CH 1 Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics
Intoduction 1.1
Flow in pipes 1.2
Stresses
In fluid mechanics it is convenient to define a force per unit area
(=F/A), called a stress (same units as pressure).
Normal stress acts perpendicular to the surface (F=normal force).
Tensile causes elongation Compressive causes shrinkage
(Pressure is the most important
example of a compressive stress)
F F F F
A A
A
F
normal
normal
= t
Flow in pipes 1.3
Stresses
Shear stress acts tangentially to the surface (F=tangential or shear
force).
F
F
A
A
F
shear
shear
= t

A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously
when acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude.
Intoduction 1.4
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics is concerned with the behavior of fluids at rest and in
motion

Distinction between solids and fluids:
According to our experience: A solid is hard and not easily
deformed. A fluid is soft and deforms easily.
Fluid is a substance that alters its shape in response to any force
however small, that tends to flow or to conform to the outline of its
container, and that includes gases and liquids and mixtures of solids
and liquids capable of flow.
A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when
acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude.

Intoduction 1.5
Course Organization
Textbook: deNevers Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers

Introduction (Chapter 1) / Dimensions, Units

Fluid statics: Fluid is at rest
Fluid mechanics
Fluid dynamics: Fluid is moving

Fluid statics (Chapter 2): Pressure, measurement of pressure, hydrostatic
forces, buoyancy
Fluid dynamics (Chapters 3-5, 7): Mass, energy and momentum balances
Applications in Engineering (Chapters 6, 9, 11, 12): Flow in pipes,
turbomachines, flow over immersed bodies, flow through porous media
Dimensional analysis and modeling (Chapter 13)

Motivation for Studying Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics is omnipresent
Aerodynamics
Bioengineering and biological systems
Combustion
Energy generation
Geology
Hydraulics and Hydrology
Hydrodynamics
Meteorology
Ocean and Coastal Engineering
Water Resources
numerous other examples
Fluid Mechanics is beautiful
Aerodynamics
Bioengineering
Energy generation
Geology
River Hydraulics
Hydraulic Structures
Hydrodynamics
Meteorology
Water Resources
Fluid Mechanics is Beautiful
Intoduction 1.17
TOPIC 1
Introduction
(de Nevers 1.1-1.5.2, 1.8-1.10)
Intoduction 1.18
Dimensions and Units
In fluid mechanics we must describe various fluid characteristics in
terms of certain basic quantities such as length, time and mass
A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is expressed
qualitatively, i.e. length is a dimension associated with distance, width,
height, displacement.
Basic dimensions: Length, L
(or primary quantities) Time, T
Mass, M
Temperature, O
We can derive any secondary quantity from the primary quantities
i.e. Force = (mass) x (acceleration) : F = M L T
-2

A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the qualitative
dimension: Systems of units can vary from country to country, but
dimensions do not

Intoduction 1.19
Dimensions and Units
Primary
Dimension
SI Unit
British
Gravitational
(BG) Unit
English
Engineering
(EE) Unit
Mass [M] Kilogram (kg) Slug
Pound-mass
(lb
m
)
Length [L] Meter (m) Foot (ft) Foot (ft)
Time [T] Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)
Temperature [O] Kelvin (K) Rankine (R) Rankine (R)
Force [F]
Newton
(1N=1 kg
.
m/s
2
)
Pound (lb) Pound-force (lb
f
)
Conversion factors are available in the textbook inside of front cover.
Intoduction 1.20
Units of Force: Newtons Law F=m.g
SI system: Base dimensions are Length, Time, Mass, Temperature
A Newton is the force which when applied to a mass of 1 kg
produces an acceleration of 1 m/s
2
.
Newton is a derived unit: 1N = (1Kg)
.
(1m/s
2
)
BG system: Base dimensions are Length, Force, Time, Temperature
A slug is the mass which produces an acceleration of 1 ft/s
2
when
a force of 1lb is applied on it:
Slug is a derived unit: 1slug=(1lb) (s
2
)/(ft)
EE system: Base dimensions are Length, Time, Mass, Force and
Temperature
The pound-force (lb
f
) is defined as the force which accelerates
1pound-mass (lb
m
), 32.174 ft/s
2
.

Intoduction 1.21
Units of Force EE system
To make Newtons law dimensionally consistent we must include a
dimensional proportionality constant:
c
g
g
m F =
where
2
f
m
c
) s )( lb (
) ft )( lb (
1740 . 32 g =
Intoduction 1.22
Example: Newtons Law
An astronaut weighs 730N in Houston, TX, where the local
acceleration of gravity is g=9.792 m/s
2
. What is the mass of the
astronaut? What is his weight on the moon, where g=1.67 m/s
2
?

Redo the same problem in EE units. In EE units the astronaut weighs
164.1lb
f
, g
Houston
=32.13 ft/s
2
and g
moon
=5.48 ft/s
2
.
Intoduction 1.23
Dimensional Homogeneity
All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous:
dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the same as those
on the right side.
Some empirical formulas used in engineering practice are not
dimensionally homogeneous

All equations must use consistent units: each term must have the
same units. Answers will be incorrect if the units in the equation are
not consistent. Always chose the system of units prior to solving the
problem

Intoduction 1.24
Properties of Fluids

Fundamental approach: Study the behavior of individual molecules
when trying to describe the behavior of fluids
Engineering approach: Characterization of the behavior by considering
the average, or macroscopic, value of the quantity of interest, where the
average is evaluated over a small volume containing a large number of
molecules
Treat the fluid as a CONTINUUM: Assume that all the fluid
characteristics vary continuously throughout the fluid

Intoduction 1.25
Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
Density of a fluid, (rho), is the amount of mass per unit volume of a
substance: = m / V

For liquids, weak function of temperature and pressure
For gases: strong function of T and P

from ideal gas law: = P M/R T
where R = universal gas constant, M=mol. weight

R= 8.314 J/(g-mole K)=0.08314 (liter bar)/(g-mole K)=
0.08206 (liter atm)/(g-mole K)=1.987 (cal)/(g-mole K)=
10.73 (psia ft
3
)/(lb-mole R)=0.7302 (atm ft
3
)/(lb-mole R)
) T , P ( =
(1.1)
Intoduction 1.26
Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight

Specific volume: u = 1 /

Specific weight is the amount of weight per unit volume of a substance:
= w / V = g

Specific Gravity (independent of system of units)

C 4 @ O H
2
SG

=
Flow in pipes 6.27
Forces acting on a fluid
The forces acting on a fluid are divided into two groups:
Body forces act without physical contact. They act on every mass
element of the body and are proportional to its total mass. Examples
are gravity and electromagnetic forces
Surface forces require physical contact (i.e. surface contact) with
surroundings for transmission. Pressure and stresses are surface
forces.

28
Definition of Pressure
Pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted on a unit
area of a substance:
Pa
m
N
area
force
P = = =
2
29
Direction of fluid pressure on boundaries
Furnace duct Pipe or tube
Heat exchanger
Dam
Pressure is a Normal Force
(acts perpendicular to surfaces)
It is also called a Surface Force
30
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
Absolute pressure: The pressure of a fluid is
expressed relative to that of vacuum (=0)

Gauge pressure: Pressure expressed as the
difference between the pressure of the fluid and
that of the surrounding atmosphere.

Usual pressure guages record guage pressure.
To calculate absolute pressure:
gauge atm abs
P P P + =
31
Absolute & Gauge Pressure: Schematic
+
-
+
+
32
Units for Pressure
Unit Definition or
Relationship
1 pascal (Pa) 1 kg m
-1
s
-2
1 bar 1 x 10
5
Pa
1 atmosphere
(atm)
101,325 Pa
1 torr 1 / 760 atm
760 mm Hg 1 atm
14.696 pounds
per sq. in. (psi)
1 atm
Flow in pipes 6.33
Shear Flow
NO-SLIP CONDITION: The fluid sticks to the solid boundaries.
The velocity of the fluid touching each plate is the same as that of the
plate (V
o
for the top plate, 0 for the bottom plate).
The velocity profile is a straight line: The velocity varies uniformly from 0
to V
o
V
o
t = F/A
A
y
o

Fluid
x
y
F
t = F/A
o
o
o
o
y
V
dy
dV
and y
y
V
) y ( V = =
Flow in pipes 6.34
Shear Flow
The force, F is proportional to the velocity V
o
, the area in contact with
the fluid, A and inversely proportional to the gap, y
o
:

y
V A
F
o
o
Recall, shear stress, t = F / A

y
V
o
o
t
In the limit of small deformations the ratio V
o
/y
o
can be replaced by the
velocity gradient dV/dy:
dy
dV
=
Rate of shearing strain

or shear rate:
t
t
or
dy
dV
Flow in pipes 6.35
Newtons law of Viscosity
Newtons law of viscosity
dy
dV
= t
[=N/m
2
.
s=Pa
.
s]: Viscosity
v = / : Kinematic viscosity [=m
2
/s]
Newtonian fluids: Fluids which obey Newtons law: Shearing stress is
linearly related to the rate of shearing strain.
(6.6)
The viscosity of a fluid measures its resistance to flow under an
applied shear stress.
Flow in pipes 6.36
True or False?
When a fluid is subjected to a steady shear stress, it will reach a state
of equilibrium in which no further motion occurs

Pressure and shear stress have identical units

When a flowing fluid is in contact with a solid surface, the velocity of
the portion of the fluid in direct contact with the surface is always equal
to zero.

Newtons law of viscosity relates shear stress to rate of shearing strain
Flow in pipes 6.37
Example: Shear stress
The space between two plates, as shown in the figure, is filled with
water. Find the shear stress and the force necessary to move the
upper plate at a constant velocity of 10 m/s. The gap width is
y
o
=0.1 mm and the area A is 0.2 m
2
. The viscosity of water is 0.001
Pa.s.
V
o
F
A
y
o

Water
t = F/A
Flow in pipes 6.38
Non-Newtonian fluids
Non-Newtonian fluids: Fluids which do not obey Newtons law: Shearing
stress is not linearly related to the rate of shearing strain.
Bingham plastics
Shear thinning
Shear thickening
The study of these materials is the subject of rheology
Flow in pipes 6.39
Typical Viscosity Values (Pa-s)
Basim Abu-Jdayil - Chemical & Petroleum Eng. Dept.
Asphalt Binder..
Polymer Melt
Molasses ..
Liquid Honey
Glycerol
Olive Oil
Water
Air .
100,000
1,000
100
10
1
0.01
0.001
0.00001
The range of viscosity values one encounters
suggests the use of logarithmic scales when
plotting data.
40
General Flow Classifications
Shear Rate (1/sec)
S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
P
a
)
Dilatant
Newtonian
Pseudoplastic
An example of dilatancy is
wet sand on the beach.
Most materials used
industrially are
pseudoplastic.
41
General Flow Classifications
Shear Rate (1/sec)
S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
P
a
)
Dilatant
Newtonian
Pseudoplastic
An example of dilatancy is
wet sand on the beach.
Most materials used
industrially are
pseudoplastic.
42
Bingham Fluid
,

P
a

,1/s
Ideal Yield Stress
(Bingham Yield)
43
Some Interesting Phenomena
shear thinning
shear thickening
yield stress
viscoelastic effects
Weissenberg effect
Fluid memory
Die Swell
Tubeless Syphon

44
Worlds Longest Running Laboratory
Experiment The Pitch Drop Experiment
Pitch derivative of tar (a dark sticky substance obtained from tar and
used in the building trades, especially for waterproofing roofs)
@room temperature feels solid and can be shattered with a blow
of a hammer
This experiment shows that in fact at room temperature pitch is a
fluid!

45

Worlds Longest Running Laboratory
Experiment The Pitch Drop Experiment

1927 Prof Parnell in Univ. of Queensland
Australia heated a sample of pitch and poured it
into a glass funnel with a sealed stem. Three years
where allowed for it to settle, after which the stem
was cut.
Examine the viscosity of the pitch by the speed at
which it flows from a funnel into a jar.
Only eigth drops has fallen in 80 years.
The viscosity is approximated as 100 billion times
that of water.

46
Weissenberg Effect (Rod Climbing
Effect)
The fluid does not flow outward
when stirred at high speeds
Ms. Garcia-Rodrigues is
s t u d y i n g
R h e o l o g y a t U. o f
Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
The fluid shown is a 2%
aqueous polyacrylamide
s o l u t i o n , a n d t h e
r o t a t i o na l s pe e d i s
n o mi n a l l y 0 . 5 H z .
47
Weissenberg Effect
48
Fluid Memory
Conserve their shape over
time periods or seconds or
minutes
Elastic like rubber
Can bounce or partially
retract
Example: clay
49
Die Swell
as a polymer exits a die, the diameter of liquid stream
increases by up to an order of magnitude

caused by relaxation of extended polymer coils, as stress is
reduced from high flow producing stresses present within the
die to low stresses, associated with the extruded stream
moving through ambient air

50
Tubeless Siphon
When the siphon tube is lifted out of
the fluid, the Newtonian liquid (N)
stops flowing; the macromolecular
fluid (P) continues to be siphoned.
51
Application of Rheology
Polymer melts, solutions including composites
Rubber
Lubricants
Paints
Printing inks
Paper and pulp
Food
Biological fluids
Concrete and Clay
Cosmetics
Pharmaceuticals
Smart materials ER-fluids

52
I mportance of Rheology
Measuring rheological properties helps us bridge the
gap between molecular structure and product performance.
Rheology is important in industrial processing and design of a wide
range of complex chemical products.

53
Yield Stress
Rheological modifiers are used to control the
yield behavior of fluids.
Why modify the yield behavior?
* to avoid sedimentation and increase the shelf live

* to reduce flow under gravity

* to stabilize a fluid against vibration
54

Emulsion Yield Stress

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 -20
shear rate [1/s}
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
s
t
r
e
s
s

[
P
a
]

yield stress
determined in a
stress ramp
Requirements are:
minimum yield stress (10
Pa) to retard
sedimentation
low shear viscosity of
500 Pas to impede
flocculation
shear thinning to 2 Pas
at 10'000 s-1 to allow
fast application on the
hair

Formulation of a conditioning shampoo
55
Toothpaste
Toothpaste consists of solid particles
suspended in an aqueous solution of
various polymers.
A good toothpaste should be a Bingham
fluid, so that it can easily be squeezed out
of the tube but will not drip off the
toothbrush the way water or honey would.
56
Drilling Mud
57
Thixotropy
The thixotropy characterizes the time dependence of
reversible structure changes in complex fluids. The
control of thixotropy is important to control:
sagging and leveling and the related gloss
of paints and coatings, etc..

process conditions for example to avoid
structure build up in pipes at low pumping
rates i.e. rest periods, etc....
58
Paints
A good paint should be a
thixotropic with a yield stress fluid,
So in the can it will be very
viscous and the pigment will not
settle to the bottom,
But when it is stirred, it will
become less viscous and can easily
be brushed onto a surface.
In addition, the brushing should
temporarily reduce the viscosity so
that the paint will flow sideways
and fill in the brush marks (called
leveling in the paint industry); then,
as it stands, its viscosity should
increase, so that it will not form
drops and run down the wall.

59
Viscosity ranges of coatings
The two coatings show the same consistancy after formulation,
but they exhibit very different application performance
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
HSV MSV
LSV
Roling
Brushing
Spraying
Mixing
Pumping
Consistency
Appearence
Leveling
Sagging
Sedimentation
At Rest Processing Performance
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

q

[
P
a
s
]

shear rate
g
[1/s]
60
Engine Oil
Motor oil, or engine
oil, is an oil used for
lubrication of various
internal combustion
engines
Base oil is Newtonian
Polymers are added to
give eth engine oil the
shear thinning behavior
61
Rheopectic Behavior
62
Shear Thickening
They filled a pool with a mix of cornstarch and water
made on a concrete mixer truck. It becomes a non-
newtonian fluid. When stress is applied to the liquid it
exhibits properties of a solid.
63
Flow in pipes 6.64
Effect of temperature on viscosity
Viscosity is very sensitive to temperature
The viscosity of gases increases with temperature:
n
o o
T
T
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
S T
T C
3/2
o
+
=
Power-law
Sutherland equation
The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature:
-B/T
e D =

CH 1 Fluid Mechanics

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CH 1 Fluid Mechanics

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Fluid Mechanics

Recall, shear stress, t = F / A

Rate of shearing strain

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