LING 423 Language Acquisition Thanathon Phosricha Final Exam 1. One of the newest fields in linguistics is language attrition.

Teachers, governments, and corporations are excited about the results of this area of research and what it may say to those who are responsible for language learning and retention. Discuss what we know so far from the research. (2/3 page) Notwithstanding language attrition being a fairly new field of linguistics, yet it has become one of the concerns in language learning at crucial levels: governments, corporations, and educators. Language attrition or the loss of language skills is distinguished into two parts; 1) language shift is considered to be language loss in speech community levels, and 2) language attrition is considered to be the language loss of individuals. Underlining these patterns, there are four main hypotheses which are Regression, Markedness, Savings paradigm, and Critical hypothesis. These hypotheses are closely related to language attrition and language shift, how language is learned, and how it is relearned. Language attrition and language shift are lost due to a lack of availability of use rather than loss of lexical information. According to the Savings paradigm hypothesis, once information is learned, and it is still there, it takes time to retrieve it under time pressure. Language attrition and language shift research studies are focused on how an L1 and an L2 are lost, in both a first language environment and a second language environment, which lose their first or second language. In these cases, a native speaker may lose his first language in an L1 environment because of aging conditions, a second language learner of English may lose his second language in his first language environment, or an immigrant who moved to America may lose his first language because of L2 environmental issues. According to Markedness hypothesis, some information is unusual, new, or unfamiliar. The brain has a hard time learning and remembering some marked information. Often times, once it is learned, it takes time to retrieveespecially in time pressure conditions. Unless an increase in the length of time for retrieval, it might be retrievable. Linguistic aspects of language loss are seen in a few aspects. Productive skills are easier to be lost when compared to receptive skills. Speaking and writing skills are likely to be lost because they are independent training skills. Lack of opportunities of speaking or writing will

decrease those skills and leads to language attrition and language shift; however, the Savings paradigm hypothesis believes everything that is learned is still there. So relearning might be easier and quicker than learning from the first time. Language planning is necessary for the relearning process. Learning the same vocabulary words is the same or similar to previous learning materials that a person has lost. Choosing learning styles, activities, or even learning environments that are enjoyable and interesting might be interrelated to the previous loss of the skills. Therefore, those skills might come back in time. Language attrition might be preventable when a person tries to learn to maintain language skills in whatever environments.

2. Briefly define the two dimensions of pragmatic competence (sociopragmatics, and pragmalinguistics) and then discuss whether or not, when and how, valuable class time should be spent on teaching L2 pragmatics. (2/3 page) Sociopragmatic competence is defined as the ability of a speaker to know how to vary speech-act strategies according to a social situation in the performance of communicative skills. Often, sociopragmatic competence is adjusting and reacting to cultural interpretation situations appropriately. A person has to decide what to do in order to be appropriate in certain social situations, especially in ESL/EFL learning environments. The learners have a hard time being thoughtfully polite and sincere. Pragmalinguistic competence is the combination of pragmatics and linguistic forms. This ability is performed communicatively when the learner comprises the knowledge of understanding both conventions of meanings and strategies, and the abilities to perform linguistically and communicatively; therefore the learner politely and appropriately reacts to certain situations. Pragmalinguistics competence must be taught and learned formally because it is not easily transferred from first language to second language environments. Teaching pragmatic competence in a classroom can be one of the most valuable lessons because it is hardly transferred from the first language to the second language-learning environment. Pragmatic competence failures can occur from cross-cultural differences. The perceptions of cultural differences vary in particular cultures; therefore, I must encourage sensitizing students to expect cross-cultural differences in linguistic behavior. First, I would

teach the students how to react to second language cultural environments and how people in that particular culture expect them to react. Explicit teaching instructions need to be clarified and taught in class. I also can provide written forms of pragmatic competence appropriateness, a role-play in class, and media examples, and so that they know what to do and what to say in certain situations. It is valuable to teach this skill because the learners will acquire higher skills in second language competence; therefore, explicitly teaching is necessary to the individuals.

3. Discuss the role of culture in the English as an International Language classroom and how we have moved away from the old facts-based target culture approach and toward a more global skills-based, ethnographic, intercultural competence approach. (2/3 page) Moving away from old facts-based content in language learning is to move toward better and faster ways of learning second language in any aspects including linguistic competence, cultural awareness, and intercultural competence. Learning second language is based on many variables. Some variables are far more important than others. Linguistic competence requires time, but can be acquired through formal instructions, or independent learning, but it requires time. However, the process begins with the knowledge of self. When a person knows an origin of his language and culture, he might have a sense of self of his culture and language. Learning a second language bases on the knowledge of first language because he can see values of his own language and culture as well as the target language. Ethnographic study can expand learners perspectives to professional development and cultural learning in a structured language classroom. The learner learns to participate and interact with the people of the target language. Eventually, the learner can analyze, describe, and interpret social situations naturally and pragmatically. Whether the learner has an opportunity to study abroad or interact with the people of the target language, through global skills-based learning, the learner can gain a sense of awareness of intercultural competence. However, the learner needs to understand that his first language and culture are not better or less important than the target language and its culture. Languages

and cultures need to be understood that they are not hierarchical perceptions. They are just different. Language learning needs to be clarified that a target language is a tool of learning other fields of knowledge. Thus, the realistic of the target language interaction is important and crucial to interact in real-world situations.

4. In the increasingly political world of ESL/FL it seems that we must all practice critical pedagogy to some extent. Explain the major beliefs surrounding this approach and why they are important for teachers and learners of ESL/FL. (2/3 page) Critical pedagogy in ESL/EFL teaching, learning, and research is influenced by many critical policy makers, political issues, economics, modernization, civilization, Christianization, capitalization, and Western cultures. These critical factors drive teaching and learning English into a form of critical pedagogy. Almost every nation in the world wants to be better, richer, higher in every aspect of civilization in some ways. Education is one of them, especially English learning. Knowing English is a powerful tool of negotiation in the human society so teaching and learning English is definitely necessary. Every country in an inner-circle of English: the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Australiahave a huge influence on what content should be included in teaching and learning materials. Perhaps, the publishers and the scholars are the main drive of hidden critical pedagogy in the world of English teaching and learning. Apparently, cultures, norm practices, educational systems, ideas, and many various issues even religious beliefs or its hidden ideas are included in those teaching materials. Even though there are no linguistic bases for considering one dialect as superior to the other, but one or more dialects influence sociocultural contexts of certain societies in many nation in the world. Perhaps, certain nations may provide beneficial advantages to another nation; therefore, dialects or language can definitely be a main issue of decision-makings. Thus critical pedagogy in second language has been analyzed to be subjective of the shaping influence of L1 cultures, power of local authorities, and politics indirectly.

In learning processes, there is cultural prejudice. According to Holliday, a processoriented, task-based, collaborative, communicative English teaching and learning are influenced by professional organizations. Product-oriented teaching and learning materials are viewed as the Western influence of learning communities. Perhaps, there is no best way of learning and teaching methodologies. Communicative competence is not limited within only physical interactions, but the influence of globalization and the Internet, even dominant speakers of English in native communities; therefore, it is hard to reject this influence in L2 communicative competence in the digital world. Critical pedagogy in English teaching and learning environments can shape and change any part of human society in various ways of individual perspectives as well as the ESL/EFL educators.

5. How does identity affect second language learning? (2/3 page) Identities and memberships in second language learning are based on power relationships: native language, religious beliefs, ethnicity, national origin, political issues, and motivation. Both sociocultural and psychological dimensions of identity can influence second language learning. Language indicates identities of individuals and social identities to match or group particular members to a social membership distinctiveness. It is easy to observe that students who speak the same first language gather themselves after a class ends. They may feel comfortable to speak freely in that particular language because they may share equal identities in linguistic aspects. On the other hand, there are some students who pay no attention to their first language community, and may not associate with the same ethnic group. Instead, they are freely open to the second language community in communicative aspects. Other issues such as shifting or changing their identity to the second language cultural identities exist. In this case, there are two types of motivation: instrumental and integrative. Instrumental motivation reflects on pragmatic purposes on career achievement, study abroad, tests, and others. Integrative motivation is seen as a drive to become like the target language culture in order to become a

part of that society. These two types of motivation can bridge a gap of second language learning, pragmatic competence, understanding of cross-cultural awareness, and intercultural competence. Personality factors are interrelated with motivation factors. It is acceptable as norms of society that the optimistic, self-confident, observant, and curious learner will be more able to encourage intake and will also have a lower affective filter. The less self-confident learners may understand the input, but they might not achieve second language competence. Through political influences and social expectations, identity can be perceived by individuals. For example, social norms may say that learning another language or culture may lead individuals to forget their own culture and identity. Identity is a main factor which has many sub-variables. They indirectly affect second language learning. Identity refers to a person and how he recognizes, understands himself and his relationship with human society. Therefore, others may recognize and expect to interact and harmonize with each other, which benefits individuals in a second learning process.