Double-skin facade

The Double-skin facade is a system of building consisting of two skins placed in such a way that air flows in the intermediate cavity. The ventilation of the cavity can be natural, fan supported or mechanical. Apart from the type of the ventilation inside the cavity, the origin and destination of the air can differ depending mostly on climatic conditions, the use, the location, the occupational hours of the building and the HVAC strategy. The glass skins can be single or double glazing units with a distance from 20 cm up to 2 metres. Often, for protection and heat extraction reasons during the cooling period, solar shading devices are placed inside the cavity.

Low emissivity
Low emissivity (low e or low thermal emissivity) refers to a surface condition that emits low levels of radiant thermal (heat) energy. All materials absorb, reflect and emit radiant energy, but here, the primary concern is a special wavelength interval of radiant energy, namely thermal radiation of materials with temperatures approximately between 40 to 60 degrees Celsius. Emissivity is the value given to materials based on the ratio of heat emitted compared to ablackbody, on a scale from zero to one. A blackbody would have an emissivity of 1 and a perfect reflector would have a value of 0. Reflectivity is inversely related to emissivity and when added together their total should equal 1 for anopaque material. Therefore, if asphalt has a thermal emissivity value of 0.90, its thermal reflectance value would be 0.10. This means that it absorbs and emits 90 percent of radiant thermal energy and reflects only 10 percent. Conversely, a lowe material such as aluminum foil has a thermal emissivity value of 0.03 and a thermal reflectance value of 0.97, meaning it reflects 97 percent of radiant thermal energy and emits only 3 percent. Low-emissivity building materials include window glass manufactured with metal-oxide coatings as well as housewrap materials, reflective thermal insulations and other forms of radiant thermal barriers.

Selective glazing
About two-thirds of the heat escaping through double-glazed windows does so through radiation. Originally, low-e was intended to reduce heat loss by blocking heat radiating from objects inside the house. This is called far infrared energy. Scientists have devised new "selective" coatings that also help block solar heat streaming through the glazing. Solar heat includes energy from visible light and invisible heat called near infrared radiation. While solar heat gain is helpful for some buildings, it's a problem for others. Blocking solar heat gain has been important in commercial buildings for decades. The windows of mirrored office towers block much of the sun's heat, but also much of the light and views. Selective glazing allows more visible light to penetrate. This means that daylight can be used instead of electric light and the occupants of the building can see the view. Spectrally selective glazing is window glass that permits some portions of the solar spectrum to enter a building while blocking others. This high-performance glazing admits as much daylight as possible while preventing transmission of as much solar heat as possible.

Smart glass, or switchable glass, also called smart windows or switchable windows in its application to windows or skylights, refers to glass or glazing that changes light transmission properties when voltage, light or heat is applied. Smart glass controls the amount of light (and thereby heat) transmission. When activated, the glass changes from transparent to translucent, blocking some or all wavelengths of light. Smart glass technologies include electrochromic, photochromic, thermochromic,suspended particle, microblinds and liquid crystal devices. Smart glass can save costs for heating, air-conditioning and lighting and avoid the cost of installing and maintaining motorized light screens or blinds or curtains. Most smart glass blocks ultraviolet light, reducing fabric fading; for SPD-type smart glass, this is achieved in conjunction with low emissivity coatings.

Critical aspects of smart glass include material costs, installation costs, electricity costs and durability, as well as functional features such as the speed of control, possibilities for dimming, and the degree of transparency.

Electrochromic devices[edit source | editbeta]

An example of PDLC glass as used in a hotel bathroom.

Electrochromic devices change light transmission properties in response to voltage and thus allow control over the amount of light and heat passing through. In electrochromic windows, the electrochromic material changes its opacity: it changes between a colored, translucentstate (usually blue) and a transparent state. A burst of electricity is required for changing its opacity, but once the change has been effected, no electricity is needed for maintaining the particular shade which has been reached. Darkening occurs from the edges, moving inward, and is a slow process, ranging from many seconds to several minutes depending on window size. Electrochromic glass provides visibility even in the darkened state and thus preserves visible contact with the outside environment. It has been used in small-scale applications such as rearview mirrors. Electrochromic technology also finds use in indoor applications, for example, for protection of objects under the glass of museum display cases and picture frame glass from the damaging effects of the UV and visible wavelengths of artificial light.

Recent advances in electrochromic materials pertaining to transition-metal hydride electrochromics have led to the development of reflective hydrides, which become reflective rather than absorbing, and thus switch states between transparent and mirrorlike. Recent advancements in modified porous nano-crystalline films have enabled the creation of electrochromic display. The single substrate display structure consists of several stacked porous layers printed on top of each other on a substrate modified with a transparent conductor (such as ITO or PEDOT:PSS). Each printed layer has a specific set of functions. A working electrode consists of a positive porous semiconductor (say Titanium Dioxide, TiO2) with adsorbed chromogens (different chromogens for different colors). These chromogens change color by reduction or oxidation. A passivator is used as the negative of the image to improve electrical performance. The insulator layer serves the purpose of increasing the contrast ratio and separating the working electrode electrically from the counter electrode. The counter electrode provides a high capacitance to counterbalances the charge inserted/extracted on the SEG electrode (and maintain overall device charge neutrality). Carbon is an example of charge reservoir film. A conducting carbon layer is typically used as the conductive back contact for the counter electrode. In the last printing step, the porous monolith structure is overprinted with a liquid or polymer-gel electrolyte, dried, and then may be incorporated into various encapsulation or enclosures, depending on the application requirements. Displays are very thin, typically 30 micrometer, or about 1/3 of a human hair. The device can be switched on by applying an electrical potential to the transparent conducting substrate relative to the conductive carbon layer. This causes a reduction of viologen molecules (coloration) to occur inside the working electrode. By reversing the applied potential or providing a discharge path, the device bleaches. A unique feature of the electrochromic monolith is the relatively low voltage (around 1 Volt) needed to color or bleach the viologens. This can be explained by the small overpotentials needed to drive the electrochemical reduction of the surface adsorbed viologens/chromogens.

Suspended particle devices[edit source | editbeta]

In suspended particle devices (SPDs), a thin film laminate of rod-like particles suspended in a fluid is placed between two glass or plastic layers, or attached to one layer. When no voltage is applied, the suspended particles are arranged in random orientations and tend to absorb light, so that the glass panel looks dark (or opaque), blue or, in more recent developments, grey or black colour. When voltage is

applied, the suspended particles align and let light pass. SPDs can be manually or automatically tuned to precisely control the amount of light, glare and heat p assing through, reducing the need for air conditioning during the summer months and heating during winter. Other advantages include reduction of buildings' carbon emissions and the elimination of a need for expensive window dressings.

Polymer dispersed liquid crystal devices[edit source | editbeta]

In polymer dispersed liquid crystal devices (PDLCs), liquid crystals are dissolved or dispersed into a liquid polymer followed by solidification or curing of the polymer. During the change of the polymer from a liquid to solid, the liquid crystals become incompatible with the solid polymer and form droplets throughout the solid polymer. The curing conditions affect the size of the droplets that in turn affect the final operating properties of the "smart window". Typically, the liquid mix of polymer and liquid crystals is placed between two layers of glass or plastic that include a thin layer of a transparent, conductive material followed by curing of the polymer, thereby forming the basic sandwich structure of the smart window. This structure is in effect a capacitor. Electrodes from a power supply are attached to the transparent electrodes. With no applied voltage, the liquid crystals are randomly arranged in the droplets, resulting in scattering of light as it passes through the smart window assembly. This results in the translucent, "milky white" appearance. When a voltage is applied to the electrodes, the electric field formed between the two transparent electrodes on the glass causes the liquid crystals to align, allowing light to pass through the droplets with very little scattering and resulting in a transparent state. The degree of transparency can be controlled by the applied voltage. This is possible because at lower voltages, only a few of the liquid crystals align completely in the electric field, so only a small portion of the light passes through while most of the light is scattered. As the voltage is increased, fewer liquid crystals remain out of alignment, resulting in less light being scattered. It is also possible to control the amount of light and heat passing through, when tints and special inner layers are used. It is also possible to create fire-rated and anti X-Ray versions for use in special applications. Most of the devices offered today operate in on or off states only, even though the technology to provide for variable levels of transparency is easily applied. This technology has been used in interior and exterior settings for privacy control (for example conference rooms, intensive-care areas, bathroom/shower doors) and as a temporary projection screen.

Micro-blinds[edit source | editbeta]

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of Micro-blinds

Micro-blindscurrently under development at the National Research Council (Canada)[1][2]control the amount of light passing through in response to applied voltage. Micro-blinds are composed of rolled thin metal blinds on glass. They are very small and thus practically invisible to the eye. The metal layer is deposited by magnetron sputtering and patterned by laser or lithography process. The glass substrate includes a thin layer of a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer. A thin insulator is deposited between the rolled metal layer and the TCO layer for electrical disconnection. With no applied voltage, the micro-blinds are rolled and let light pass through. When there is a potential difference between the rolled metal layer and the transparent conductive layer, the electric field formed between the two electrodes causes the rolled micro-blinds to stretch out and thus block light. The micro-blinds have several advantages including switching speed (milliseconds), UV durability, customized appearance and transmission. Theoretically, the blinds are simple and cost-effective to fabricate.[1][2] A video available on YouTube[3] describes briefly the micro-blinds.

Mechanical smart windows[edit source | editbeta]

A low cost alternative to high-tech intelligent windows is composed of two retro reflective panels mounted back-to-back with a narrow gap in between. When a liquid with the same refractive index as that of the panels is pumped into the cavity between them, the glass becomes transparent. When the liquid is pumped out, the glass turns retro reflective again. An example of this kind of window is the Norwegian brand, Sunvalve.

Nanocrystal[edit source | editbeta]

A thin coating of nanocrystals embedded in glass can provide selective control over both visible light and heat-producing near-infrared (NIR) light independently climates. The technology employs a small jolt of electricity to switch the material between NIRtransmitting and NIR-blocking states. Nanocrystals of indium tin oxide embedded in a glassy matrix of niobium oxide form a composite material. The voltage ranges over 2.5 volts. The same window can also be switched to a dark mode, blocking both light and heat, or to a bright, fully transparent mode. The effect relies on a synergistic interaction in the region where glassy matrix meets nanocrystal that increases the electrochromic effect. The atoms connect across the nanocrystal-glass interface, causing a structural rearrangement in the glass matrix.The interaction creates space inside the glass, allowing charge to move more readily.[4][5]

Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer (the transfer of thermal energy between objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials. Heat flow is an inevitable consequence of contact between objects of differing temperature. Thermal insulation provides a region of insulation in which thermal conduction is reduced orthermal radiation is reflected rather than absorbed by the lower-temperature body. The insulating capability of a material is measured with thermal conductivity (k). Low thermal conductivity is equivalent to high insulating capability (R-value). In thermal engineering, other important properties of insulating materials are product density () and specific heat capacity (c).

PASSIVE DAYLGHTING

Achieving the major decrease in heating energy consumption required by the standard involves a shift in approach to building design and construction. Design may be assisted by use of the 'Passivhaus Planning Package' (PHPP),[30] which uses specifically designed computer simulations.

To achieve the standards, a number of techniques and technologies are used in combination:[2]

Passive solar design and landscape[edit source | editbeta]

Passive solar building design and energy-efficient landscaping support the Passive house energy conservation and can integrate them into aneighborhood and environment. Following passive solar building techniques, where possible buildings are compact in shape to reduce their surface area, with principal windows oriented towards the equator - south in the northern hemisphere and north in the southern hemisphere to maximize passive solar gain. However, the use of solar gain, especially in temperate climate regions, is secondary to minimizing the overall house energy requirements. In climates and regions needing to reduce excessive summer passive solar heat gain, whether from direct or reflected sources, Brise soleil, trees, attached pergolas with vines, vertical gardens, green roofs, and other techniques are implemented. Passive houses can be constructed from dense or lightweight materials, but some internal thermal mass is normally incorporated to reduce summer peak temperatures, maintain stable winter temperatures, and prevent possible overheating in spring or autumn before the higher sun angle "shades" mid-day wall exposure and window penetration. Exterior wall color, when the surface allows choice, for reflection or absorption insolation qualities depends on the predominant year-round ambient outdoor temperature. The use of deciduoustrees and wall trellised or self attaching vines can assist in climates not at the temperature extremes.

Superinsulation[edit source | editbeta]

Passivhaus buildings employ superinsulation to significantly reduce the heat transfer through the walls, roof and floor compared to conventional buildings. [31] A wide range of thermal insulation materials can be used to provide the required high Rvalues (low U-values, typically in the 0.10 to 0.15 W/(m.K) range). Special attention is given to eliminating thermal bridges. A disadvantage resulting from the thickness of wall insulation required is that, unless the external dimensions of the building can be enlarged to compensate, the internal floor area of the building may be less compared to traditional construction.

In Sweden, to achieve passive house standards, the insulation thickness would be 335 mm (about 13 in) (0.10 W/(m.K)) and the roof 500 mm (about 20 in) (U-value 0.066 W/(m.K)).

Advanced window technology[edit source | editbeta]

Typical Passive House windows

To meet the requirements of the Passivhaus standard, windows are manufactured with exceptionally high R-values (low U-values, typically 0.85 to 0.70 W/(m.K) for the entire window including the frame). These normally combine triple-pane insulated glazing (with a good solar heat-gain coefficient,[2][31] lowemissivity coatings, sealed argon or krypton gas filled inter-pane voids, and 'warm edge' insulating glass spacers) with air-seals and specially developed thermally broken window frames. In Central Europe and most of the United States, for unobstructed south-facing Passivhaus windows, the heat gains from the sun are, on average, greater than the heat losses, even in mid-winter.

Airtightness[edit source | editbeta]

Building envelopes under the Passivhaus standard are required to be extremely airtight compared to conventional construction. This is achieved through air barriers, careful sealing of every construction joint in the building envelope, and sealing of all service penetrations.[31] Airtightness minimizes the amount of warm or cool air that can pass through the structure, enabling the mechanical ventilation system to recover the heat before discharging the air externally.[2]

Ventilation[edit source | editbeta]

Use of passive natural ventilation is an integral component of passive house design where ambient temperature is conducive either by singular or cross ventilation, by a simple opening or enhanced by the stack effect from smaller ingress with larger egress windows and/or clerestory-operable skylight. When ambient climate is not conducive, mechanical heat recovery ventilation systems, with a heat recovery rate of over 80% and high-efficiency electronically commutated motors (ECM), are employed to maintain air quality, and to recover sufficient heat to dispense with a conventional central heating system.[2] Since passively designed buildings are essentially air-tight, the rate of air change can be optimized and carefully controlled at about 0.4 air changes per hour. All ventilation ducts are insulated and sealed against leakage. Some Passivhaus builders promote the use of earth warming tubes (typically 200 mm (~7,9 in) diameter, 40 m (~130 ft) long at a depth of 1.5 m (~5 ft)). These are buried in the soil to act as earth-to-air heat exchangers and pre-heat (or pre-cool) the intake air for the ventilation system. In cold weather the warmed air also prevents ice formation in the heat recovery system's heat exchanger. Concerns about this technique have arisen in some climates due to problems with condensation and mold.[32] Alternatively, an earth to air heat exchanger can use a liquid circuit instead of an air circuit, with a heat exchanger (battery) on the supply air.

Space heating[edit source | editbeta]

Passivhaus: In addition to the heat exchanger (centre), a micro-heat pump extracts heat from the exhaust air (left) and hot water heats the ventilation air (right). The ability to control building temperature using only the normal volume of ventilation air is fundamental.

In addition to using passive solar gain, Passivhaus buildings make extensive use of their intrinsic heat from internal sourcessuch as waste heat from lighting, white goods (major appliances) and other electrical devices (but not dedicated heaters)as well as body heat from the people and other animals inside the building. This is due to the fact that people, on average, emit heat equivalent to 100 watts each of radiated thermal energy. Together with the comprehensive energy conservation measures taken, this means that a conventional central heating system is not necessary, although they are sometimes installed due to client skepticism.[33] Instead, Passive houses sometimes have a dual purpose 800 to 1,500 wattheating and/or cooling element integrated with the supply air duct of the ventilation system, for use during the coldest days. It is fundamental to the design that all the heat required can be transported by the normal low air volume required for ventilation. A maximum air temperature of 50 C (122 F) is applied, to prevent any possible smell of scorching from dust that escapes the filters in the system. The air-heating element can be heated by a small heat pump, by direct solar thermal energy, annualized geothermal solar, or simply by a natural gas or oil burner. In some cases a micro-heat pump is used to extract additional heat from the exhaust ventilation air, using it to heat either the incoming air or thehot water storage tank. Small woodburning stoves can also be used to heat the water tank, although care is required to ensure that the room in which stove is located does not overheat. Beyond the recovery of heat by the heat recovery ventilation unit, a well designed Passive house in the European climate should not need any supplemental heat source if the heating load is kept under 10W/m.[34] Because the heating capacity and the heating energy required by a passive house both are very low, the particular energy sourceselected has fewer financial implications than in a traditional building, although renewable energy sources are well suited to such low loads.

Lighting and electrical appliances[edit source | editbeta]

See also: Daylighting, Passive daylighting, Active daylighting, and Ecological footprint

To minimize the total primary energy consumption, the many passive and active daylighting techniques are the first daytime solution to employ. For low light level days, non-daylighted spaces, and nighttime; the use of creativesustainable lighting design using low-energy sources such as 'standard voltage' compact fluorescent lamps and solid-state lighting with Light-emitting diodeLED lamps, organic light-emitting diodes, and PLED - polymer light-emitting diodes; and 'low voltage' electrical filament-Incandescent light bulbs, andcompact Metal halide, Xenon and Halogen lamps, can be used. Solar powered exterior circulation, security, and landscape lighting - with photovoltaic cells on each fixture or connecting to a centralSolar panel system, are available for gardens and outdoor needs. Low voltage systems can be used for more controlled or independent illumination, while still using less electricity than conventional fixtures and lamps. Timers, motion detection and natural light operation sensors reduce energy consumption, and light pollution even further for a Passivhaus setting. Appliance consumer products meeting independent energy efficiency testing and receiving Ecolabel certification marks for reduced electrical-'natural-gas' consumption and product manufacturing carbon emission labels are preferred for use in Passive houses. The ecolabel certification marks of Energy Star and EKOenergy are examples.