A DISSERTATION REPORT ON : TOWARDS A UNIFIED THEORY OF STRUCTURE AND REACTIONS

Submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree
Of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS By NILMADHAB HATI Under the guidance of Dr. RAJDEEP CHATTERJEE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE ROORKEE 247667(INDIA) MAY 2013

CANDIDATES DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation report is my own work and effort and that it has not been submitted anywhere for any award. Where other sources of information have been used, they have been acknowledged.

Signature : .. Date : ..

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
I hereby declare that this dissertation report is from the students own work and effort, and all other sources of information used have been acknowledged. This dissertation report has been submitted with my approval.

Supervisor : Dr. Rajdeep Chaterjee Assistant Professor Department of Physics Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Signature : .. Date : ..

Abstract
For a long time there has been a fundamental separation between nuclear structure and nuclear reaction. In this dissertation a description of Nuclear Structure and Nuclear Reaction studies in the Shell Model Embedded In The Continuum (SMEC) is presented. Here we will not be concerned with the general Theory of Nuclear Reactions. Rather the physical and mathematical concepts of a simple Microscopic Model of Nuclear Reactions is presented. This model is an extension of the Multiconfigurational Shell Model. Here the formalisms of One-Particle in the continuum has been discussed.

Contents
1. Introduction6 2. SMEC Formalism : A microscopic approach to nuclear reactions9 2.1 Nucleus seen as a Closed Quantum System : The Shell Model...9 2.2 Nucleus seen as an Open Quantum System : Shell Model Coupling to the Continuum17 2.3 SMEC formalism of one particle in the continuum17 2.3.1 Decomposition of the total Hamiltonian into subspaces...17 2.3.2 Equations in the Q space...18 2.3.3 Equations in the P space18 2.3.4 Coupling between the spaces Q and P..20 2.3.5 Solution of the schrodinger equation in the whole function space..20 2.4 Conclusion..29 Appendix 1. Bloch-Horowitz Perturbation Theory...28 References..30

Introduction
At present there are around 300 or so stable nuclei. Moving away from these stable nuclei by the addition of protons or neutrons one reaches a place where the nuclear binding energy ends, referred to as the nuclear drip line. Nuclear life far from stability is different from that around the stability line. The study of nuclei far from stability is a leading direction in nuclear physics, experimentally and theoretically. An important aspect of this research direction is to understand how magic numbers and shells appear and evolve with increasing numbers of neutrons or protons. Except for a qualitative understanding of the neutron and proton dependence of the magic numbers in terms of mean-field models, we lack a quantitative theoretical understanding in terms of the basic constituents of the underlying nuclear many-body Hamiltonian. Magic numbers lead to so-called shell gaps in the single particle spectra near the Fermi energy. For various magic numbers, in particular for stable doubly magic nuclei, one can have a large number of stable isotopes (increasing number of neutrons but fixed number of protons ) or isotones (increasing number of protons and fixed ). Eventually, as one adds more neutrons or protons, viz., moving away from the valley of nuclear stability towards the drip lines, the outermost nucleons literally start to drip off the nuclei, thereby defining the very limits of stable matter. As a result the nuclei beyond the drip line are unable to cluster itself into a bound nucleon system and are prone to nuclear emissions. The field of nuclear structure encompasses the study of the nucleon-nucleon interactions with bind the nucleons together into a composite system. The free nucleon-nucleon force can be viewed as a residual interaction of the underlying quark-gluon dynamics. On the other hand the nucleon-nucleon force in heavy nuclei, due to in-medium effects, differs considerably from the free nucleonnucleon interaction. Nuclei at extreme / values has this unique feature of a weak binding and hence a closeness to the particle continuum. Now if a coupling is considered between the bound and continuum states and hence the presence of low-lying scattering states, such a case calls for a modification of the approaches in the nuclear structure theory, inviting for a cross-talk between the nuclear structure and reaction theory.

Nuclei near the drip line are open-quantum many body systems for which the coupling with the scattering continuum plays an important role, and should therefore be explicitly taken into account. Configuration interaction (shellmodel) methods, such as the continuum shell model, have been developed in order to properly include the coupling with the scattering continuum. The states of the Hilbert space are separated into two spaces : in one of these sub-spaces, all nucleons are bound and in the second, a particle occupies more than one state in the continuum. The inclusion of continuum states complicates the solution of the many-body problem considerably. More than 40 years ago, the unified theory of nuclear reactions has been formulated by feshbach. Feshbach introduced the projection operator technique in order to make possible the concurrent numerical solution of equations with discrete and scattering states in spite of their very different mathematical properties. By means of the projection operator technique, the whole function space is divided into the subspace of discrete states ( subspace) and the subspace of scattering states ( subspace). The basic equation is the formal representation of the total wave function by means of the scattering and discrete wave functions. At the beginning, the scattering continuum was not considered in the Shell Model (SM). The nucleons were assumed to occupy bound single particle orbits in the average potential, perfectly isolated from the external environment of scattering states. The success of the first applications of the Shell Model was so convincing that even problems encountered in describing the spectra of mirror nuclei did not change the fundamental separation of the Nuclear Structure and the Nuclear reaction methods. Mirror nuclei such as 13C and 13N revealed a subtle influence of the continuum depending on the position of the respective particle emission thresholds. Unfortunately, this separation became a kind of a paradigm of nuclear physics. As a matter of fact, nuclear structure physics determines the properties of nuclear states by means of the effects appearing in nuclear collisions. This implies some knowledge of nuclear reaction theory which itself requires a prior knowledge of the structure of the interacting nuclei. Hence, there is a mutual dependence between the knowledge of nuclear structure and nuclear reactions which quite naturally calls for a unified theoretical framework. The blending of the ideas developed by Feshbach and with a microscopic theory as provided by the shell-model and its extensions resulted in the shell model
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approach to nuclear reactions. A fully symmetric treatment of scattering states, resonances and bound states has never been tried before. In practice, only the coupling to one-nucleon decay channels has been studied so far in the continuum shell model. The basic idea of the continuum shell model is to use a finite depth potential to generate the single particle basis and radial wave functions. Nucleons evolve in a finite potential well and interact through a schematic residual interaction in each subspace. In SMEC, the two subspaces are coupled by the residual interaction and therefore, the state of a nucleus will have a component of each of these two sub-space. In the first development of the Shell model with coupling to the continuum states resonances were not taken into account due to the difficulty that resonances are genuinely intrinsic properties of quantum systems and they do not belong to the Hilbert Space. The resonances were later included in the subspace of bound states using a regularization procedure. With this approach, the widths of emission of a nucleon in the nonresonant to the states situated above the threshold, and the correction of the energies of bound states due to the coupling with the continuum is obtained.

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2. SMEC Formalism : A Microscopic approach to Nuclear Reactions

2.1 Nucleus seen as a Closed Quantum System : The Shell Model

Consider an atomic nucleus, which is a quantum system of A interacting nucleons.The Schrodinger equation can be written as | |

The Shell model is based on the assumption that the properties of the lowenergy states of the nucleus can be reproduced by considering a few nucleons (valence nucleons) occupying a limited number of orbits over an inert core, the average effect of the interactions between the nucleons can be modeled by a potential , which is to say that each nucleon evolved into a Global Field created by the other A-1 nucleons. The unaccounted correlation between the nucleons are included in the residual two-body interaction term. The Hamiltonian of the nucleus can then be written as follows

where,

represents the single-particle Hamiltonian where the first and second terms represent the kinetic energy operator and the single-particle potential of the ith
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nucleon. In most practical calculations, one assumes that is a particlehole interaction and that, accordingly, is the Hartree-Fock potential. The Hamiltonian is evaluated in the laboratory frame of reference. It is generally considered that ( ) number of nucleons constitute the active valence nucleons while the remaining nucleons form an inert core. In the Phenomenological Shell-model calculations one assumes that the valence nucleons occupy a selected set of single-particle levels (called the model space). One diagonalizes the Shell-model Hamiltonian on the assumption that the residual two-body interaction between the valence nucleons has a simple radial form. The matrix elements of the potential are generally evaluated using harmonic-oscillator eigenfunctions for the single-particle radial wave functions. For the description of a nuclear state the wave function should possess a welldefined angular momentum and spin. We write the states of N0 nucleons in the form of slater determinants as, | |

Where | are the states of individual particles. In practice, we truncate the space of states. If M denotes the size of the space considered then the schrodinger equation is written as | | Where represents the matrix element and ck is the component of | to | . Nuclear interaction not being known, we use phenomenological methods for the calculation of the elements of the matrix. At present, we know that the three-body interactions may play a role not negligible in the description of the nucleus. Nevertheless, in this work, we restrict ourselves to two-body interactions. The Shell model has helped us understand and reproduce many experimental results for nuclei well connected and not too far from the valley of stability. However, for weakly bound nuclei, it is expected that the correlations with the continuum states are important. These are not taken into account in the shell model, so they are only considered in a phenomenological way with the
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adjustment of the matrix elements of the interaction from the experimental data. We cannot overlook the fact that the excited states can decrease by emitting one or more nucleons. In the shell model with coupling to continuum states, the continuum is introduced explicitly in the basis of states. The eigenstates of the nucleus component may now have one or more nucleons in the continuum. The nucleus is no longer considered as a closed system and isolated from the continuum states, but it is now seen as an open system.

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2.2 Nucleus seen as an Open Quantum System: Shell Model with coupling to the Continuum
For the case in figure 1, when the eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian are not very much different then in that case we cannot neglect that, due to the residual interaction, the nucleons may scatter from one state (Pure SM state) into the other. Thus the actual state must be given by the mixture of the SM states. Thus the task is to find appropriate linear combinations that describe the manyparticle system. The feature to form linear combinations of configurations to describe a particular state is referred to as configuration mixing. Unlike the Shell Model, in the Shell Model with coupling to the continuum (CSM) and the Shell Model Embedded in the Continuum (SMEC), the nucleons not only occupy bound states but also resonant states and real energy scattering states. The basic idea of the continuum shell model is to use a finite depth potential to generate the single particle basis and the radial wave functions. The potential used to generate the states is a finite depth potential consisting of a Woods-Saxon term, a Spin-Orbit coupling term and a Coulomb term for protons, as follows

Where, is the strength of the Woods-Saxon Potential. is the Fermi distribution : { ( )} , where r0 is the radius

parameter which determines the extent of the core region of nearly uniform density and the fall-off distance in the surface region is determined by the diffuseness parameter d. is the strength of spin-orbit coupling. is the orbital angular momentum and is the intrinsic spin of the nucleon.

is the coulomb potential of a uniformly charged sphere.

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The eigenstates for the above defined potential is obtained by solving the Schrodinger equation | ( )| |

The potential

being spherical, we can write the solution to (2.2.2) as

where the spherical harmonic where is the isospin spinor. |

is coupled to j as :

The Radial wavefunction { where

is the solution of the equation : }

is the reduced mass of the nucleons-nucleus system of A-1 nucleons.

The radial wave functions of the bound states and resonant (also called quasibound states) states of this potential has the asymptotic behaviour as follows :

where , is the wave vector of the particle, is the Sommerfeld parameter and represents the outgoing coulomb wave function. The bound states have a real energy and the resonances have a complex energy the width associated with the energy level
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with

as

The non-resonant continuum states (that is to say, having a real energy > 0) have the following behaviour :

where and wave functions.

represent the incoming and outgoing coulomb

All the bound states | and the real continuum states | , form the basis of the Hilbert space in which any real energy state can be developed.We then write the completeness relation as | | | |

where is the identity operator. Now, by introducing the projection operators and i.e. for the subspace of the bound states and the subspace of the continuum states respectively the above equation can be written as

Where , | |

For fixed values of be written as and

the completeness relation in the radial space can

Up to this point we havent introduced to the concept of resonance states due to the fact that resonance states do not belong to the Hilbert space and because the
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resonances have complex energies the Hamiltonian is no longer hermitian. For including such states we use a renormalisation technique. The narrow single particle resonances in the continuum are included into the set of discrete states with the help of a cut-off technique. Then we define a new set of discrete states as :

Where is the smooth cut-off function : [ ( )]

The radius is chosen around the maximum of the potential barrier. The diffuseness parameter is chosen in such a way that the radial dependence of the resonance wave function resembles the shape of the bound functions .The constants ( ) ensure that function (2.2.14) is normalized and orthogonal to the functions (2.2.13). The energy is chosen at the resonance energy. After constructing this new subspace with the cut-off technique which now contains both the bound and resonance states we define the projection operators in the new sub-space as : | Where, | And, | | | |

Thus we see that we have been able to build a base state to a body that contains both bound states, resonances and the continuum states. The completeness relation is :

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The eigenfunctions of can be subdivided into several classes, according to the distribution of the nucleons over the eigenstates of the single-particle operator . In class one, we put the eigenfunctions where all nucleons occupy bound single-particle orbitals. We emphasize that the energies are not confined to energies below the first particle threshold in the shell model. Rather eigenvalues also exist above this threshold, in which case the corresponding states are sometimes called quasi-bound states or bound states embedded in the continuum. The residual interaction will turn these states into compound nuclear resonances. Class two comprises the configurations where nucleons are in bound single-particle orbitals, while one nucleon is in a scattering eigenstate of . And then Class three contains all configurations with nucleons in bound single-particle orbitals and two nucleons in the continuum, etc. The functions belonging to classes 2,3,.are of a type not encountered in the bound-state calculations. They give rise to specific mathematical problems. These problems are related to the fact that the basis set of functions is not a discrete one. This is typical of a scattering process. At present, no practical method is available to deal with the functions of classes 3,4,.So we will restrict our discussion to classes one and two only. We truncate the linear space of functions by omitting all configurations belonging to classes 3,4,....This truncation defines the model.

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2.3 SMEC formalism of one particle in the Continuum

Here we will only consider the coupling states with at most one particle in the continuum. Hence, the set of states accessible to the nucleus is given by . We define two sets of wave functions by solving first the schrodinger equation for the discrete SM states of the closed system and secondly for the scattering states of the environment. By means of the two function sets obtained, the and operators can be defined by | and, | | |

Such that the projection of the full space Hamiltonian onto the subspace is identified with the shell-model Hamiltonian and that onto the subspace as the standard Hamiltonian used in coupled-channel calculations. 2.3.1 Decomposition of the Total Hamiltonian into Subspaces The total function space consists of two parts : the function space used in the SM calculations and the function space of the scattering states into which the SM states are embedded. Previously we defined the two subspaces and such that . Our problem now consists of solving the Schrodinger equation in the total function space which is given by | Introducing the projection operators and we can explicitly represent the different contributions from the total Hamiltonian as -

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where and are the unperturbed hamiltonians acting in the and subspaces respectively when the coupling terms( and represent the coupling between the subspaces) are absent.

Figure 2 : The first diagram is a schematic of a nucleus when seen as a closed quantum system (i.e. the bound states and the continuum are considered differently and one subspace doesnt have an effect on the other ). In the second schematic, a coupling between the subspaces is introduced which allows for a fully symmetric treatment of the bound, resonant and the scattering states in a single unified framework.

2.3.2 Equations in the The operator

space on the space of .

is a projection of the total Hamiltonian

An effective interaction Hamiltonian

is used in the Shell Model

Embedded in the Continuum (SMEC). Thus we have :

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In a bound-state calculation, the role of states with one another.

is to mix the

bound

The calculation of the eigen states of is reduced to a problem of diagonalization of the standard Shell Model : | Where | states). | |

represent the internal many-body states (bound shell model

2.3.3 Equations in the

space

decomposes as (modify)* The role of (i) +

in a scattering problem is threefold :

(ii)

(iii)

It mixes the bound states with one another, causing a shift in the energies of these states. This is the same phenomenon as encountered in a bound-state calculation. It mixes the bound states with the continuum states, changing some of the former into compound nuclear resonances, i.e. into states with finite lifetime. The residual interaction also mixes the continuum states with one another.

The eigenvalue equation is written as

Or,

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 and where the from is the kinetic energy operator and the potential . The coupling potential is taken to be of

arises solely from the residual .

interaction between and and depends on the target states (the system), single particle orbitals and total angular momentum and parity represents the external many-body continuum states.

The energy is real and positive. The upper index indicates that it is an incoming wave in channel . This equation models the non-resonant scattering of a nucleon in the continuum of a target (i.e. nucleus with the remaining (A-1) nucleons). The solution of this equation is done with the method of coupled channel equations. We define a channel c as :

Where, is the state of the target and and are the orbital angular momentum, the total angular momentum and isospin component of the nucleon in the continuum. The whole system (target + nucleon) in the continuum is then coupled to . The Hamiltonian is rotationally invariant, is conserved. Asymptotically there are outgoing waves for all open channels and an incoming wave for the initial channel.

2.3.4 Coupling between the spaces

and

and are the coupling terms between the subspaces and . These two subspaces are orthogonal to each other. The states for a particle in occupies a state in the continuum and in the subspace the nucleons are (quasi) bound. Thus we have : ( ) ( )

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From equations (2.3.4.1) and (2.3.4.2) we observe that the interaction hamiltonians arise solely due the residual interaction.

2.3.5 Solution of the Schrodinger equation in the whole function space The whole space wave function defined in equation (2.3.1.1) can be decomposed as follows | and | which can be written as | Now multiplying equation (2.3.5.2) with Appendix 1 , we get | and using relations (1.1) in | | | | | |

| Similarly, multiplying equation (2.3.5.2) with Appendix 1 , we get ( ) |

| and using relations (1.1) in |

Equations and represent the coupled equations for the and subspace wave functions. The solution | (i.e. | ) of the equation (2.3.5.3) is the sum of , the solution of the homogeneous equation (2.3.3.2) and a particular solution :

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| | |

With the Green function in the

subspace is defined as :

Substituting equation (2.3.5.5) in equation (2.3.5.4), we get ( Rearranging, we get ( )| | )| (| | )

Using equation (2.3.5.1) and equation (2.3.5.5), we get | | | | | ( )| | ,i.e.

Using the relation (1.5) in Appendix 1, we can express equation (2.3.5.7) as ( | Where ( )| ) | |

is an effective Hamiltonian in the function space of discrete is non-hermitian and energy

states. The effective Hamiltonian operator dependent.

is effectively a many-particle operator. It contains not only the

direct or interaction of the states involved in the eigenstates | of but it also contains an interaction term of the SM states | via the continuum (the external mixing) which is complex and depends on energy as well on the states i themselves and on the channels. Hence using equations (2.3.5.8) and (2.3.5.10) we can write the total wave function as | | ( ) {(
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| is the state of the {Projectile + Target} system in a nuclear reaction. The total energy E is equal to the sum of the relative kinetic energies between the two components at infinity and the internal energy of the target. Expanding | in terms of | | , we have |

Substituting equation (2.3.5.12) in equation (2.3.5.10), we get | ( ) |

Now multiplying with the bra vector | |

| from the left, we get |

Now writing Appendix 1) and replacing

as (using 2 as in relation (1.1) in with the definition of the projection operator | |

we can write , | |as in

Now substituting in (2.3.5.13) with the re-written form of (2.3.5.14) , we obtain | | , |

|-

Which can be written as | | | ||

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Or, Hence we get | | | | | ||

|| |

Substituting equation (2.3.5.16) in equation (2.3.5.8), we get | | (| ) | | | |

Where we have defined extension of the Shell Model states | From (2.3.5.6) we have

| into the

which gives you the subspace.

Multiplying with

| |

on both sides of equation | |

, we get

Where the source term is defined by = |

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is primarily given by the SM structure of the particle wave function . The equation yields the extension of the solutions of into . It defines the function that describes the decay of the quasi-bound state with the wave function into the continuum. We see that this equation reflecting the possibility of losing particles, allows to define a new effective Hamiltonian for the system. Hamiltonian is not Hermitian and possesses complex energies whose imaginary part is interpreted as the partial width of emission of particles. This is an inhomogeneous equation, the source term is determined by the solutions of . The source term couples the wave function of the nucleon localized states with those of the nucleon localized states plus one nucleon in the continuum. We have expressed the full wave function (in equation (2.3.5.16)) | by means of three distinct functions : | ,| and .We now wish to express the total wave function in terms of the eigen functions ( (say)) and eigen values (( In the ) (say) ) of the effective Hamiltonian part is diagonal. In order that the diagonalizes the Hamiltonian by a transformation as follows Where is a complex and orthogonal matrix transforming the into the eigenfunctions of . .

subspace basis { } , the

eigenfunctions of the effective Hamiltonian we define the eigenfunctions of

eigenfunctions of

Substituting equation (2.3.5.20) in equation (2.3.5.16) and solving yields

, |

| ( )

Equation reactions.

is the basic relation of the unified theory of nuclear

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Detailed calculations for | (i) Consider |

:| :: This can be written as

|(

|(

)|

(ii)

Now lets evaluate the term :: From equation matrix , we get

, using the orthogonality property of the |

Now,

Hence equation (2.3.5.21) can be written as -

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( (

))

(iii)

Now consider :: {( be written as ) | - ,

)|

| , which can

,(

| -

(|

| ) |

Now using equations (2.3.5.24) and (2.3.5.25) we get | | | | |

Now applying the summation over j we get the final expression as | | | | |

Where,

| is the scattering wave function with account of the corrections from the function space of discrete states while is the wave function of a resonance state with account of the corrections from the scattering states. The corrections from the discrete states to the scattering wave function | are contained in the sum over these states i.e. the second term in in equation (2.3.5.28), while the
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corrections from the decay channels to the wave function are contained in They determine the asymptotic of the wave function of a resonance state. The eigenvalues of

have a physical meaning only when the total function

space is consistently divided into the two subspaces (the system and the environment) such that the system contains all resonance-like phenomena while the environment describes the smooth (direct) reaction part in the energy region considered. When the two subspaces are defined in an adequate manner, the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of may be identified with values of physical relevance : the and give the energies and widths of the resonance states, and represent the wave functions of the resonance states. Above the particle emission threshold there is a finite width of the energy level signifying a finite lifetime quasi-bound state (i.e. resonance state) while below the particle emission threshold the width of the energy level is zero signifying a bound state. Above Particle emission threshold :

and, Below particle emission threshold

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2.4 Conclusion
The non-resonant continuum is essential for the spectroscopy of weakly bound nuclei. Much efforts are being devoted to study and establish microscopic models of nuclear structure and how they perform at regions far from the region of stability (the domain of Exotic nuclei). Near the drip lines the discrete and continuum states no longer remain uninfluenced by each other. The theory of SMEC allows for a single simple platform for dealing with the bound, resonance and scattering states. The development of the SMEC approaches makes it possible to hope that the progress in the experimental studies of weakly bound systems can be accompanied by an adequate theoretical modellization.

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Appendix 1
Bloch-Horowitz Perturbation Theory
Consider a Hamiltonian defined at a cut-off . Let us try to lower the cut-off to . Let us denote by the operator that projects on to all of the states removed when the cut-off is lowered. Let . We have,
2 2

Our purpose is to find an Effective Hamiltonian that produces the same eigenvalue in the subspace as the original Hamiltonian . We start from the Schrodinger equation : | | and

Using and multiplying from the left equation (1.1) with respectively we get, | | | |

Rearranging equation (1.4) and using equation (1.1), we get | | ( ) | |

Now equation (1.4) after using equation (1.1) can be written as, | | |

Substituting the {

obtained, we get, } | |

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Which can be written as, | |

Where we have defined the Effective Hamiltonian as

Note that the Effective Hamiltonian is Energy-Dependent

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References
[1] J. Okolowicz, M. Ploszajczak and I. Rotter, Physics reports 374 (2003) 271383. [2] Jimmy ROTUREAU, 18th February 2005 THESIS, University Of CAEN. [3] C.Mahaux and H.A. Weidenmller, Shell Model Approach to Nuclear Reactions. [4] R.D. Lawson, Theory of the Nuclear Shell Model, Oxford University Press (1980). [5] P.J. Brussard and P.W.M. Glaudemans, Shell Model Applications in Nuclear Spectroscopy, North Holland Publishing Company (1977). [6] Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Bernard Diu and Frank Lalo, Quantum Mechanics : Volume II, A Wiley Interscience Publication, Hermann Publishers in arts and Science, Paris, France (1977). [7] H. Feshbach, Ann. Phys. (NY) 5 (1958) 357 and 19 (1962) 287. [8] W. Nazarewicz, Nuclear Structure Near The Drip Lines, Department of Physics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996 Physics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831 Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Warsaw u1. Hoza 69, PL-00-681 Warsaw, Poland. [9] K. Tsukiyama, M. Hjorth-Jensen, and G. Hagen, Gamow shell-model calculations of drip-line oxygen isotopes (September 30, 2009) [10] A. Harindranath, Chapter 6 - An Assortment of Effective Hamiltonians, Lecture Notes on The Introduction to Light Front Field Theory and Light Front QCD.
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