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Ideology: A Definitional Analysis Author(s): John Gerring Source: Political Research Quarterly, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Dec., 1997), pp. 957-994 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of the University of Utah Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/448995 . Accessed: 15/08/2013 00:23
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FIELD ESSAY
A Definitional Analysis Ideology:

UNIVERSITY BOSTON GERRING, JOHN
What does"ideology" mean? Asa preliminary toanswering this muchstep I askedquestion, collected whatseemed to be themost and/or thoughtful in thepostwar influential definitions within thesocialsciences circulating A quick ofthese definitions reveals theextent towhich ideperusal decades.1 a flexible tool Table One is struck remains (see 1). ology highly conceptual writers find notonly number ofdifferent attributes that bythecumulative Tosome, butbytheir more than occasional contradictions. essential, ideology is dogmatic, toothers itcarries ofpolitical while connotations sophistication; itrefers modes ofthought, andtoothers itrefers tosome todominant primathe movements to those most alienated status rily by quo (e.g.,revolutionary interests ofa socialclass, and parties). To someit is basedin theconcrete ofeconomic self-interest. whileto others it is characterized byan absence notonly is ideology One couldcontinue, butthepoint is already apparent: which arediit a definitional traits also farflung, encompasses goodmany one another. at odds with rectly ofideology with ithasbecome tobegin discussion Indeed, any customary in its semantic someobservation Fewconcepts the concerning promiscuity.2 so much social sciencelexiconhave occasionedso muchdiscussion,
HannaPitkin, NOTE: I wouldliketo thank Golden,ChrisMuste, Dark,Marissa Taylor reviewers ArunSwamy, and several Schmidt, James anonymous CraigThomas, ofthismanuscript. for comments on various versions helpful in in these themost oftheconcept, casesI strung important passages standing together orparaphrased thediscussion. his orherdiscussion 2 See, (1964), Eagleton (1991), Goldie (1977), Burks(1949), Converse e.g., Bennett (1979), (1987), Huaco (1971), Knight (1990), Lane(1962), Larrain (1989), Hamilton Lichtheim (1967), McLellan(1986), Mullins(1972), Naess et al. (1956), Plamenatz (1976), Shils(1967), (1969), Seliger (1970), Putnam (1971), Roucek(1944), Sartori and Szalayand Kelly (1982). Vol.50, No. 4 (December Political Research 1997): pp. 957-994 Quarterly, 957
1 Sinceitwas notalways ofthewriter's underto find a parsimonious statement possible
Political Research Quarterly

TABLE
SAMPLINGOF CONTEMPORARY DEFINITIONS
"Anorganization of opinions, and values-a way of thinking aboutman and attitudes, withrespect We mayspeakofan individual's total or ofhis ideology to society. ideology different areasofsociallife; and so forth" economics, politics, minority groups, religion, et al. 1950: 2). (Adorno "Aconsistent ofthoughts and beliefs man's attitude towards integrated pattern explaining insociety, life andhisexistence to andadvocating a conduct andaction responsive pattern and commensurate with suchthoughts and beliefs" 1953: 52). (Loewenstein "A particularly and far-ranging ofattitudes. structure elaborate, close-woven, Byorigin and usageitsconnotations ofthestructure areprimarily the is political, scope although suchthat we expect an ideology to encompass content outside thepolitical order as nardefined A highly differentiated itsparts. attitude [with] structure, rowly .... ..organized in a coherent ofabstraction.... fashion. ... Mustbe cappedbyconcepts ofa highorder a manageable number ofordering dimensions thatpermit thepersonto [Mustsupply] makesenseofa broadrange ofevents" et al. 1960: 192-93). (Campbell "Abody ofconcepts Whowill be the rulers? Howwill the the [which]: (1) dealwith questions: rulers be selected? willthey an argument; that (2) constitute is, Bywhat principles govern? areintended topersuade andtocounter affect someofthe (3) integrally views; they opposing ofimportant values oflife; a program for thedefense orreform orabolition (4) embrace major inpart, notnecessarily social rationalizations ofgroups interests-but the (5) are, institutions; in toneandcontent; interests ofallgroups moral (6) arenormative, ethical, them; espousing in a broader from their and share thestructural and context belief (7) are ... torn system, of that 1962: (Lane 14-15). stylistic system" properties ofbelief that theexercise of that areelaborate, and coherent, "Systems justify integrated, set forth the and and historical events, power, political explain judge identify right wrong, interconnections (causal and moral)betweenpoliticsand otherspheresof activity" 1964: 362). (McClosky A belief-system ofopinions; that (1) a widerange (2) highattitude includes: consistency or"economy"); "conand (3) abstract (aka "constraint" conceptualizations (e.g.,"liberal," ofConverse servative") 1964). (paraphrase ofcollective for thecreation socialreality and matrices conscience" "Mapsofproblematic 1964/1973: 220). (Geertz in theconsciousness ofprocess ofthose involved-the "Thereflection andstructure productofaction" (Nettl1967: 100). "A typically and impermeable, to politics" 1969: (Sartori i.e., rigid approach dogmatic, 402). "A logically within concoherent ofsymbols a moreor less sophisticated which, system social conditionof links the and of ones evaluative ception history, perception cognitive themainteitsprospects forthefuture-to a program ofcollective actionfor especially or transformation ofsociety" (Mullins1974: 235). nance,alteration, 958
A Definitional Ideology: Analysis "Setsofideasbywhich menposit, andjustify endsandmeansoforganised social explain and specifically ofwhether suchactionaimsto preaction, action, political irrespective orrebuild a given socialorder" 1976: 11). serve, amend, uproot (Seliger "Asystem ofcollectively and reputedly heldnormative factual and attiideasand beliefs tudesadvocating a particular of social relationships and arrangements, and/or pattern aimedatjustifying a particular ofconduct, which itsproponents seektopromote, pattern 1987: 39). (Hamilton realise, pursueormaintain" "Anemotion-laden, beliefs andvalues about action-related of myth-saturated, system people and society, is as and that to a extent a matter offaith legitimacy authority, acquired large in a and habit.The myths and valuesofideology are communicated symbols through manner. and efficient beliefs are moreor less cohereconomical, simplified, Ideological moreor less opento newevidence and information. Ideoloent,moreor less articulate, have a mass in for and that mobilization, control; sense, potential manipulation, gies high aremobilized belief they systems" (Rejai 1991: 11).
ofthedisagreement, andso much selfconscious discussion as disagreement, itssemantic Condemned time andagainfor for itsbulexcesses, "ideology." bous unclarity, theconcept ofideology all odds,a central remains, against ofsocialscience term discourse. this arewe tounderstand semantic andhoware confusion, How,then, can we todealwith it?Fivecommon be identified writers approaches among in thesocial sciences: intellecterminological reshuffling, operationalization, Inthe tual andmultivocality. each I outline section, history, etiology, following I then their toa new ofthese endeavors anddemonstrate limitations. proceed which ofideology a single, the onto approach comprehensively maps meanings I conclude with a brief discussion of"core" semantic concise, reasonably grid. for anda pleafor methods ofdefinition. ideology, context-dependent meanings
COMMON APPROACHES
1. Operationalization
whostudy in American of those "behavior" discussion Among politics, on how is the has centered a question: ideological single empirical ideology There havebeena good masspublic that elites)? is,with political (compared, it twists turns in this debate since was introduced et and many byCampbell etal. (1960),Converse and al. (1960),McClosky (1964). (1964), McClosky ofthemasspublic Butthedebate overtheideological doesnot proclivities closer toresolution than itdidinthe1960s.3 Thereason for seem much today
and Shamir See Arian (1983), Axelrod (1969), Bennett (1977), Cassel(1984), Conover andPiereson andSearing andFeldman (1981),Coveyou (1977),Crewe (1988),Feldman
959
todo with ofdataincommenthis lackofresolution hassomething problems time and differing methods ofoperationalizing variables, surability through as generally recognized. inthe Lessoften ofdefinition inherent arethe various recognized problems of Is characterized abstracan mode of concept ideology "ideological" thought by endurance internal external tion, contrast, time, consistency, through rationality, a hierarchical of some comidea-elements, sophistication, ordering parsimony-or bination ofthese characteristics? Is itseparate from affiliation and/or party group affiliation? Suchquestions, which the surface ofscholarly debate scratch merely inthesense no answer canclaim a are"definitional" that behavioralists, among over another. Eachdefinitional attribute ofcourse, be may, priori precedence indifferent tier ofdisputes. a second operationalized ways, raising some writers take the that definitional tasks arecontained Indeed, position within-and subservient of "It matters to-tasks rightfully prioperationalization. not what call but how measure is the of it," marily you it, implicit approach you for behavioralists. there is much to be said a many Although surely pragmatic/ toconcept hasnot anentirely successthis definition, empirical approach proven in ful onemust instant case.Tothe behavioral school, strategythe counterpose Sartori's that formation stands toquantifica(1970:1038)dictum prior "concept inother what oneislooking for before tion." Onemust, have some ideaof words, onecanfind it.When outmetharedefined working concepts "backwards"-by inofsocial science odsofmeasurement first-it thetask may only complicate a rather facile to definition a term since this encourages (slapping quiry approach of of the term's onto a set without much consideration previous empirical findings In there or labels that be more alternative case, definition, might appropriate). any of ofvarying has beenlittle discussion and among usages meanings ideology isthat behavioralists a matter this torectify hunch behavioralists, study My attempts from of its have more tolearn a close examination the term-including usage may inother of from the social science world-than another wack at comers empirical the evidence.
2. Terminological Reshuffling
In theface ofideology's advocate some writers abandoning inadequacies, or its use. theterm at least (1964), entirely, severely circumscribing Converse
etal. (1985), Inglehart andZaller (1983; 1988),Feldman (1992), Green (1988), Hamill and Klingemann (1979), Jacoby (1986), Klingemann (1979), Knight (1985), Kritzer and Hurwitz (1978), Luskin(1987, 1993), Nelson(1977), Neuman(1981), Peffley etal. (1978), Szalayand Kelly (1985), Searing (1978), Smith (1980), Sullivan (1982), Szalayet al. (1972).
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ADefinitional Ideology: Analysis for eschews for (seealsoNaessetal. 1956: example, ideology "belief-system" havefled from to 171). Others attitude, ideology worldview, symbol, myth, andvarious combinations ofthese core value, rhetoric, culture, philosophy, terms or"political"). tobanish (often However, qualified by"system" attempts this semantic in favor troublemaker ofother, more presumably manageable, alternatives havemet with success. thecontinuance of (Witness: only partial insocialscience we the faildiscourse.) How, then, "ideology" might explain uretolegislate a satisfactory alternative toideology when writers arevirtually unanimous in declaiming itsambiguities? ofthese fail tocapture thepolitical connotations First, many neologisms ofideology. One may, ofcourse, this rectify problem byspecifying "political worldview" andso forth) butthis belief," ("political "political sophistication," results inan awkward noun.Second, these alternative terms tend compound tomissthesenseinwhich a large number ofideaideology groups together ina single, units coherent, "Belief," "at"value," reasonably package. "myth," and "symbol" aretoosmall to replace in most in contexts titude," ideology which that term hasbeenapplied. Hereonemayadd thequalifier "system" etal.),butthis leaves onewith another rather (belief-system, symbol-system, verbal instrument. one is at endurance, maysurmise, unwieldy Ideology's leastpartially derived from itsadmirable reThird, compactness. simply with some is not toresolve the placing ideology neologism likely, byitself, muddleintowhichtheconcept has fallen. As Cobb (1973: conceptual seemsto 124) and Seliktar (1986: 325) ruefully observe, belief-system haveaccrued thesameoverlapping andincoherent that itsadopmeanings tionwas intended to avoid. has several centuries of established it. Finally, ideology usagebehind Whatever onemight think about the of the is it entrenched term, firmly utility within discourse. estimation ofthecon(One,rather crude, layandscholarly of tinued this in the social sciences can be from significance concept gleaned theSocial Sciences Index. In 1992,theIndex Citation listed 800 citaroughly tions under thesubject-headings and"ideology.") "ideological," "ideologies," derive their force from inertia. Onceestablished within the Concepts partly itis virtually todislodge an existing term. language, impossible Itmay wellbe that havebeenstretched toofar-that ideology's meanings ithascolonized the in and this has, sense, regions occupied bynear-synonyms the muddied semantic field. Onemight to down the reasonably propose pare definitional ofthis associations term recommended How(as below). octopoid itdoesnot seem topropose itsabolition. Whether because ofits ever, practical its in and academic discourse, parsimony,long-established position popular orbecause ofsomesetofassociated traits which aredeemed useful-and not remains a fixture in sufficiently conveyed byneighboring concepts-ideology 961
the work ofpolitical social scientists, psychologists, political anthropologists, and historians. sociologists, 3. Intellectual history A third I shall which labelintellectual takes of matters approach, history, definition more butdoesnotmove us closer toa usable of definition seriously theconcept. of the has been under turned Surprisingly,concept ideology up academic stone. Machiavelli, Bacon, Locke, Comte, Condillac, virtually every Feuerbach, Lukacs,Gramsci, Weber, Hegel,Pareto,Sorel,Durkheim, Freud oriented theorists like (andlater Mannheim, Kuhn, psychoanalytically Ricoeur andLacan), the Frankfurt and a of or whole neoMarx, School, range structuralists Lefort, Habermas), post-marxists (e.g.,Castoriadis, (e.g.,Leviandpoststructuralists andtheTel Strauss, Kristeva, Barthes), (e.g.,Bourdieu, have beenincorporated intheongoing as touchstones over debate crew) Quel whatideology means. all social and theorists, Virtually linguists, political worth their saltnowhavea "concept ofideology," which philosophers surely as one of the in it most versatile qualifies concepts political theory.4 inthe itis important tonote that term wasnota key work of Yet, ideology most ofthese theorists. his the uses Gramsci, interpreters admit, "rarely freely term butrather a range ofterms itself, ideology ["philosophies," "conceptions ofthe ofthought," "forms ofconsciousness"] that more world," serve, "systems orless,as equivalents" to McLellan (Halletal. 1977:46). Weber, according mentioned theword'ideology'." Pareto (1986: 35), "very rarely spokeof Sorelof "political Lukacs of consciousness" "class "derivation," myth," (Plamenatz1970: 24-27), and Castoriadisof the "social imaginary" beappropriate 1984:17).Itmay tobroaden the ofideol(Thompson concept indoto include these but it should be understood that ogy near-synonyms, so the writer is the of two are terms. We (or more) ing conflating meaning tobring an attitude well-advised ofsuspicion toward suchactsofterminological legerdemain. incaseswhere isa frequent referent theterm is often Moreover, ideology in an In one fashion. Marx's German writer reemployed equivocal Ideology,
See Adams(1989), Althusser (1960), Carlsnaes (1971), Bergmann (1951), Birnbaum (1981), Cox (1969), Cunningham (1973), Dittberner (1979), Eagleton (1991), Elster (1982), Goldie(1989), Hall et al. (1977), Halle (1972), Hirst (1979), Huaco (1971), Keohane(1976), Laclau (1977), Larrain (1967), Manning (1979, 1983), Lichtheim and Robinson (1980), Manning (1961), Plamenatz (1985), McLellan (1986), Partridge (1970), Ritsert (1990), Roucek(1944), Seliger (1976; 1977), Therborn (1980), Thand Williams (1984), (1988). ompson
962
A Definitional Analysis Ideology: "isused about 50 times, but no normative, or real ports, Ideologie descriptive definition is given.Mostoftheoccurrences aresuch that little can be inferred ofcertainty as towhichconnotations witha highdegree wereintended bythe if et al. 1956: see also McLellan 1986: Mannheim author, any"(Naess 10). 154; his part, in at leasttwo,very used ideology (1960), for different, ways.Thus, locate "traditions" of usage-marxist, weberian, althoughone can certainly and so forth-the of intellectual identification traditions blurs structuralist, semantic distinctions withineach tradition and withinindividual works.It to explore suchsemantic tensions within theworkofa particumaybe useful larwriter or groupofwriters; such attention to detail, whileadmihowever, is not to lead to a or definition of rable, likely comprehensive usably-concise theconcept.
4. Etiology
A fourth How do ideoloapproachto defining ideologyis explanatory. what shapes and sustainsthem,and what influences their gies originate, transformation? These closelyrelatedquestionshave providedan intriguThe originsof the modern ing and enduringpuzzle forsocial scientists. in theEnglishRevolution called have been located phenomenon ideology the French Revolution (Walzer 1969), (Bendix 1964; Laponce 1981; Mullins 1972: 504; Rejai 1991), and in a long chain of interconnected developments, including the displacement of "traditional"modes of the rise of nation-states, the invention of mass communications thought, media (printing of presses,mass circulation newspapers),the installation democraticregimesand the collapse of the elite monopoly on political power(Bendix 1964; Geertz1964/1973: 220-21; Loewenstein1969: 344). has been explainedby basic cognitivefeatures of the Ideological thinking a developmentalmodel of human psyche,5 patterns of childrearing,6
5 The gistof Laponce's in theproposition workis to be found that"The wideranging then ofpowerand sacredness withright thanleft-first association rather byreligious in theuniversal rooted dominance oftheright hand"(1981: by political thought-is thepsychological fractions ofideology is that usualassumption vis-A-vis 11). Themore ofa basicpsychological needto suchconstellations ofideasandvaluesareoutgrowths it (e.g.,Minar1961: 322). theworldand eachindividual's placewithin explain 6 "thefrustrations and anxieties whichinadequate child Merelman (1969: 762) argues: inhibit theidentification andprevent thegrowth methods process rearing produce may for thedevelopment ofpolitical ofcognitive and evaluational skills sufficient ideology. on northeimposition ofexcessive and frustration Furthermore, punishment physical frametolessideological conceptual mally ideological peoplemayinducea regression works."
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social cultural strain 1974:14),personality (Bluhm strain,8 political cognition,7 structures et al. Tetlock irrational features ofthecultural (Adomo 1950; 1983), ofcrisis 1967:69),premodern and (Shils situations landscape,9 cleavages (Lipset Rokkan the absence ofeconomic 1967), development, particular organizational structures ofelectoral levels ofpolitical mobiliza(Barnes 1966),types systems, tion and communications 1969: Nettl (Loewenstein 343; 1967), technologies group constituencies rank-and-file ofanideological anintelli(the interests, grouping), critical historical andideologies themselves.10 events, gentsia, Eachofthese causalarguments offers a slightly different on perspective howtheconcept ofideology should be defined. so varied are the (Indeed, answers tothis that tosurvey thefield is,atbest, question anyattempt only definition oftheconThus,nonelead to a satisfactory suggestive.) general that theconfines ofa single Conseis,beyond cept-oneserviceable, theory. theories of ideology are probably bestconsidered as fodder for quently, not as a method of definition. empirical investigation, 5. Multivocality If each atdefining seems not withattempt ideology problematic, why simply draw from the task of a definition and instead Sisyphean legislating "good" accept the andmutually multivalent senses which nowinhabit the term? contradictory a laissez-faire attitude this definitional toward neiUnfortunately, taking problem ther resolves the of muddle nor relieves usofthe task definition. What conceptual ineffect, itsays, isthat the isonhis/her own. practitioner those writers whoadvocate a thousand definitions bloom Moreover, letting end from definitional adequate inadequate propgenerally up distinguishing erties ofthis term. defines histask (1991: 1), for charged Eagleton example, intheetymological as oneofassessing is valuable orcanbe discarded" "what oftheconcept. One wonders whatdifferentiates thisstrategy from history
as theproduct of one of three successive forms of (1988) viewsideology Rosenberg and of which conditions "linear," political "systematic"-each thinking-"sequential," howthepolitical is understood realm bytheindividual. 8 See Geertz of thisgenre, whichis rootedin theworkof (1964/1973)fora review and Parsons. See alsoJohnson (1968) and White(1961). Durkheim, Weber, 9 Loewenstein ofideologies is theirrational, mainwell-spring "the (1969: 335) declares: theimpact of thesupernatural, beliefs; suppliedby religious mytholosuperstitions; and manifestations ofnational folklore; and,in general, gies;legends, symbolizations traditions and environmental conditions." The basic values or systems ofthought individualism) (e.g.,equality, (e.g.,liberalism, 10 An ideology ofan ideology are often endowedwithcausalsignificance. communism) in large and endures appears, partbecauseofitsownpersuasiveness.
964
that which be pursued. toleave intends might Eagleton normally apparently us with several headmits areoften contra(which acceptable usages mutually one rather than "Grand Global as he it (1991: 7). But dictory), Theory," puts more relaxed standard this definitional leaves the same essenEagleton facing writer on which of tialproblem the facing every subject: properties ideology aretobe considered which andwhy? invaluable, dispensable, were oneso inclined, toavoid with Itmay not be possible, even meddling thedefinitional of on as on Studies this subject, propertiesideology. anysubin theongoing battle overwhatthekey ject,must participate interpretive ifsuccessful, onideology, terms mean. work alters ourunderstandings Any of be calledtheHeisenberg of forma(Thismight ideology. concept principle itis fatuous for toinsist a writer that heorshehasno definitional tion.) Thus, if even those toapply for a single are understood preferences, only preferences or within a context. single purpose 6.A New toan OldTopic Approach Theforegoing canbe briefly restated. First, arguments recurring disputes from over method andmeasurement over stem not ideology merely disagreement what istosay, over of butalsofrom over matters is,which disagreement ideology tonewtermiofdefinition have not been resolved definition. Problems byresort nor beavoided ortothe causes of cansuch to"history," problems nology, ideology; of now the term. the definitional traits inhabiting simply byembracing plenitude Ifwe must, how we best out define therefore, ideology, might carry this of effort canwriters a deal time and difficult task? Asitis,some spend good in find of with order to the-now works dealing ideology vassing lengthy-list tothework that definition which is most athand.Doinga thorappropriate oneimagines, read would be a Herculean effort. Most writers, ough job ofthis on orLichtheim Converse (1964),Geertz (1964/1973), (1967)-depending a additional and few their pieces, proclivities-and methodological ideological from one of lifted Definitions arecommonly thematter go at that. leaving of much orconstructed without these denovo, works, presumably knowledge of affairs. this is not a state various the Surely, healthy employments. concept's ofscholarly norproductive Itis neither time-efficient (since people exchange invoke term different when the areoften of they "ideology"). very talking things Thisployhasbeentried another best-definition. WhatI propose is not of little as thecontinued times"andwith success, proliferation very many should I shallsetforth twogeneral that attests. Rather, meanings arguments
" See,e.g.,Converse (1960), Sartori (1964), Hamilton (1987), Huaco (1971), Mannheim (1976). (1969), Seliger
965
serve ofconcept todelimit theprocess formation with tothis critical respect In thefollowing I term. in a section shallsetout, comprehensive reasonably alldefinitional attributes associated with within fashion, commonly "ideology" In this social science work. canquickly writers andeasily contemporary way, ofsemantic the field those attributes which best survey possibilities, choosing suittheir individual I shall all that definitions must Second, purposes. argue neednotbe limited to-a setof"core" attributes (atthey contain-though common tributes toallbutthemost work on idiosyncratic ideology). With a coredefinition to stand ofoptions to choose upon,and a range from but be not writers should able arrive at a definition unlimited), (large, that will advance their theoretical andempirical claims without digging through a mass ofpublished work andwithout "onideology" unnecessarily muddying thesemantic field. To be sure, willstill writers be talking aboutsomewhat different when the I-word. this However, things they employ multivocality wouldbe limited toa range ofestablished options (discouraging completely usesoftheterm), androoted in thecoreattributes oftheconidiosyncratic Thisextensive ifsuccessful, willnotonly ofthefield, a cept. survey provide in toolkit for of those need of definition but also a "a conceptual ideology" of andadjudicating that immense anddiverse between, way understanding, setofstudies which nowrely on this term. travel-weary
ACOMPREHENSIVE FRAMEWORK
Thefollowing framework associated with contains allattributes regularly in in resocial science discourse, "ideology" contemporary arranged logically latedparts Table are Since there has 2). Idiosyncratic (see usages ignored.12 beenso much work devoted tothemeaning ofthis I draw concept, explicitly these more selfconscious rather than endeavors, upon uponworks primarily ifatall). which theterm itsummarily, employ (defining merely 1. Location inbehavior, Where is ideology located-in themind, andorinlanguage? is tolookatideolThetraditional, common (a) Thought. sense, approach
12 Feuer,for in some fashion theMosaic insists that"Every repeats example, ideology
oftheHebrew tribes dramatic oftheliberation story myth,-the by Moses"(1975: 1). To include claims ofthis sort wouldproduce a typology which is unhelpfully longand not indicative of academicor ordinary attributes are clearly usage. Some suggested of definitions. notesthata political Putnam (1971: 655), forexample, interpretations I think, actor be saidtobe ideological whenheis "extremist." Whathe means here, may is thatmanyofthedefinitional theextraits to ideologues are drawnfrom assigned to of extremist It would be for an author unusual, however, define, quite ample groups. a priori, with viewsas ideologues. extreme onlygroups
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A Definitional Ideology: Analysis

TABLE 2 A COMPREHENSIVE DEFINITIONAL FRAMEWORK
1. Location (b) Subordinate (c) Abstraction 5. Function (a) Thought (d) Specificity (b) Behavior (a) Explaining (e) Hierarchy (c) Language (b) Repressing (f) Stability 2. Subject matter (c) Integrating (g) Knowledge (a) Politics (d) Motivating (h) Sophistication (b) Power (e) Legitimating (i) Facticity 6. Motivation (c) Theworldat-large (j) Simplicity 3. Subject (a) Interest-based (k) Distortion based (a) Socialclass (b) Non-interest (1) Conviction (b) Anygroup (c) Non-expedient (m) Insincerity or individual 7. Cognitive/affective structure(n) Dogmatism (c) Anygroup 4. Position (a) Coherence (internal) (o) Consciousness (a) Dominant (b) Contrast (external) (p) Unconsciousness
meant a "science ofideas")as a setofbeliefs, values, ogy(which originally and/or ideals-inshort, as a type ofpolitical attitudes, principles, thinking. unlike arenot (b) Behavior however, Ideologies, political philosophies, from isolated real-world dilemmas. or at Rather, direct, political ideologies leastinfluence, behavior. It is to ideotherefore,study political impossible, as purely ideational. behavioral areof phenomena logical Secondly, patterns more and social relevance than of for matthat (or, political patterns thought ofexpression). Wearemore concerned with what actors dothan ter, political what Forthese related writers haveoften resolved reasons, they sayorbelieve. totreat as a setofpractices 1984: 195). ideology primarily (e.g., Thompson A third basic tothe definition ofideology (c)Language. approach attempts to transcend thebelief/behavior divide theconcept bydefining byreference or discourse. to a setoflinguistic Therules, and prinsymbols, regularities, of to this line of deciples anyideology, according contemporary argument, rive not somuch from the intentions ofthe values and (their beliefs), ideologists inwhich butrather from the norms areembedded. Itisimposthey linguistic toevaluate andprinciples values, sible, therefore, beliefs, attitudes, indepeninwhich ofthe orspeech-acts, aremanifested. dently speech, they "Ideological is inseparable from-and evensecondary thinking" perhaps to-"ideological be defined as those whoevaluate Conservatives, therefore, language." might world the with a particular setoflinguistic rather than those political symbols, inGod,family, whobelieve andcountry. 11) (1991: writes, Ideology, Eagleton inwhich is "the medium menandwomen outtheir socialandpolitical fight ofsigns, battles atthe level and Downs (1957:96) meanings representations."
967
Political Research Quarterly refers to ideologyas "a verbalimageofthegood society." Thompson(1984: toviewlinguistic as inseparable from other 89-90), although practice wishing nonetheless the lanthat "the practices, (nonlinguistic) explores possibility of life is the locus of and the of site the guage everyday very very ideology which sustains in relations of Ellul domination." Loewenstein meaning (quoted in and through 1953: 68) concursthat exists ideology linguistic practices-in thiscase,official state and party Thisis also thegeneral propaganda. approach ofthe"Cambridge school"ofhistorians notalways undertherubric (although of "ideology").'3 It is important to recognize thedebateover"location" is notsimply that a debateoverhow to measure For the of some, certainly, investigation ideology. behavior and/or a convenient, and perhapsmorereliable, languageis simply methodof testing what an individualbelieves.Thought, in thissense, remainsthe central desideratum. there are others who argue However, many thatbehavior(verbaland nonverbal) orcannotbe separatedfrom thought evenmoreradically-thatbehavior in shouldbe granted an priority defining To observe, individual's forexample,thatsomeoneaddressesa suideology. in certaincontexts, titlemay be more meaningful, periorby a particular thanto ask whyhe does so. The moredeeplyingrained a social practice, the moreithas a tendency in to lose itsquality as an intentional activity. Ideology, thissense,refers to the"un-thought" (discussedbelow).
2. Subject Matter
What is ideologyabout?Here we can differentiate betweenthree basic ortheworld towhichideology topolitics, positions, pertains according power, at-large. and remains Politicsis the "hometurf" of ideology, its most (a) Politics. of commonreferent. a defense the builds (1976: 120) Seliger spirited propois inseparable from To movebeyond"thepolitisitionthat "politics ideology." defined-Seligerand othersargue,is to move beyond cal"- even as broadly understood oftheterm and beyondthesphere towhich thegenerally meaning of its common attributes properly apply many whowouldprefer intereventhose (b)Power (one supposes)a narrower Yet, todemarcate. ofthis term find itsterritory difficult Campbell peripatetic pretation areprimarily etal. (1960) notethat andusageitsconnotations political, "byorigin an ideology to encompass is suchthat we expect [but]thescopeofthestructure content outside thepolitical order as narrowly definedsocialand economic rethe like." and even matters of and education, religion, Consequently, lationships,
13See Pagden(1987), Pocock(1975; 1985), Skinner (1988). (1978), and Tully 968
is often defined as pertaining more torelationships basedon ideology broadly or domination. writes wherever coercion, power, "Ideologies," Birnbaum, "appear factual assertions about contain of the distribu... evaluations systematic society tion ofpower," andmoral statements the about human situ"aesthetic including ation" ofideology is"discourse definition (1960:91). Onecurrently popular plus "the inwhich serve to (orsignification) power"-more ways generally, meaning ofdomination" sustain relations 1984: 4). (Thompson A final, world andevenbroader, viewofideology is also (c) The at-large. Marx and for somecommon). (and, indeed, possible quite Engels, example, times use"ideology" as a vast for all conscious and receptacle relatively organized ideational "The distinction be made," should phenomena.14 always they "between thematerial transformation oftheeconomic of conditions write, ... andthelegal, aesthetic orphilosophic-in production political, religious, inwhich men become conscious ofthis conflict and short, ideological-forms in evenmore itout."'5 refers toideology as "all Aron, terms, fight sweeping ideasorpatterns ofideasaccepted orgroups as true orvalid, byindividuals of in either their or their Loewenstein 1953: irrespective (quoted origin quality" ina much-quoted is brought forth from 52). Thesamesense passage Walsby thetopic as "the ofcognitive (1947: 145),defining system complete assumptions andaffective identifications which manifest themselves in,orunderlie, the ethical actions-in aims, ideals, interests, standards, short, thought, speech, an individual thebehaviour-of human Thisalsoreplicates thesense being." ofoneofMannheim's inHamilton 1987:21) basicdefinitions (1960;quoted ofideology-as mind total structure ofthe ofanepoch orclass." Wuthnow "the as a subset of the difference (1981) alsodefines culture, ideology only being theterm that shared Geertz 218(1964/1973: ideology represents meanings. in of the one most influential discussions of the describes ideolo19), subject, ofproblematic for thecreation of socialreality and matrices giesas "maps Inthis collective conscience." sense ofthe is indistinword, ideology virtually from cultural orbelief-system.16 There worldview, system, symbol-system, guishable to suchconcepts, butthere needbe no are,certainly, political implications content. political explicit
is nottheonlymeaning ofideology implied byMarxand Engels14As we shallsee,this morespecific willbe discussed connotations below. 15 Contribution tothe 1983: 156). In the ofPolitical Critique Philosophy (quotedinWilliams German all refer, lines,to "Morality, they Ideology alongsimilar religion, metaphysics, ofideology andtheir forms of and therest consciousness..." (Marx corresponding Engels 1970: 47). 16See also Adornoet al. (1950: (1972: 27), Cobb (1973), Harris(1968), 2), Ashford in Naesset al. (1956: 162-63). Roucek(1944: 479), and examples discussed
969
Who has ideologies? Who arethe"ideologists"? Three basicresponses havebeengiven tothis question. class. From theMarxist refers to (a) Social perspective ideology primarily theviews ofa particular socialclass(Marx andEngels ide1970).Particular Althusser in a nod to Marxist (1971: 159) affirms, "alconvention, ologies, classpositions." ways express thesenseofideology tiedtoa particular (b)Any However, group. being "To a certain extent themselves to class political ideologies correspond but the is neither nor absolute. Ideoloattitudes, correspondence general inrelation tothesocioeconomic strucgiesarenever simple epiphenomena and somearerelated to classin waysthat areindirect and ofminor ture, now refer to "a specific, Mostwriters importance." broadly, socially significant orclass"(Eagleton 1991:29). TheOED saysthat group ideologies relate or society, or to theconduct ofa classor group" "topolitics (622). Lane(1962: 15) is most beliefs that indi"are emphatic: Ideologies group
viduals borrow; most people acquire an ideology by identifying (or witha social group." disidentifying) or individual. have applied the word (c) Any group Finally, manywriters as a property that be possessedbya single individual. Whileit ideology might hasusually beenconsidered a central that be "shared," aspectofideologies they economic stationhas eroded in recentyears. Duverger(1951/59) writes:
3.Subject
this doesnotreflect characteristics uponother presumably ideological (e.g., action orientation.. There be no reacoherence, .). orientation, political may sontoexclude anindividual from the because othcategory "ideological" just erscannot be found whoshare hisorherviews; we commonly and,in fact, if of "Xs as it were from all others. speak ideology," distinguishable 4. Position hasoften beenidentified ina particuas the hallmark ofa group Ideology larstrategic within as inso many other there Here, position respects, society. hasbeenlittle over which status ismore agreement ideological-an "in-group" whoseideology ofdomination, a relationship or an "out-group" legitimates whoseideology is a protest or an social against exclusionary discriminatory
hierarchy.
Theclassical for as domination is (a) Dominant. reference-point ideology Marx andEngels who write: "The ideas of the in class are (1970: 64), ruling the class which isthe in material force ideas, i.e.,the every epoch ruling ruling is at the same time its intellectual force." society, ruling Many contemporary writers from have moved this ofdomination toa class-specific understanding
970
ADefinitional Analysis Ideology: ofdomination."17 in this notion of"structures more sense, Ideology, general and stableinstitutional "bolsters arrangements by explaining, justifying, for whosefailure ordea particular stratification support system prompting ofa particular mise willleadtothedisintegration ofcontrol" (Wilson pattern ofideology is notlimited towriters ofa Marx1992:19).Thisunderstanding be accused of istor leftist extraction. (1964: 18),whocouldscarcely Apter elite and to the exercise of writes to an either, justify "ideology helps support also 1984: 89-90). (see power" Thompson is commonly at thesametime, associated (b)Subordinate. Yet, ideology with left orright. themost abmovements oftheextreme Indeed, coherent, sets of these writers have differentiated andsharply beliefs, noted, stable, stract, theexisting from thosegroupsor individuals often emanate protesting Putnam order Feuer 1975). 655)writes, (1971: Ideologists, sociopolitical (e.g., Shils(1967: 66), in described as "Alienated" and"Extremist." arecommonly an aggressive alienation from thesamevein, writes: the "Ideologies...entail more to These sorts of definitional attributes are desociety." likely existing from those it. scribe those thestatus benefiting groups protesting quo than and Williams that the terms revolu(1983: 154) reports ideologist Raymond inthe onemight nineteenth were often century-an equation, tionary equated into thetwentieth add,that persists century. 5. Function "is...the Geertz 218-19) writes, (1964/1973: (a) Explaining. Ideology, social situations render otherwise incomprehensible meaningful, attempt...to itpossible within them as tomake toactpurposefully toso construe them." is the selfconscious of (b)Repressing. however, manipulation Propaganda, a given effect. to achieve (1984: 86-86) acknowledges Thompson symbols anddiscussed. certain tobe communicated allows that only things "ideology wouldagree that butalso'represses'." Most writers ... Itnotonly 'expresses' to of attention not that the instudying one is merely portion ideology paying that but also to which has been which selfconsciously belief-system projected, remains submerged. ofideologies as mechanisms foremost the (c)Integrated. Perhaps exponent In The Social Talcott Parsons. ofsocial was (1951:349-50), System integration heldin common as "a system ofbeliefs, ofideology Parsons wrote by the of . .. is to the which oriented evaluative members ofa collectivity integration ofthe ofthe and nature the collectivity collectivity, byinterpretation empirical
etal. (1980),Althusser (1971: 158),Foucault (1979), Lasswell (quoted 17SeeAbercrombie in Loewenstein 1953: 58), Mannheim (1960: 85). 971
inwhich ofthesituation itis placed, the ithasdeveloped bywhich processes toitsgiven the towhich itsmembers arecollectively and state, oriented, goals tothefuture their relation course ofevents." functions to bind Here, ideology individuals toa community an authoritative setofnorms and byestablishing values 1964: Parsons 1951: 1970: Plamenatz Ideolo31). 18-21; 349; (Apter the individual with a sense ofidentity andbelonging" to gies"provide serving achieve and cohesion" 1991: "social 17). solidarity (Rejai Both ofthe (d) Motivating. scholarly usageandordinary understandings term that areaction-oriented. seek not ideology suggest ideologies They merely todescribe theworld butalsotomoldit.18 Where ideolodeclared, publicly atanaudience "inthe with the of intent (notformed abstract") giesareaimed Even where an is not or articuinfluencing opinion. officiallyopenly ideology itsintent is still in that lated, (or,ifyouprefer, prescriptive "programmatic") the oftheideology holder is enjoined his or her to act. by ideology Ideologies "furnish for action" 1964: 362). Byorganizing andinterguides (McClosky the world an the to act within that world. Idepreting ideology helps subject do not the of historical winds ologists passively accept prevailing change; they or seekto regulate thecourse ofhistory, an imembrace, reject, presenting orexplicit vision ofthegoodlife, theidealworld. itis argued, plicit Ideology, forms thenexus between ideasandactions. is action-oriented Thatideology should be confused with however, not, theideathat are acted all or the that action is time, ideologies upon political the of "The of Mullins primarily product ideologies. significance ideology," "isnotthat itcauses onetodobutthat itgives one (1972:509) states succinctly, cause The in cites function fordoing." OED, similarly, ideology's "justifying in this actions" offer a wayofovercoming thediffi(622). Ideologies, sense, incollective culties inherent action without (orsupplementary to)a coercive andmaterial incentives. apparatus alsolegitimates. itis meant that (e) Legitimating. Ideology Usually, bythis in and that do so defense of dominant social distort, ideologies they groups 1991:6). Onemight note the with that func(e.g., Eagleton irony legitimation tion ofideology is understood tobe illegitimate. onecanalsofind However, theconcept oflegitimation theterm) usedin a more not,perhaps, (though In this value-neutral manner. makelegitisense, "legitimates"-i.e., ideology in of whether or not those actions are mate-actions, support or in revolt order. theestablished against
18
Gouldner See, e.g.,Bell(1960: 400), Connolly (1967: 2), Geertz (1964/1973), (1976: (1966: 5-16),Mullins 85), Lane(1962: 14-15),La Palombara (1972: 506, 509), Naess et al. (1956: 164-65),Roucek (1947: 142). (1944: 249), Seliger (1976: 19-20),Walsby
972
6. Motivation writers tobe in somewaydeterminahaveconsidered motivation Many tive ofideology. canbe discerned. AccordThree influential equally positions in to the are to the itis rooted first, interests; second, ing ideologies according in a setofideaswhich theabsence ofmaterial interest defines an ideology; to thethird it is theabsence interests ofshort-term (or "expediaccording in which be of to claim the status must order for a set attitudes ency") present ofan ideology. Thenotion ofideologies as interest-based canbe traced (a) Interest-based. backatleast as far as Marx andEngels (1970: 64; seealso47, 57),whowrite: "Theclasswhich ofmaterial at itsdisposal, has themeans has production control atthe same time over the means ofmental so that production, thereby, theideasofthose wholackthemeans ofmental generally speaking, production aresubject toit.Theruling ideasarenothing more than the idealexpressionofthedominant as the notion ofpower material was Just relationships." in extended from roots its Marxian social the notion class, gradually original of"interest" hasundergone a likepermutation. Theinterests ofan ideologue notsimply to thematerial ofhisor herclassbut,more interests mayrefer and to a setoftangible to group interests andevento self-interest, broadly, and intangible interests which include and perquistatus, position, power, "Anideology," Elster ofvaluesthat can be site.'9 "is a setofbeliefs writes, the or of some social interest explained through (non-cognitive) position group" theinterests ofthegroup theideology serves (1982: 123).Whether actually in question, in thisrespect, or is dysfunctional theorigin ofthesystem of in isthought tobe traceable tothe social of the values group question position see Geertz 1964/1973). (on this point, incontemporary works based. wearealsoquite familiar (b)Non-interest Yet, ofsocialscience with matters ofideology areremoved from thenotion that from self-interest matters of"self-interest," andparticularly material (e.g.Crewe canbe andSearing 1988:362-63;Kritzer 1978:486). Thissenseoftheterm Anearly of found the as far backas Napoleon. biographer Emperor, writing hisdeath, torefer to"every after testifies that hissubject usedideology shortly innorespect oftheory ... resting basis ofself-interest" (Scott, species uponthe in Williams 1983: 154). 1827,quoted Napoleon, A third in themotivation debate is heldby (c) Non-expedient. position in thebroadsensemaybe ideological, those whoargue that while interest inthe narrow sense ofexpediency isnot."[I]tmatters," write interest Campbell
(1971: 134), Corbett (1965: 138), Goldman(1969: 102-03), Gramsci 19See Althusser (1971: 376), Mannheim (1960: 50).
973
ina simple andnaked etal. (1960: 203-204)"whether self-interest proceeds in some broader strucor has become imbedded indeed sense, ideological ina primitive What thewriters wish todistinguish is "self-interest and ture." ofself-interest within a structure of and theoperation sense, short-sighted In boththesecond attitudes that be labeled an 'ideology."' might reasonably as a residual andthird senses be employed (above), ideology may categoryfor those or beliefs for which no self-interested actions, statements, standing basiscanbe discovered.20 7. Cognitive/Affective Structure Sixteen ofcognitive/affective havecommonly beenapstructure types (orideologists). pliedtoideology There is little ofideol(a) Coherence (internal). analysts question among theinternal ofa setofvalues that structure andbeliefs must be coherent ogy inorder for ittobe considered how However, coherent, "ideological." exactly orwhat constitutes a of remains debate. The coherence, exactly subject great fuzziness ofthis is abetted its number of central characteristic by ideological structure, consistency, system, near-synonyms-including integrated, organizaandtheever-popular constraint. Eachrefers, with tion, logical interrelationship, or "fit" a slightly to thedegree oflikeness, different agreement, emphasis, thevarious elements ormanifestations ofan ideology. characterizing Theideaofinternal coherence a degree of (b)Contrast (external). implies in between the and the contrast (or ideology question surrounding ideologies A value, is ideological orattitude with culture). belief, general political only If is differently reference tosomething elsewhich is not, orwhich ideological. the beliefs ofa party ormovement from there islittle todistinguish andvalues Ifallpolitiina political then a crucial test. itscompetitors ithasfailed system then would within a country areequally cal parties "conservative" it appear of"conservativism" rather that theideology appliesto thecountry at-large various ruContrast is a matter under than to anyindividual which, party. for ofstudy; it is thedriving has inspired a great brics, question, quantity of electoral behavior21 and behind the eternal behind models example, spatial or"conflictual" American is "consensual" over whether (see politics argument Sternsher et al. 1975). 1960;McClosky 1964; McClosky as anabstract endeavor. isalsocommonly viewed (c)Abstraction. Ideology the et "Ideal orabstract specifies OED (622). Campbell al.(1960: speculation,"
an "interest," and Green ofdefining see Citrin (1990) and Kingdon On thedifficulties (1993). literature. an excellent ofthis (1990) offers synthesis 21 Strom
20
974
traditional sense oftheword, toideology as a cogni193) echothis referring tive structure of a order of abstraction."22 "capped byconcepts high with ofideology's endorsements onealso (d)Specificity. abstraction, Along finds endorsements ofitsconcreteness-its in frequent specificity. Ideologies, contrast topolitical writes Keohane besimple (1976:97),"must philosophies, ifthey and concrete areto be effective." Formany a setofvalues writers, becomes insofar as it a concrete a setof ideological only specifies program, It is that differentiates from beliefthis, issue-positions. arguably, ideologies and cultural systems, philosophical systems, systems. etal. (1960: 190)expected idea-units tobe orga(e) Hierarchy. Campbell ina hierarchical nized "in which more attitudes interact with fashion, specific attitudes towards the more inwhich classofobjects the general specific object is seentobelong." from this andHurwitz (1985) crevision, Working Peffley atea hierarchical ofideological model inwhich issue-attireasoning, specific arerelated tudes tomore attitudes to notions of liberalism and, general finally, andconservatism. Theauthors assume values drive that, generally speaking, rather than the reverse. issue-positions, in many does notappear formal definiAlthough stability (f)Stability. most writers would that a set of values and beliefs must tions, probably agree endure for somelength in oftime order towarrant theappellation "ideology" 1964:238; Erikson andTetlock (seeAchen 1975;Converse 1979;Sniderman 1986:64). "Parties ofthe'left' and'right' do nottrade from election positions toelection," etal. (1960: 189) note. inparallel Campbell "Assuming stability inindividuals, values itwould follow that would be purpartisan preferences suedfor of time." More al. et 36) (1994: longperiods Klingemann recently, describe an "ideology in model" ofparty in which behavior, "parties power follow more a policy than onereflectclosely reflecting longstanding ideology current and ofpoing programmatic emphases." Frequent repeated changes in litical areusually considered ofa words, perspective,other goodevidence lackofideological commitment. Under such circumstances itcanbe assumed that a group or individual is responding to nonideological demands (interor has no beliefs and values about coercion) ests, expediency, simply developed at all. politics Another characteristic associated with cognitive (g)Knowledge. commonly in modes of is summarizable term the knowlideological thought political onemight be operationalized so as to note, edge.Political knowledge, may account notsimply for the number of factual observations or gross responses
See also Smith and Piereson (1980: 686, 694), Converse (1964), Coveyou (1977: 78), Putnam (1971: 655), and Szalayand Kelly (1982: 586). 975
22
anindividual the over which these is abletomake, butalsofor observarange fall etal. 1960;Converse (see Campbell 1964,1990;Smith tions/responses A related-but rather trait (h)Sophistication. different-cognitive commonly is of associated with that While sophistication.23 political knowledge, ideologues refer tovarious ofcognitive andabstractness coherence, particular aspects prorefers to the character ofthereasoning cessing, sophistication general political some orallofthe attributes. This isnot therefore, processincluding, foregoing an easy nail to scientists this ruunder down; indeed, political laboring concept bric have encountered of the same definitional many problems currently roiling work on ideology have beenunable toagree, 1987:1993).Writers for (Luskin whether is indicated or lesser of number example, sophistication bya greater inany in within a given 1987:863).Ideology, dimensions (Luskin case, ideology much ofthe science literature refers tothe i.e.,most political highestsophisticated-level ofpolitical found the reasoning among general public. to oneview, is defined (i) Facticity. Ideology, according byits"facticity." Unlike other of makes statements with truthtypes communication, ideology which to be a more or claims-ideas and also less excarry "purport factual, evaluation ofthe "facts" 1960:91; (Ashford 1972:26; seealsoBimbaum plicit Hamilton 1987). inGeertz Sutton etal. (1956:4-5; quoted 1964/1973: 209) (i) Simplicity. claim that tends tobe simple andclear-cut, even itssimplicwhere "Ideology Gouldand Kolb(1964: 315) write of do lessthan ityand clarity justice." social a as the of with view to ideology explanation "complex phenomena choices individuals andgroups" andsimplifying directing sociopolitical facing 1962: Tetlock also Oakeshott 1983). (see 114-27; 1958; McClosky One ofthemost common and longest-standing elements (k)Distortion. is that ofdistortion. associated with "[Eachnewclasswhich ideology puts in theplaceofoneruling Marx before write andEngels itself (1970: 65it," in order its tocarry itsaim,torepresent 66), "iscompelled, through merely members ofsociety, that ofallthe interest as the common interest is,expressed in idealform: ofuniversality, and represent ithas togiveitsideastheform In Marx's valid ones." andparthem as theonly rational, writings, universally in 1970: a ofreal and the German (Marx "realm 119), Engels ticularly Ideology of This sense of distortion is to a is "realm ideology." history" counterposed of which definition delikewise thegist ofMannheim's ideology, "particular"
notesa "moreor less consciousdisguise... of therealnatureof a situation
1989).
23 See Campbell etal. (1960) andConverse (1964). Smith (1989: 226) defines sophistica-
theambiguity ofthispoint. tionas including butacknowledges knowledge,
976
thetrue ofwhich with[the wouldnotbe in accord recognition ideologists'] in interests" Naess et al. a modem 1956:166).Althusser offers varia(quoted tion onthe"distortion" theme. hewrites (1971: 162),"represents "Ideology," the ofindividuals totheir real conditions ofexistence." imaginary relationship In poststructuralist circles is apttobe usedas a synonym for "cloideology sure" -thatcircumstance inwhich of naturally processes signififree-floating are cation blocked orprematurely ended 1984:196).Eagleton (e.g., Thompson ofideologies ideaswhich (1991: 6) writes it; "denigrating might challenge rival of forms butsystematic excluding thought, perhaps bysomeunspoken andobscuring inways social convenient toitself... logic; reality [e.g.] masking orsuppressing social them over with "animaginary resoconflicts," papering lution ofrealcontradictions" 1971:655). (seealsoPutnam Distortion isthus the of viewed end-product many operations traditionally as ideological: naturalization offabricated circum(the legitimation, depiction stances as "natural"), illicit union offact andvalue" "the (Adams popularization, 1989: 137; Minar1961: 323), "systematically distorted communication" claimto "moral (Habermas (Adams 1984),the(unsubstantiated) certainty" 1989: 139; Naess 1956: 166),theuse ofunverifiable truth-claims (Sartori 1969:403). Inallsuchcases, the ofideology as distortion on rests description an implicit or contrast between and scientific, epistemological "ideological" forms ofanalysis.24 truthful, Mostwriters wouldprobably do not (1)Conviction. agree(evenifthey arestrongly state as a formal definitional that beliefs heldpremise) ideological isanelement that there ofconviction toany is often ideology. Ideology equated a deep, oremotional ofcommitment with sort (Bell1960:370-71; passionate, Neuman 1981:1239;Rejai1971;Sartori toreorient the 1969).In an attempt discussion ofideology mass Sniderman and Tetlock (1986: among publics, that "isbetter as a setofroot likes anddislikes understood 63) claim ideology than an assemblage ofabstractions." Itis,therefore, an affective rather rather than ofthought that determine howpeople understand may cognitive aspect andrelate topolitical issues. for that lackofcommitment, herinsincerity. Onehears, thespeaker's example, reiterate which do not believe and which do politicians "ideologies" they they not in in once ensconced office. This is this sense of"mere implement public ideology and the same connotations as "mere carries rhetoric." ideology,"
(1976), Connolly (1967), Feuer(1975: 254), Goldman(1969: 103), 24See also Barth Gouldner (1976: 38), Huaco (1971: 253-55),Lichtheim (1953: (1967: 3), Loewenstein (1981: 30), McClosky 60), McCarney (1958), Rejai(1991: 4), Roucek(1944: 482). 977
has often beenused to indicate (m)Insincerity. Bythesametoken, ideology
"Itis tothe doctrine ofthe saidNapoleon, "to (n)Dogmatism. ideologues," in a contrived this diffuse which manner seekstofind theprimetaphysics, causesand on thisfoundation woulderect thelegislation ofpeoples, mary instead ofadapting thelawsto a knowledge ofthehuman heart and ofthe lessons ofhistory-to which one mustattribute all themisfortunes which in havebefallen ourbeautiful France" Williams 1983: Marx 154). (quoted and Engels also refer to as 68) (1970: repeatedly society's ideologists "dogmatic." To many were writers ofthepostwar "secular ideologies generation, in their face of characterized facts, religions," by obstinacy counterarguments, A goodsummation andopposition ofanysort.25 ofthis viewis provided by Loewenstein "Itis characteristic ofthereligious that (1969:335),whowrites: ofacceptance. it does notadmit absolute it must degrees Being by nature either be accepted or rejected; there areonlybelievers and heretics. Most in modern have become the a sense that political ideologies religion-affected and belief embodies values that are considered abparticular thought pattern solute Tothemasses theideological belief is a substitute for byitsadherents. values. Even liberal eroded whose value-content religious ideologies specific is tolerance andrelativism, when tothecompetitive antithassume, exposed ofthe'either-or."' esisoftotalitarianism, the absolutist coloration Thesense of intheOED ("held oradopted as dogmatism is enshrined implicitly ideology ofthecourse as a whole andmaintained ofevents"-622) andreregardless in of the are countless evaluations Ideologists "guided peated subject. bya to belief which is resistant new writes 'closed,' information," rigid, system ofdefinitions. One ofthestrongest Putnam (1971: 655) inhiscompendium be in statements ofthis is to found Sartori's (1969: 402) controperspective a versial claim that "the ideological mentality represents typically dogmatic, andimpermeable, topolitics.'"26 i.e.,rigid approach Onecommon view hasitthat theideologist should "be (o) Consciousness. ofthe towhich heorsheisthought abletoexplicate those ideology principles" is "anexplicit, held tobelong 1978:485-86).Ideology (Kritzer consciously 1971: writer belief another 655). (Putnam asserts, "persystem" "Ideology," which tains tothat ofconsciousness canbesaid; ithasa public objectivity part enablestheprojects to be discussed which it promotes among strangers" An 1984: even sense is theachieve85). stronger ofexplicitness (Thompson ment ofwritten form. to Thompson was (1984: 85-86),"writing According This moves what isundoubtedly the andstill isitsprincipal medium." us into
25
See Aron(1962: 265-94), Bell (1960), Halle (1972: 116), Loewenstein (1969: 335), Rokeach (1960), Sartori (1969), Shils(1967: 66). 26Forcommentary, see Mullins (1974).
978
most form canachieve-and the form which would explicit any ideology many is the most say quintessentially "ideological"-propaganda. as noted, writers consider consciousWhile, (p) Unconsciousness. many nesstobe thehallmark ofideological more consider unconthinking, many sciousness tobeitsdistinguishing characteristic Barnes 1966: (see 514).Engels is emphatic on thispoint: "Therealdriving force which moves[ideology] remains otherwise itwould beanideological not unconscious, process" (quoted in Roucek 1944:482). Ideologists arepersons making history, yet blindlywithout a complete awareness of their actualroles(Lichtheim 1967: 31). havedescribed Others theunconsciousness ofideology in a more Freudian sense.Feuer, for claims that wish-fulexample, ideologies typically "project fillments" etal. ideologies of (1975).ForKardiner are, likewise, "compounds in Lane 1962: see also Adorno et al. 14; 1950; projective systems" (quoted Erikson 1977:580).Some scientists have decided 1968;Nelson that, political themasspublic is relatively ofarticulable devoid itis not although ideology, devoid ofideology Levitin inthis andMiller 1979:752).Ideology, sense, (e.g., must beconsidered a proto-conscious Nelson (1977:580) takes phenomenon. a psychoanalytic tothis "An individual evince a patapproach question. may tern ofbehavior from which an observer canreasonably infer beliefs informAndyet those beliefs neednotinform theacts ingtheactsoftheindividual. of awareness of these beliefs topsycan,according Repression consciously. serve needs of the individual." choanalytic theory, important psychic
CONCLUSIONS
I haveargued that thetroubles socialscientists encounter with theconarelargely incharacter-rather "definitional" than ceptofideology empirical, theoretical oroperational. Ofcourse, this be (explanatory), proposition might to social science terms. the of ideolHowever, applied many problem defining severe. theterm has become so overladen ogyseems particularly Arguably, with it no that is stable to be of much use. Having meaning longer enough for ofacademic beenappropriated allmanner andpolitical over the purposes several has become a of own victim its It centuries, past ideology popularity. nowmeans toomuch. I shall arewe todo with this ofmeanings? What, then, over-supply sugsetofprocedures: ofa minimal (1) theconstruction (or gestthefollowing ofthegreatest differentiation "core" (2) theachievement definition; possible and(3) context terms; neighboring specificity. vis-A-vis 1.A Core Definition A common ina tocopewith when semantic strategy attempting plenitude is to a core definition-a attribute or small concept identify (or"minimal") single
979
isuniversally of related that andwhich therefore set attributes might agreed-upon attributes.27 to lendsomecoherence toother, lesscentral, definitional In order that arrive ata core definition onemust attributes conflict with conceptual jettison as well as those which exclude well-established ideattributes, other, important for which we ational from consideration that have no alter(ones, is, phenomena nate label). Ifallthe senses ofthe term areattended that to,I would ideology only argue meets Theimportance ofcoherence onetrait this criterion. (7a)-aka "consistency" inthe social or"constraint"-is science literature. virtually unchallenged Ideology, at thevery refers toa setofidea-elements that areboundtogether, that least, in one what to another a non-random fashion. On interprinciples belong they andtowhat matters ofdispute butthe remain (as discussed), correlate, degree, ofcoherence togainsay. Onemight as notion is difficult contrast add, corollaries, oneimplying coherence (7b)andstability (7f)-the ideologies competing vis-a-vis andthe other coherence time. implying through inusage All other are not within core attributes universal (even simply possible deciofsocial orinvolve the restricted science), parameter arbitrary classificatory sions about what writers constitutes behavior.28 Forexample, "ideological" many ofthe that allideologies a sense ofconviction onthe holders of part imply propose inwhich wehave that setofbeliefs alsoobserved the sense (71). But ideologies inwhich be"mere hollow ideational shells few The believe. truly may ideologies," in fall of the of communism Eastern to the Soviet Union Europe prior ideology ofideology seems tohave this sense as insincerity (7m).Similarly, approximated contradicts unconsciousness (7p). dently, as referring toexplicitly subTothose whowould define ideology political outthat this wouldexclude to point (2a), it is important many jectmatter innon-political as pertaining torelationships usesoftheterm contexts-e.g., within the or world mediated (2b), (2c). relationships bypower at-large ofabstract whowouldclaimthat is an example To those (7c), ideology
ordered (7h) cogni(7e), knowledgeable hierarchically (7g), and/or sophisticated
27
with theattribute dominant subordinate (4a) conflicts (4b). Consciousness (7o), evi-
thecorefeatures ofthemajority ofdefinitions them. sons Bythis procedure, for including ofother onthe will willbe retained. The selection elements basisofreasoned argument fix oftheconcept" thelimits orboundaries 1987: 19;emphasis then (Hamilton added). I shouldnotethat coreproperties; somemay be defined notallterms contain by"family Mahon1993). and noneofwhichareinvariably (Colher characteristics," present that I refer to a classificatory decision wouldbe appropriate onlywithin 28 By"arbitrary" thepurview ofa single or subfield. study
are reatheir there be rejected unless itcanbedemonstrated that idiosyncrasy good despite
tofollow influthis butis evidently See Sartori (1976: 61). Hamilton purports strategy; ofdefinition as well."Idiosyncratic criteria shouldnormally encedbyother principles
980
A Definitional Ideology: Analysis has also been defined tion,one mustobservethatideologicalthought by its thecon(7k). Moreimportantly, (7j) and distortion perhaps, defining simplicity as sophisticated us ofa way ceptofideology political maydeprive cognition to talkabout thepolitical beliefs and valuesofmanymembers ofthepublic. Letus assume,for a moment, thatmostpeople have thoughts aboutpolitical that these motivate them to action not objects, thoughts (perhaps continually, butat leastevery once in a while),and thattheseactions have political consenot that these are randomquences. Assume,moreover, thoughts entirely Ifall theseobservations someelements ofinternal are coherence. i.e., contain social scientists need a term to such cognitive becorrect, evidently referring havior. ofcourse,resort to mentalite buttheseterms lose or culture, (One may, theexplicitly ofideology.) connotation Itwouldbe hard,George Rude political liketheLevel(1980/1995)pointsout,tomakesenseofpopularmovements, lers and Diggersof the EnglishRevolution, the Sons of Liberty duringthe American and the the French Revolution withsans-culottes Revolution, during out resort to theconceptof ideology. The same argument, of course,can be America.29 appliedto the"masspublic"in contemporary The mosttroubling internal definitional conflict besetting ideologyis to be found on themotivation dimension. (6a) and non-interHere,interest-based estbased(6b) definitions collide.Indeed,thiswould seem to be thesourceof a good deal of ideology's semantic forsome evidently wish to define strife; I think as instrumental and others as noninstrumental. ideologicalactivity this diet al. offer the most sensible out of (1960: 203-204) way Campbell ideas and lemmain proposing thatideologybe understood as nonexpedient whether self-interest behavior. To repeat:"[I]t matters proceedsin a simple and nakedsense,or has indeedbecomeimbeddedin somebroader ideologiin a primiis "self-interest Whatthewriters wishto distinguish cal structure." a structure and theoperation ofself-interest within tive andshort-sighted sense, ofattitudes thatmight be labeledan 'ideology'." reasonably
Differentiation
In hisbrilliant, workon concept formation Sartori (1984: tortuous, though for word.""30 another 63) advisesthat"no wordshouldbe used as a synonym in narrowing ofpossibleattributes is quiteuseful therange Thislineofinquiry of maximum one ought connected with On clarity, ideology. grounds achieving
(1993). 29See,e.g.,Fineand Sandstrom inhisearlier ofideology as dogmahe appears toviolate thistenet definition Ironically, for havea term tism as dogmawhenwe already 1969). Whydefine (Sartori ideology onSartori onemight wellinquire. Forfurther this semantic (1969), commentary purpose, see Diggins (1970).
30
981
Political Research Quarterly to seek out attributes thateffectively differentiate ideologyfrom neighboring terms. Fromthisperspective it is indeedusefulto limit thepurview ofideolfor in matter this can itsdefi(2a), ogyto explicitly subject political only way nition be distinguishedfromworldview, cultural belief-system, system, and other liketerms. value-system, to thecoredefinBythesame logic,we oughtto avoid addingattributes if attribute attributes (coherence) they ing repeat already defining neighboring terms. We havelittle use for a conceptofideology in terms defined of largely service(7h), when we alreadypossess the perfectly cognitive sophistication able term, Thisis thelaudabletrend ofcurrent research (Cassel sophistication. 1984; Luskin1987, 1993; Smith1980, 1989). borderline case is posed by theconceptofpolitical Perhapsthetoughest culture. Even here,however, differentiation can be achieved,and conceptual scholars are well-advised to consider their choice ofterms. Political carefully culture is generally considered to be less programmatic, less action-oriented, as muchto political as to thesubstance ofpolitics, and is referring procedures muchmorelikely to be defined as a set of (unconscious)practices. One can who chose "ideology" whenthey pointto a good manycases ofwriters might havebeen morepreciseand accurate in choosingpolitical culture.31 on theleft ofthepolitical that to "saniMany, generally spectrum, protest tize"ideology ofanyhintofitssenseas domination (4a), as suggested above,is todeprive theconceptofitscapacity for socialcritique 1967). (e.g.,Lichtheim Thismaybe true, one counter that social is although mayreasonably critique moreeffective insofar as itis clear.In anycase,thedual statusoftheterm-as of domination a structure and an ideationalform oppositionto structuring thestatus use ofideology endsup calling into quo-means that anypejorative ofliberation" that thoseon theleft wouldchamquestionthevery "ideologies I suggest, rhetorical woulduse terms that refer pion.A moresensible strategy, more directly and clearlyto the phenomenanow referred to (by theseauin calling as "ideological." Whatis lost,one wonders, domination domithors) and What is the nation, repression special repression, hegemony hegemony? status ofideology that itmustbe imported to serveas theuniversal of signifier injustice? lestit be misconstrued, is thattherichness ofthis Mygeneral argument, In trespassing field semantic need notbe lookedupon as a detriment. on the ofother related definitions ofideology have words,manyprevious meanings weakenedthe clarity-andhence the utility-of thisconcept(as well as of
defi(1972), andWilson(1992). Foran excellent (1969), Mullins 31See,e.g.,Merelman nitional of see Patrick (1984). culture," analysis "political
982
A Definitional Analysis Ideology: thoseterms whosemeanings areappropriated). We do notneed to stretch the so manysemanticfunctions bemeaningof ideologyto perform precisely cause we already terms whichcoveradjacentareas.In respectpossessother oftheserelated we can carveout clearer terms definitions ingthedifferentness of thisconcept.This also meansthatwe mayhave to reconcile ourselves to smaller definitions.
3. Context-Specificity
definition, Beyondthese, relatively general, strategies-minimal jettisonand differentiation-we cannotavoidcontext-speattributes, ingcontradictory In other definitions. itis notreasonable a single, to try to construct words, cific definition of for all and usable times, all-purpose places, purposes. ideology, theconceptofitsutility becauseitsutility is Doingso woulddeprive precisely It is more be that (usually)context-specific.may ideology context-dependent thanmostother socialscienceterms-that ittravels withless ease acrossgeoand theoretical Butall terms and must boundaries. facethisdifficulty, graphic in exchangefora wide ambitof applicability accept a restricted generally (Sartori 1970). rangeofattributes in a particular The taskofdefinition we mustleaveto thewriter, situated It is to statethe and problem, region, time-period, methodology. important willbe usefulfor definitions ofideology different obvious:different purposes. willbe made easierby thisseven-part It is hoped thatthetaskof definition whichestablishes a uniform framework oftheconceptofideology, gridupon whichone can identify, and hencecompare, definitional choices.Thiswillnot in thespecific thequestionofwhatconstitutes resolve a "bestdefinition" case, but itwillat leastgiveus grounds disputes.Onlyby upon whichto arbitrate concisefashforall possibledefinitional choices,in a reasonably accounting definition. thepractical taskofterm ion, can we moveforward To thismight be appended one finalnote. It is essentialthatcontextdefinitions-all thatis, thatmove beyondmere"coherdefinitions, specific in a moreselfconscious their situatedness ence"(thecoreattribute) -recognize manner thanhas hitherto been thefashion. Those studying behavior political different at theindividual levelmayhaveneed ofa slightly than those concept a different Political set political studying organizations. parties maycall forth attributes thanrevolutionary cells. Ideologymaybe a funof accompanying in modern westdifferent and pre-modern societies, damentally phenomenon and secularsocieties, at mass and ern and non-western societies, religious ofempirical elitelevels,and so forth. Thesearenecessarily matters investigaIf it is determined thatthe ofempirical tion,but theyare not merely import. in difmass publicsexperience and processpolitical phenomenadifferently in ferent it is entirely to define the contexts conceptdifferently appropriate 983
these indoing the limited terrain towhich contexts-and, so,toacknowledge theconcept (so defined) applies.
4. Employing intheFieldofPolitical "Behavior" ofRedefinition: Strategies Ideology
Asa way of the inthe made andas discussion, summarizing points foregoing anexample ofhowthese of definition in be a strategies might employed specific itmay beuseful totake a brief lookatoneparticular area ofendeavor. I context, choose the field of"political behavior" because itisprobably of interest to greatest thereaders ofthis butI assume that thegeneral ofdefinition journal, strategies inthis outlined would work with in other social science dostudy equalfacility I mains within the domain ofpolitical (even, think, theory). The good newsfor behavioralists is that thethrust ofmostempirical matters ofcoherence (or"constraint," investigation-into "consistency")-coincides with thecore oftheconcept ofideology. Itis,therefore, meaning perto call an individual with coherent views on political fectly justifiable highly matters an "ideologue." there doesnotseem tobe anyother available Indeed, term for suchan individual This does of resolve the (orgroup). not, course, of how to or measure it. Here lies the source of a coherence, problem judge deal of the debate: what areto be compared and how good namely, things coherent must be inorder toqualify that orindividual as ideologithey group cal?Coherence refer tothedegree offit different may among issue-positions, between andcorevalues, orbetween either oftheforegoing issue-positions and larger rubrics One may "conservatism"). ideological (e.g.,"liberalism," the of of coherence these items a dimension gauge degree along single (e.g., theleft-right oralong several andaccording tological dimensions, spectrum) referred toas "deductive self-defined rela(often relationships consistency"), or (aka"psychological tionships consistency"),empirical regularities (among a group ofindividuals under study).32 Ofrelevance for arethefollowing First, present purposes general points. these allrevolve around thesingle attribute ofcoherence. Second, arguments between these various ofoperationalizing coherence areenarguments ways demicfor thesimple reason that nonecan claimanysemantic (or "definiAwriter coherence onesetofoperationalizations tional") priority finding using hasjustas muchdefinitional to stand armed with ground uponas a writer another set of operationalizations. It wouldbe healthy forthe fieldto
32
The distinction between "deductive" and "psychological" is explored in consistency Nelson(1977). The bestrecent reviews ofthedebateoverhow to measure coherence areKnight (or "constraint") (1987) and Smith (1989). The dimension(1985), Luskin debate is discussed in Green andClausen (1988), Knight (1984; 1990),andWilcox ality (1991).
A Definitional Analysis Ideology: in that thetit-for-tat nature ofthedebateis,in thissense,rooted acknowledge theambiguities of"coherence." thatreplacing Needlessto say,I do not think is likelyto solve coherence or "hierarchy" with,"consistency," "'constraint," as it thisproblem definitional because,again,one is simply fiat, asserting-by were-thatone particular should be of privileged understanding togetherness above others. One way out of thisempirical and conceptualdilemmalies in finding reference appropriate comparative points.One may neverresolvewhether themembers ofthegeneral publicare,or are not,ideological.The question, in suchdichotomous admits ofa sensible answer. term, phrased hardly Surely, as Nelson (1977: 576) suggests, is moreusefully of ideological-ness thought as a matter ofdegrees-which us to thequestionofcomparative referbrings ence points.The standard reference forstudiesof themass publichas been thepolitical and answerable, elite,and thisseemsan eminently useful, question.Ifwe cannotdetermine oftheAmerican whether members publicqualify as ideologues(since such a conclusionwould be dependent upon arbitrary choicesabouthow to define we shouldat leastbe able to compare ideology), theirideological-ness withthe ideological-ness of nationalpartydelegates, and so forth. masspublicsand elites (It mayevenbe that activists, politicians, are notmoreor less,but instead, comdifferently ideological.)Crossnational Fuchs and would also seem use1990) parisons eminently (e.g., Klingemann one tojudge theideological-ness ofmass publicsvis-a-vis each ful,allowing other. within thebehavioral fieldinvolvedefinitional attributes Otherdisputes in the conceptof ideology. Neither abthatare moreambiguously situated in straction nor for are mentioned work (7e), (7c) hierarchy example, always on ideology. Evenwithin behavioral workthere is considerable disagreement aroundconcepts"ofa on theextent to whichideologuesmustbe organized ideological highorderofabstraction" (Campbellet al. 1960: 193) orwhether mustbe hierarchically ordered mostspecific to mostabidea-elements (from and Hurwitz1985). Not onlyare thesedefinitional stract) (ibid: 190; Peffley in theliterature, arealso contradicted attributes less often found bythose they who view ideologyas a largely affair or unconscious, preconscious (7p). The use ofhigh-order like liberalism and conservatism presumea selfconcepts awareness would is not that, inherently ideological.One can be many argue, to explainone'sideolfrom this without able ideological, perspective, being ogy-at leastnotin so manywords.The question"Whyareyou doingthat?" to ideologues. mayhave little meaning withmyself It mayseemthatI am arguing at cross-purposes here,sinceI to and culture to distinguish between political according attempted ideology I am not more selfconscious However, expression. against arguing ideology's 985
in definitions I am merely orhierarchy theuse ofeither abstraction ofideology; that out rest on shakier semantic than the core attribute pointing they ground and that are for this to remain Defini(coherence) reason, they likely, shaky. tionsofideology whichimpute are on (7h), as I havesuggested, sophistication runsheadlongintowell-estabevenmoretenuousground, forthisattribute lishednotions ofideology as simplicity (7n)(7k),and dogmatism (7j), distortion notto mention unconsciousness The movement to (7p). underway disentangle from (notedabove) is auspicious. sophistication ideology
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A Definitional Analysis Ideology:

Political Research Quarterly

SAMPLINGOF CONTEMPORARY DEFINITIONS

Political Research Quarterly

Political Research Quarterly

Political Research Quarterly

A Definitional Analysis Ideology:

Political Research Quarterly

A Definitional Ideology: Analysis

A Definitional Ideology: Analysis

Political Research Quarterly

Political Research Quarterly

A Definitional Ideology: Analysis

Political Research Quarterly

A Definitional Ideology: Analysis

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theambiguity ofthispoint. tionas including butacknowledges knowledge,

A Definitional Analysis Ideology:

has often beenused to indicate (m)Insincerity. Bythesametoken, ideology

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Barnes and Max Kaase,eds.,Political Action: MassParticipation in Five

Robert. 1962.Political the American Common ManBelieves Lane, Why Ideology:

Science Review 52: 27-45.

Political Science Review 406-27. (June):

Political Science 66: 478-510. American Review

Basil andCognitive Oxford: Semantics Analysis Controversy. ofIdeological

A Sociological and Mobilization: Nettl, J.P 1967.Political Analysis ofMethods

ed. 1987.The Political inEarly-Modern Pagden, Anthony, of Theory Languages

Constraint." Political 29: 871-89. Science American Journal of

Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Pocock, J.G. A. 1975.The Thought

Ideas5: 479-88. History ofthe of

American Political Science 72: 65-79. Review

1978.The Foundations Political Volume One: Skinner, Modern Quentin. of Thought.

Political Science 34 (May): 565-98. Journal of

Research Political Quarterly

andSociety. New A Vocabulary 1983.Keywords: Culture Williams, of Raymond.

Received: 5, 1996 August for Publication: 8, 1997 July Accepted 994

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