Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Contents

Coulombs Law
Electrical charges interact with (i.e., exert a force upon) one another in a manner described by Coulombs law (1785). 12 = F 1 q1 q2 ^12 2 r 40 r12 (3.1)

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics Electrostatics Electrodynamics

12 is the force exerted on point charge q1 by point charge Here F q2 when they are separated in free space by a distance r12 , and 0 is the permittivity of free space. + + 12 F q1 q1 12 F
E. Einarsson

r ^12

q2 + r ^12 q2

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Principle of superposition
An electric field can be generated by either a point charge or a distribution of charges, each of which generates its own field. The individual fields add vectorially to yield the net field. q0

Principle of superposition
An electric field can be generated by either a point charge or a distribution of charges, each of which generates its own field. The individual fields add vectorially to yield the net field. =F 1 + F 2 + . . . = F 1 q1 q0 2 + 40 r1 ( q0 q1 ^1 + = 2r 40 r1
(

q1

q2

q2 q0 2 + ... r2 ) q2 q3 ^2 + 2 r ^3 + . . . 2r r2 r3
)

or, much more concisely qi source charges = q0 E F (3.2)

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electric field
For some charge q this becomes q 1 q 0  F = 1 1 q r ^= r ^ E 2 q0 q 40 r 2 0 40 r   (3.3)

Electric field lines

Since Coulombs law is defined using a positive test charge, electric field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on negative charges.

The Coulomb interaction among charges arises because each charge , through which a force is exerted on produces an electric field E other charges placed in this field. Note that this is only a function of position r in the field, and makes no reference to a tiny positive test charge q0 . The field also follows the principle of superposition, thus for a collection of charges ( E r)
EE 421/563: Semiconductor Materials

n qi ^ 1 ri 40 i =1 ri2
E. Einarsson

(3.4)
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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electric flux

Gausss Law
Gausss Law states that the outward flux of an electric field through any closed surface is proportional to the net enclosed charge Q . d a

One of the fundamental laws of electromagnetism is Gausss Law (1813), which describes electric fields in terms of the flux of their electric field lines through any closed surface.

Gausss Law

Q Q d E a= 0 (3.6)

d E a

(3.5)

In this expression the integral is performed over some imaginary closed surface that may be chosen arbitrarily (but is typically chosen to be symmetric for convenience). The flux is essentially the number of field lines passing through a surface.

For a sphere,

sphere

( ) Q Q d E a = EA = E 4 r 2 = E= 0 40 r 2

This is Coulombs Law!

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

(Gausss law in differential form) Divergence of E

By applying the divergence theorem,

Curl of E
Consider a point charge at the origin. The line integral of this field b from some location a to some other location b is a E dl. ^ + r sin d ^, so In spherical coordinates d l = dr r ^ + r d 1 q d dr E l= 40 r 2
b a

d E a=

d E

(3.7)

and rewriting Q in terms of the charge density

Q=

(3.8)

1 d E l= 40

b a

q 1 dr = r2 40

q q ra rb

Gausss law becomes

(

(3.11) d = E
) (

For a closed path, ra = rb , therefore d (3.9)

(

d E l=0
)

(3.12)

Since this holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal. By Stokes theorem = E
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d ) d A l = ( A a we can write

1 0
E. Einarsson

(3.10)
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=0 E
E. Einarsson

(3.13)
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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electric potential
Recall the relation between potential energy and the work done to move an object from an initial position xi to a final position xf . U (x ) = U 0
xf xi

Electric potential
From eq. (3.12) we know the integral is independent of path, so we can define a function V ( r) (x ) d F x
r

d E l

(3.15)

where is a standard reference point, thus V depends only on r. The potential difference between two points a and b is thus V ( b) V ( a) =
b

Similarly, consider the case of a test charge q0 that is moved in the presence of a point charge q . The change in potential energy associated with moving the charge from an initial position a to a final position b is given by U =
rb ra

d E l+

d E l=

b
a

d E l

(3.16)

Now the fundamental theorem for gradients states that V ( b) V ( a) =

b
a

(V ) d l

b
a

(V ) d l=

b
a

d E l (3.17)

qq0 qq0 1 1 d r= 2 2 40 r 40 r rb ra
[

(3.14)

Since this is true for any points a and b = V E (3.18)

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Fields from potentials

Example: Consider a parallel-plate capacitor in which the field between the plates is constant and easily calculated by integrating eq. (3.17)

Poissons equation
Lets consider how the fundamental equations for E = E 0 and =0 E

Parallel-plate capacitor
L
0

look in terms of V . = (V ) = 2 V , so the divergence of E is Well, E the Laplacian of V . Gausss law then says
L
0

V =

E dx = E

dx = EL |E | =

V L

(3.19)

2 V =

(3.20)

This shows the magnitude of the electric field is simply equal to the voltage drop between the plates divided by their separation.

This is Poissons equation (1812), which is used to relate electric potentials to the charge distributions that produce them. The Poisson equation is extensively used to analyze the operation of various semiconductor devices.
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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Poissons equation in a medium

Work and energy

is The work W required to move a charge Q in an electric field E
b b
a

In a medium with relative permittivity r and a charge density described by ( r) ( r) 2 V ( r) = r 0 Alternatively we can write this expression in terms of E ( r) ( r) E ( r) = r 0 (3.22) (3.21)

W =
a

d F l = Q

d E l = Q V ( b) V ( a) .

(3.23)

Dividing through by Q we get W V ( b) V ( a) = Q (3.24)

This means the potential difference between points a and b is equal to the work per unit charge required to carry a charged particle from a to b. So if you set the reference point at infinity,
] :0    W = Q V ( r)  V () = QV ( r) [

(3.25)
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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Work and electric potential

Faradays Law
In 1831 Michael Faraday reported on a series of experiments, from which he concluded a changing magnetic field induces an electric is related to the change in B by field. Faraday discovered that E the equation B d a (3.26) E dl = t By applying Stokes theorem, this becomes = B E t (3.27)

When the two charges are moved closer together (i.e., rb < ra ), then the potential energy is increased provided the charges have the same sign (qq0 > 0). In this situation, the work done is negative, indicating an external force is needed to overcome the Coulomb repulsion and move the charges closer together. If the charges have opposite sign (qq0 < 0), the potential energy is reduced, indicating that the work done is positive since the Coulomb force attracts the charges in the same direction as the applied force.

, eq. (3.32) reduces to the old Note that in the case of constant B d = 0), as it should. rule E l = 0 (or E

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Ampres law
After it was found that steady currents induce constant magnetic fields (Biot-Savart), Ampre showed that

Maxwells Equations
It is now known that the phenomena of electricity and magnetism are fundamentally connected via the four equations known as Maxwells equations (1873).

d B l = 0 Ienc

(3.28)

Gausss law for electric fields

= 1 E 0 (3.6)

where 0 is the magnetic permeability and Ienc is the total current enclosed by the integration path. By representing this flow of charge by a volume current density J

Gausss law for magnetic fields

J d a (3.29) =0 B There are no magnetic monopoles. (3.31)

Ienc = and hence

= 0 B J
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(3.30)

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Maxwells Equations
It is now known that the phenomena of electricity and magnetism are fundamentally connected via the four equations known as Maxwells equations (1873).

Electromagnetic waves
and B are time-varying Eqs. (3.32) and (3.33) show that when E they influence each other. These equations can be written as By Ex = 0 0 z t This is equivalent to (3.32) (3.34) By Ex = t z (3.35)

Faradays law
= B E t A time-varying magnetic field produces an electric field.

2 Ex 2 By = 0 0 (3.36) t z t 2

2 By 2 Ex = z t z 2

(3.37)

Ampres law (with Maxwells correction)

E = 0 B J + 0 0 t Moving charge induces a magnetic field.
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Since the LHS of these two equations are the same, the RHS must also be the same, i.e., (3.33) 2 Ex 2 Ex = 0 0 z 2 t 2
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(3.38)

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

EM wave equation
Eq. (3.38) is nothing more than a wave equation with a general form and the following solution. 2 y 1 2 y = , x 2 v 2 t 2 y (x , t ) = e
i (kx t )

EM wave equation

(3.39)

A similar wave equation can be obtained for the magnetic field component. 2 By 2 By = 0 0 z 2 t 2 By (z , t ) = B0 e i (kz t ) , v = k = 1 0 0 (3.41) (3.42)

The solution to eq. (3.39) describes a traveling wave with a wavenumber k = 2/, angular frequency = 2 f , and phase velocity v = /k The corresponding solution has the form Ex (z , t ) = e i (kz t ) , v = k = 1 0 0 (3.40)

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EQUENCY AL SATELLITE EE 421/563:

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Radiolocation
3.1

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

EE 421/563: Semiconductor Materials Semiconductor Materials

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E. Einarsson

1 )(8.854 1012 F Amateur FIXED (1.257 Radiolocation 106 H m m1 )

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The time-varying E and B fields therefore induce an Radiolocation and B electromagnetic wave that is composed of traveling E fields that are coupled toand always in phase witheach other. RADIO-

E. Einarsson
F I X E D MOBILE MOBILE FIXED-SATELLITE F I X E D MOBILE SATELLITE SAT.

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erikeina@buffalo.edu

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Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

Electrostatics and Electrodynamics

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E. Einarsson
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