logic. The writers attitude, revealed by his or her tone, is a crucial factor in persuasion, and attitude is not conveyed by the facts and nothing but the facts, nor by impeccable logic.
REFUTATION In an argumentative essay, you should refute opposing arguments. It is this characteristic that is more particular to the argumentative essay than to expository essays. Since there are two sides to the issue, and since you the writer want to convince the reader that you are right, not only must you prove your own case, but you should also prove that the opponent is wrong, or at least that your points are more valid or significant. Refute means to prove wrong by argument or two show that something is erroneous. In refutation, you will deal with the opponents reasons and show that yours are more valid or superior. However, if the opponent makes some valid points, you will want to concede them, or agree that they are valid, and then go on to argue your own points.
The following paragraphs show how to refute and concede arguments. The first paragraph sets up an argument; the second paragraph both concedes valid points and refutes the main argument. One reason people over 75 should not be allowed to drive is that they are a hazard on the road. By that age, most peoples vision and hearing have deteriorated; thus, they cannot see cars, pedestrians, and traffic signs as well as they could in their youth. In addition, they have slower reaction times. This is particularly problematic because while driving, one must be constantly on the alert to the need to stop or swerve suddenly to avoid a collision. These
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physical and mental impairments lead to a lot of accidents. In fact, if we compare on a permile basis the elderly with other age groups of drivers, it turns out that the elderly are involved in 25 accidents per 100 drivers. This is second only to the group aged 24 and under.
Now observe how this point is refuted and the valid points conceded:
My opponents argue that people over 75 should not be allowed to drive because they are a hazard on the road. While it is true that the accident rate per mile driven is high for the elderly, the fact is that the elderly simply do not drive as much as those in other age groups; consequently, the actual number of accidents in this age group is the lowest among all the younger age groups. Moreover, while it is also true that their abilities to see, hear, and react are not as sharp as they were then they were younger, this does not necessarily have to make them hazardous on the road. In fact, elderly drivers can be trained to compensate for their deficiencies by taking special drivers education courses designed for them.
There are a number of ways to support a point in argumentative writing. Since the purpose is to convince or persuade, you can use whatever type of organization and support that is suggested by the reason you give. For instance, if you believe that there should be stricter controls over the dumping of chemical wastes, and one of the reasons you give is the pollution that irresponsible dumping has caused, you could discuss the effects of dumping; in addition, you could give examples of dumping grounds that have polluted the environment. You might even explain the process of pollution, that is, how dumping pollutes.
Whatever method of development you use, you will want to use facts to support your point. Facts include data that have been objectively proved and are generally accepted, such as historical facts, scientific data, statistics, and so forth. In order to get facts to support your point, you may need to do some library research.
Note how factual details assist in this argumentative paragraph. Here this writer is arguing that the use of pesticides should be restricted and controlled.
There are many reasons for restricting the methods and quantity of pesticides used in farming, but one of the most compelling reasons is that pesticides kill not only harmful insects which destroy crops and damage property, but also those insects which are helpful to farmers and the environment, such as ladybugs and honeybees. In fact, the case of the honeybee is an excellent example of the damage that pesticides can do. Honeybees must pollinate more than 30% of the food consumed in the United States or the plants simply will not grow. When pesticides are used on food plants, however, the honeybees carry the poison back to their hives with the pollen they have gathered, so the pesticides kill not only one bee, but the entire hive. Today, almost no wild colonies of honeybees remain in the United States, and beekeepers keep only about 3 million hives; this is about half as many as in the past. To keep fruit and vegetable crop yields high, many farmers are finding that they must hire beekeepers to bring honeybees into their farms on trucks to pollinate the crops. Without enough honeybees to pollinate crops, the amount of food we produce will decrease drastically. Therefore, we must restrict our use of harmful pesticides before we discover that we will not have enough food to feed the worlds growing population.
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Another type of support is examples. To be effective, the examples you use should be typical, selected from a sufficient number of examples to prove the case. Note the effective use of examples in the paragraph about pesticides. In this paragraph, both the ladybug and the honeybee are given as examples, and the example of the honeybee is developed into an extended example. If you use examples from personal experience, be sure that the example is generalizable to a larger group.
You can also use the opinions of experts to help support your point. An expert is a person who is particularly knowledgeable about a topic because of his or her research, profession, or experience. Note the use of experts opinions in this paragraph arguing against the legalization of drugs.
There are two drugs that are legal now: alcohol and nicotine. These two legal drugs demonstrate what will happen if other drugs, like cocaine, are legalized. According to Dr. Herbert Kleber, who is currently with the Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, Today ten times more Americans use alcohol and five times more use tobacco than illegal drugs (DEA, Claim III, 1). He quotes a recent survey stating that 98 million Americans had used alcohol in the previous month and 54 million had used cigarettes, while only 11 million had used illicit drugs (DEA, Claim III, 1). Drug Enforcement Administration figures indicate that currently about half a billion people are addicted to nicotine and 18 million are addicted to alcohol. In contrast, only 5 million are addicted to illegal drugs (Clam IV, 1). These numbers clearly show that if drugs are legal, people are more likely to use them, since, by being legal, they are accepted as being okay by society. Thus, legalizing drugs like cocaine and heroin would most likely result in more drug use and more drug addiction.
No matter what underlying pattern of development you use, you must show the progression of your logic. Just as it is necessary to explain an example to show its relevance to the generalization, it is necessary to explain the reason to show how it supports the thesis. Look at how a paragraph supporting the thesis Universities should continue to give football scholarships is developed.
Giving football scholarships is really just a wise investment on the part of the university. What the university really needs and wants is money in the form of football ticket sales, contribution, and endowments from alumni, and allotments and grants from the state legislature. By giving football scholarships, many smaller, struggling universities can attract talented, sought-after football players. These players build a winning football team, and the university builds a reputation. The universitys football games may be on television, and the team may be asked to play in a bowl game. With this publicity, fans and alumni are eager to attend the games, thus boosting ticket sales. Rich alumni, who are proud of their school, give endowments and grants. Members of Congress and representatives at the state Capitol are pleased with the publicity of the school, and thus the state receives. As a result, the states coffers are a little more open and the money flows, enabling the university to pay its faculty, build new buildings, and maintain the quality of its teaching. Yes, the football scholarship is a small investment from which the university hopes to reap big gains.
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There are a number of ways to organize an argumentative essay. Here are two models: Model 1 I. Introductory paragraph: introduction of the issue / problem and of the thesis. II. Body paragraph 1: background information (optional) For some topics, you may need to give additional information, define terms, and explain whatever the audience needs to know to understand the issue.
III. Body paragraph 2: reason 1 You will probably have one reason per paragraph. Two to four reasons are typical for an argumentative essay. IV. Body paragraph 3: reason 2 V. Body paragraph 4: reason 3 VI. Body paragraph 5: reason 4 VII. Body paragraph 6: refutation Refute your opponents most important reason. VIII. Concluding paragraph: Here you can summarize, demand action, suggest a solution, or predict an outcome.
Model 2 I. Introductory paragraph: introduction of the issue / problem and of the thesis. II. Body paragraph 1: background information (optional) For some topics, you may need to give additional information, define terms, and explain whatever the audience needs to know to understand the issue.
III. Body paragraph 2: opponents argument 1 with your refutation Begin the paragraph with a short summary of your opponents argument and spend most of the paragraph refuting it. IV. Body paragraph 3: opponents argument 2 with your refutation V. Body paragraph 4: opponents argument 3 with your refutation VI. Body paragraph 5: opponents argument 4 with your refutation VII. Concluding paragraph: Here you can summarize, demand action, suggest a solution, or predict an outcome.
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Read the following essay. Note if the writer clearly states the case or issue under discussion; locate the thesis; evaluate the support and the argument. Is it convincing?
Science: Who Needs It? At our school, all students are required to take a minimum of six courses in the natural sciences; three in the biological sciences and three in the physical sciences, regardless of the students major. Students majoring in the humanities often have to struggle to get through these demanding courses and their grade-point averages usually suffer as a result. It has been suggested that the requirements be modified, reducing the number of natural science courses required so that students can take more courses directly related to their majors. As a humanities major, I admit this would make college life a lot easier for me, but I still oppose the measure because natural science courses provide us with a crucial part of our education. Students majoring in the humanities usually object to taking such science courses because they claim the courses are irrelevant to their majors. What good will physics do me when Im teaching Spanish? a friend of mine asked. Its true that physics, chemistry, biology, and the like may not have a direct application to most careers in the humanities, but this objection ignores one of the key issues of a university education. A university is not simply a training facility; it is an institution of higher learning where students are educated, not merely trained. Even the term university implies that its a place to obtain a general knowledge base; a university education means the student has been educated in many subjects. Since part of our universal knowledge is science, it is and logically should be a part of the university curriculum. Humanities students might accept this argument and agree that they should take some natural science, but not as many courses as are now required. They might suggest a onesemester course in biological science and a one-semester course in physical science, along with perhaps one semester of math for non-majors. This, they argue, would expose them sufficiently to the universe of science. If the point of a university education were merely to expose students to a variety of subjects, then I might agree. But a university education implies more than mere exposure. After all, people can be exposed to subjects by watching television. Again, the purpose of going to a university is to get an education. What does that mean? It means more than just training and exposure; it means that students learn enough to become critical thinkers in the various disciplines. It means that they should gain enough understanding of the sciences, humanities, social sciences, and the arts to be able to discuss issues in these areas intelligently and to be able to question other peoples views rather than just accept what people tell them. One or two semesters of general science cannot sufficiently educate students in this field. What one learns in natural science courses is more than mere factual information. One learns to think critically, to approach problems logically, to use reasoning. And this takes time. It takes work. It takes studying different areas of science and applying the general principles in laboratory situations. Developing a critical ability in science is important, but why? In addition to providing the student with a universe of knowledge, an understanding of science is vital in our highly technological society. We are all confronted with issues involving nuclear waste, chemical pollutants, medical advances, exploration in space, and so forth. In order to make intelligent decisions in fact, even to be involved in the decision-making process people need to have an understanding of these issues that goes beyond mere exposure. Otherwise, the uneducated become mere puppets who, out of ignorance, can but nod in agreement with anyone who professes expertise. Science courses, then, provide us not only with knowledge that is crucial for intelligent functioning in our society, but they also provide us with the opportunity to develop our critical, logical reasoning skills. Although these courses are difficult for the non-science majors, they are a necessary part of a university education.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Frydenberg, G. & Boardman, C. A. Youre in Charge: writing to communicate. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1990.
Mendez-Egle, B. & Thacker, R. Ideas into Essays. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1995.
ODonnell, T. & Paiva, J. Independent Writing. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 1993.
Smalley, R. L., Ruetten, M. K. & Kozyrev, J. R. Refining Composition Skills: rhetoric and grammar. Heinle & Heinle Thomson Learning, 2001.
Spencer, C. & Arbon, B. Foundations of Writing. National Textbook Company, 1996.
Winterowd, W. The Contemporary Writer: a practical rhetoric. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. 1981.

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UNIVERSIDADE DE BRASLIA INSTITUTO DE LETRAS IL DEPARTAMENTO DE LNGUAS ESTRANGEIRAS E TRADUO LET

DISCIPLINA 142981 INGLS: EXPRESSO ESCRITA 2

PROFESSORA RACHEL LOURENO

INTRODUCTION TO THE WRITING PROCESS

PREWRITING: STRATEGIES FOR GETTING STARTED

hook general comments

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ideas of the thesis statement

comments: summary; evaluation; opinion final statement

WRITING BODY PARAGRAPHS

WRITING WITH TRANSITIONS

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Paragraph 2 Flu and Colds

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DEFENDING YOUR POSITION

THE PROCESS ESSAY

CHRONOLOGICAL LINKING WORDS Read the essay below carefully.

How to make Taffy

THE CLASSIFICATION ESSAY

Describe what each type of person would do in these situations:

THE COMPARISON AND CONTRAST ESSAY

THE EXEMPLIFICATION ESSAY

Now read the two essays below carefully.

THE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT ESSAY

Read the following essay.

3. The indicator is a prepositional phrase. Indicator

5. The indicator introduces a subordinate clause joined to a main clause. Indicator

6. A conditional structure may be used. Indicator

THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

Spencer, C. & Arbon, B. Foundations of Writing. National Textbook Company, 1996.

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