Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
FINANCIAL SYSTEM
N. Gregory Mankiw & Laurence M. Ball
CHAPTER
and the
Financial Crises 19
Modified for EC 204 by Bob Murphy
PowerPoint slides by Ron Cronovich
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Financial institution failures reduce lending banks become more conservative since more
uncertainty over borrowers ability to repay
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The fall in agg. demand worsens the financial crisis falling output lower firms expected future earnings,
reducing asset prices further falling demand for real estate reduces prices more bankruptcies and defaults increase, bank panics more likely
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Once a Financial crisis starts, it can sustain itself for a long time Crises
CASE STUDY
Over 1/3 of all banks failed by 1933, due to loan A credit crunch and uncertainty caused huge fall in
consumption and investment
Falling output magnified these problems Federal Reserve allowed money supply to fall,
creating deflation, which increased the real value of debts and increased defaults
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Purpose: to prevent the problems of an insolvent Costs of bailouts direct: use of taxpayer funds indirect: increases moral hazard, increasing
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if they are so interconnected that their failure would threaten the financial system Example: Continental Illinois Bank (1984)
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Risky Rescues
Risky loans: govt loans to institutions that may not
be repaid institutions bordering on insolvency institutions with no collateral Example: Fed loaned $85 billion to AIG (2008)
stock by the govt to increase a nearly insolvent companys capital when no one else is willing to buy the companys stock Controversy: govt ownership not consistent with free market principles; political influence
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2007-2009: stock prices dropped 55% unemployment doubled to 10% failures of large, prestigious institutions like
Lehman Brothers
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Lehman Brothers
declared bankruptcy, also due to losses on MBS Lehmans failure meant defaults on all Lehmans borrowings from other institutions, shocked the entire financial system
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Flight to safety
People sold many different kinds of assets, causing price drops, but bought Treasuries, causing their prices to rise and interest rates to fall to near zero
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The flight to safety: BAA corporate bond and 90-day T-bill rates
Financial Crises
Corporate bond interest rate Treasury bill interest rate
16
An economy in freefall
Falling stock and house prices reduced consumers
wealth, reducing their confidence and spending. bank lending fell sharply because: banks could not resell loans to securitizers banks worried about insolvency from further losses commercial paper to help bridge the gap between production costs and revenues
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subprime MBS later used for equity injections into troubled institutions result: U.S. Treasury became a major shareholder in Citigroup, Goldman Sachs, AIG, and others
The fiscal stimulus package (February 2009): tax cuts and infrastructure spending costly nearly
5% of GDP Congressional Budget Office estimates it boosted real GDP by 1.5 3.5%
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The aftermath
The financial crises eases Dow Jones stock price index rose 65% from
3/2009 to 3/2010 Many major financial institutions profitable in 2009 Some taxpayer funds used in rescues will probably never be recovered, but these costs appear small relative to the damage from the crisis
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unemployment rate (left scale) average duration of unemployment (right scale)
15 18
Dec-2007 Jan-2008 Feb-2008 Mar-2008 Apr-2008 May-2008 Jun-2008 Jul-2008 Jul-2008 Aug-2008 Sep-2008 Oct-2008 Nov-2008 Dec-2008 Jan-2009 Feb-2009 Mar-2009 Apr-2009 May-2009 Jun-2009 Jul-2009 Aug-2009
weeks
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21
24
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The aftermath
Constraints on macroeconomic policy Huge deficits from the recession and stimulus
constrain fiscal policy Monetary policy constrained by the zero-bound problem: even a zero interest rate not low enough to stimulate aggregate demand and reduce unemployment
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Reforming financial regulation: Regulating nonbank financial institutions Nonbank financial institutions (NBFIs) do not enjoy
federal deposit insurance, so were less regulated than banks regulation of NBFIs, including: greater capital requirements restrictions on risky asset holdings greater scrutiny by regulators
Reforming financial regulation: Addressing too big to fail Policymakers have been rescuing TBTF
Since the crisis, proposals to limit size of institutions to prevent them from
becoming TBTF limit scope by restricting the range of different businesses that any one firm can operate
mergers and conglomeration of financial firms, would reduce benefits from economics of scale & scope
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Reforming financial regulation: Discouraging excessive risk-taking Most economists believe excessive risk-taking is a
key cause of financial crises.
Proposals to discourage it include: requiring skin in the game firms that arrange
risky transactions must take on some of the risk reforming ratings agencies, since they underestimated the riskiness of subprime MBS reforming executive compensation to reduce incentive for executives to take risky gambles in hopes of high short-run gains
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Reforming financial regulation: Changing regulatory structure There are many different regulators, though not by
any logical design.
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CASE STUDY
a new Office of Credit Ratings will examine rating FDIC gains authority to close a nonbank financial
institution if its troubles create systemic risk sponsoring hedge funds
prohibits holding companies that own banks from requires that companies that issue certain risky
securities have skin in the game and retain at least 5% of the default risk
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Capital flight
Interest rates rise sharply when people sell bonds Exchange rates depreciate sharply when people
sell the countrys currency
country to another occurs when problems in Country A make people worry that Country B might be next, so they sell Country Bs assets and currency, causing the same problems there like a bank panic
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Crisis in Greece
Caused by rising govt debt, fear of default Asset holders sold Greek govt bonds, which
caused interest rates on those bonds to rise
pursue fiscal policy due to debt, or monetary policy due to membership in the Eurozone
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Crisis in Greece
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Jan-03 Jul-03
Greece
Germany
Jan-04 Jan-05 Jan-06 Jul-04 Jul-05
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How countries use IMF loans: govt uses to make payments on its debt central bank uses to make loans to banks central bank uses to prop up its currency in
foreign exchange markets
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SUMMARY
Financial crises begin with asset price
declines, financial institution failures, or both. A financial crisis can produce a credit crunch and reduce aggregate demand, causing a recession, which reinforces the financial crisis. institutions. Rescues range from riskless loans to institutions with liquidity crises, giveaways, risky loans, and equity injections.
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SUMMARY
Financial rescues are controversial because
of the cost to taxpayers and because they increase moral hazard: firms may take on more risk, thinking the government will bail them out if they get into trouble. evolved into a broad financial and economic crisis in the U.S. Stock prices fell, prestigious financial institutions failed, lending was disrupted, and unemployment rose to near 10%.
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SUMMARY
Financial reform proposals include: increased
regulation of nonbank financial institutions; policies to prevent institutions from becoming too big to fail; rules that discourage excessive risk-taking; and new structures for regulatory agencies.
Financial Crises