Stone Cladding Engineering

Rui de Sousa Camposinhos

Stone Cladding Engineering

123

Rui de Sousa Camposinhos School of Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Instituto Politcnico do Porto Porto, Portugal

ISBN 978-94-007-6847-5 ISBN 978-94-007-6848-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6848-2 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013943407 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microlms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publishers location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specic statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface

The natural stone is a material with widespread use over time, mainly due to its robustness, durability and availability in a variety of colors and textures. If, for many centuries, it was practically the only structural material for enduring longstanding construction, today, with the appearance of new construction materials, especially reinforced concrete, its use has been progressively dedicated to dressing of building faades. Under this usage, technological developments have enabled the delivery of elements of natural stone cladding with ever larger dimensions and smaller thicknesses, contributing to economic competitiveness in its use, particularly when assessed in the complete lifecycle of construction. The progressive increase in stone plate size demands new requirements regarding the capacity to withstand forces, notably wind and seismic ones and the attachment system, crucial in view of the potential damage that a detachment of a high weight plate can cause. These elements must therefore be the subject of a structural design to ensure an appropriate level of safety. As the dimensioning of this type of elements is not currently explicitly regulated, existing regulation principles should be adapted, especially those covered in the recent European Structural Regulations, the EuroCodes or also under the Uniform Building Code in the USA. It is in this context that this book, Stone Cladding Engineering, nds its place, providing a vast pool of scientic and technical knowledge that, in conjunction with the current regulatory framework, allows the design of cladding in natural stone. The author of the book, Professor Rui Camposinhos, has devoted to this subject particular attention in recent years promoting experimental studies involving the execution of hundreds of pullout tests in order to characterize the behavior of various types of natural stone and guiding research, which resulted in the publication of papers on the subject in prestigious international journals. The extent to which the subject is treated also results from his academic studies, obtaining a masters degree and then a Ph.D. in related topics, and his experience as a professor at the School of Engineering of Polytechnic Institute of Porto and research work developed for several years, integrated into research centers of the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, such as the project Presstone, to develop a prototype Natural Pre-stressed Stone Faade Systems of which he is a coordinator, should also stand out.
v

vi

Preface

The material of the book is well organized, allowing the reader to follow the various threads in the proper sequence, well written and clearly illustrated, facilitating the understanding of the various aspects associated with the theme, the dimensioning and design of natural stone cladding plates, which can be considered divided into three parts. The rst part organized in three chapters, after providing an introduction to the subject in a separate chapter, presents the characterization of natural stone, sorting them by type and identifying their main physical and mechanical properties. A detailed chapter is dedicated to the discussion of several wall and cladding systems. The second part, organized in two chapters, presents the key concepts and methodologies for verication of structural safety, checking the limit conditions involved, the main forces considered and the concepts of reliability and safety factors involved in a form of safety procedures according to modern structural regulations. In this part a chapter is also dedicated to the characterization of actions in faades and its characteristic and design values. Special emphasis is given to determine the effects of seismic action, which shows in detail a general methodology applied to non-structural elements linked to structures. The chapter ends with methodologies for the determination of exural and tensile stone strength. In the third part, three chapters present the matters that are necessary for proper sizing and detail of particular solutions in relation to determining the resistance of the plates, the calculation of kerf, undercut and dowel and pin anchorages systems. Each chapter ends with examples of applications, illustrating the main topics exposed and presenting a comprehensive analysis of the solutions. The last chapter is opportunely devoted to the design of stainless steel and aluminum alloys body anchors and rails. The way the content of this work was developed might be the basis for a discipline to be integrated to a Masters degree that would be of great benet to both students and engineering technicians, who wish to obtain or deepen their knowledge on this topic, and will certainly constitute an indispensable tool for all engineering professionals involved in the design or application of natural stone slabs for faades. Porto, Portugal Raimundo Delgado (Full Professor FEUP)

Contents

Cladding with Stone: Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Stone Veneers Performance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Cladding with Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Design Methodology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Actions and Stone Strength .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Fixing Systems and Metal Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 14 15 18 20 20 22 22 25 32 33 37 37 38 40 40 42 43
vii

2 Natural Stone Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Rock Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Igneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Natural Stone Standards for Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Natural Stone Properties .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Geometry and Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Density, Porosity and Water Absorption .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Coefcient of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.4 Weathering Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.5 Mechanical Characterization .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Stone Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Wall and Cladding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Cavity Wall Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Cladding Adhered Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Continuous Bonding .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Spot Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Stone Faced Precast Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

Contents

3.5 Prestressed Standalone Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Rain Screen Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Mechanical Anchored Fixing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1 Dowell Anchorage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.2 Kerf Anchorage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.3 Undercut Anchoring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Limit States Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 State of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Risk and Reliability Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Measures of Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Design Situations for Stone Cladding .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Load and Resistance Factor Design Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Dimension Stone Strength Characteristic Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Partial Safety Factors for Dimension Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Example of Application.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 Allowable Stress Design ASD . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 Limit State Design LSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44 46 48 50 51 52 53 55 55 56 57 58 61 63 65 65 68 69 70 72

5 Actions and Stone Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.2 Combination of Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 5.2.1 Ultimate Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 5.2.2 Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 5.3 Characteristic Value of Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 5.3.1 Self-Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 5.3.2 Wind Action.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 5.3.3 Effect of Seismic Action on Cladding . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 5.3.4 Thermo-Hygrometric Action .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5.3.5 Snow Loading .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 5.3.6 Induced Vibrations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 5.4 Dimension Stone Strength .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 5.4.1 Tests and Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 5.4.2 Characteristic Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.4.3 Design Assisted by Testing .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 6 Dowel Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Design Procedures and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Flexure Design .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Pull-Out Strength Design .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Application Example.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 103 104 107 110 115 117

Contents

ix

7 Undercut Anchorage .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Undercut Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Expansion Ring Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Slotted Sleeve Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Frame Supporting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Design Procedures and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Deformation Limit State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 Anchorage Pull-Out Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.4 Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Empirical Formulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Ultimate Limit State Design .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.1 Flexural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.2 Pull-Out Strength Design .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Application Example.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Kerf Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Kerf Anchoring.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Design Procedures and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 Flexural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.2 Kerf Anchorage Strength .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.3 Effective Stress Concentration Factor . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.4 Anchorage Design Formulae .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Application Example.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Stainless Steel and Aluminium Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Corrosion and Metallic Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Aluminium Versus Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 Stainless Steel Bolts and Nuts. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.1 Aluminium Bolts and Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Anchors Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.1 Bending and Shear .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.2 Shear and Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.3 Bending Tension and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.4 Deformation Limit State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

119 119 120 121 121 122 122 122 124 127 128 130 131 132 133 134 136 137 137 138 140 141 143 148 150 151 153 155 155 156 157 157 158 159 159 160 161 163 164 166 166

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169