Mechanical Engineering Notes Chapter 1: Energy and Steam 1.

2 Energy and its forms Energy derived from Greek word Energia capacity for doing work. Various forms of energy kinetic energy, potential energy, internal energy etc.

1.3 Energy Sources Based on its sources, energy is divided into two types: capital energy and celestial energy. Capital Energy: Energy existing in the earth fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, heat traps. Celestial Energy: Electromagnetic, gravitational and particle energy from stars, planets and moon, and as well as the potential energy of meteorites entering the earths atmosphere.

1.4 Conventional and Nonconventional Energy Sources Conventional Energy Sources Presently most of our energy needs comes mainly from fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas and hydel sources. Since fossil fuels and hydel sources are in use over several decades, they are called conventional energy sources. Nonconventional Energy Sources Alternate inexhaustible sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, ocean thermal energy, bio energy, fuel cells etc. are nonconventional energy sources. They are alternates to non-renewable energy sources. 1.5 Reclassification of Conventional and Nonconventional Energy Sources A renewable source of energy is defined as the energy resources which are produced continuously in nature and are essentially inexhaustible at least in the time frame of human socieities. Examples include: Direct Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Hydel Energy, Ocean Thermal Energy. The nonrenewable sources of energy are defined as the energy resources which have been accumulated over the ages and not quickly replenishable when they are exhausted. Examples include fossil fuels, nuclear fuels and heat traps.

1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable energy Resources Advantages Renewable energy resources are nonexhaustible. Renewable energy resources can be matched in scale to the need and also they can deliver the energy of the quality that is required for the specific task. Some renewable energy conversion systems can be built on, or close to the site where energy is required transmission costs minimized. Diversity of renewable energy resources and technologies offer more flexibility. Except for biomass, all other forms of renewable energy are pollution free. Disadvantages The intermittent nature of the availability of energy from renewable energy resources is a major setback. Some of the renewable resources such as wind are concentrated only in certain regions. Some of the renewable energy conversion systems such as solar cells, automatic tracking systems for solar concentrators, require advanced technologies, hence costlier.

1.7 Conventional Energy Sources and their Conversion Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels are energy rich substances that have been formed from long-buried plants and micro-organisms include petroleum, coal and natural gas. Chemically they contain hydrocarbons created from the remains of ancient living organisms due to high heat and pressure from the layers of Earth. 1. Energy Conversion from Fossil Fuels The fossil fuels contain the combustible elements, carbon and hydrogen. Hence on combustion they produce heat which when is converted to mechanical energy of turbines which in turn drive electrical generators in thermal power plants to produce electrical energy. Fossil fuel cells are used to generate electricity. A typical fossil fuel cell energy conversion system is shown in the figure below. OXYGEN MEMBRANE
ALTERNAT ING CURRENT INVERTE R

FUEL PROCESSOR

HYDROGEN GAS

COAL

ANODE

WATER

DC CURRENT

A fossil fuel such as coal is used as the primary source of energy. Coal is converted into a Hydrogen-rich gas by means of a fuel processor. This Hydrogen-rich gas is then fed to the fuel cell. In the fuel cell, the hydrogen gas is channeled to the anode on one side of the fuel cell. On the other side, oxygen is channeled to the cathode side. In a proton exchange membrane, the polymer electrolyte membrane allows only the positive charged ions to pass through the cathode, while the negatively charged electrons flow to the cathode creating a DC current. This current is then converted to an AC current via the inverter. 2. Hydel Source: The rain water flowing as river can be stored to higher levels by building dams across the river and released in a controlled way to generate mechanical power. The potential energy of water stored at a heigh is converted into mechanical energy in water turbines. This mechanical energy is further converted into electrical energy by electric generators. A typical hydro-power station is shown below:

Hydro-Power Station 1.8: Nonconventional Energy Sources and their conversion The nonconventional energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal, ocean, geothermal are basically renewable energy resources. Solar and geothermal energies can be used directly for heating applications.

1.9 Solar Energy Sun is considered to be a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter continuously generating heat by thermonuclear fusion reactions which convert hydrogen atoms to helium atoms. The sun radiates energy into space at a rate of nearly 4 x 1026 watt. The total amount of energy captured over the year by the earths atmosphere and the hydrological cycle is 3.8x 1024 J. Heliochemical Process The heliochemical process is a photosynthesis process which is the source of all fossil fuels and the food on which we live today. Photosynthesis is a form of biological conversion of solar energy into chemical energy called bioenergy which will be stored in plants. The figure below shows a typical bio-gas plant.

Bio-Gas Plant Helioelectrical Process In the helioelectrical process, using the principle of photovoltaic effect, the solar energy is directly converted into electrical energy. Principle of conversion of solar energy into electrical energy In an ordinary copper wire, the copper atoms have electrons that are free to move from atom to atom. In an ideal state, the semiconductor materials are insulators and they have no free electrons. But if very small amount of impurities such as antimony, arsenic or phosphorus are present in semiconductor materials, a few free electrons are produced that can move and form an electric current.

A solar cell consists of a n-type semiconductor (silicon for example) and a p-type semiconductor (boron or gallium). In a p-n junction, free electrons from n-side tend to diffuse into p-side where they readily recombine because of the very large hole concentration. Similarly all holes from pside of the junction diffuse into n-side to p-side leaving a net positive charge behind in the n-side of the junction. This charge distribution gives rise to an electric field and hence a potential difference across a junction. The photons absorbed at the p-n junction will have high energy to dislodge an electron from the fixed position in the material and gives it enough energy to move freely in the material. The ejected free electron and the holde form an electron-hole pair. P-region becomes positively charged and n-region becomes negatively charged. If an external load is applied, this charge difference will drive a current through it. Heliothermal Process In heliothermal process, the radiant solar energy falling on the surface placed on the earth in the form of visible light is converted directly into thermal energy. The surfaces on which the rays fall are called collectors. There are two types of collectors: flat plate and focusing. Flat plate collectors: A blackened sheet of metal is used to absorb all the sunlight, direct, diffuse and terrestrially reflected. A sheet of metal coated in black has the property of absorbing the sunlight falling on it and convert it into heat. The heat generated in the sheet of metal is subsequently transferred to other fluids like air, water, etc. A flat-plate collector is shown in the diagram below:

Focusing plate collectors: A mirror or a lens system is used to increase the intensity of solar radiation. Generally parabolic reflectors of either cylindrical shape or spherical shape are employed to focus the incident radiation. Focusing collectors may be used for high temperature heating. A figure of focusing collectors is provided below:

Parabolic Focusing Collector 1.10: Wind Energy Wind energy is defined as the kinetic energy associated with the movement of large masses of air over the earths surface. The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by non-uniform heating of the earths surface by the sun. The air immediately above a warm area expands and becomes less dense. It is then forced upwards by a cool denser air which flows in from surrounding areas causing a wind. Wind Energy Conversion A windmill is the oldest device built to convert the wind energy into mechanical energy. A schematic diagram of a windmill is shown in the figure below:

Windmill schematic diagram When wind hits the blades of a windmill, the kinetic energy of the wind is converted into mechanical energy of the blades. The mechanical energy of the blades is later converted to rotational energy of the low-speed shaft. The rotational energy of the low speed shaft is then converted into the rotational energy of the high-speed shaft. Finally, the rotational energy of the shaft is converted to electrical energy via the use of a generator. 1.2: Ocean Thermal Energy The solar energy that is absorbed and stored as heat by the oceans represents a very large potential source of energy. The difference in temperature between the surface and the deep ocean waters can be used to generate mechanical energy which can be converted into electrical energy. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion The technically feasible ocean thermal energy conversion plant successfully built works on the principle of closed cycle system as shown in the figure below. The plant uses a low boiling point working fluid such as ammonia. The plant consists of a turbine-generator mounted on a floating platform, an evaporator, a condenser and a pump. The warm ocean water flows through an evaporator in which the liquid ammonia is evaporated. The ammonia vapors at high pressure flows from the evaporator to a turbine where it expands and runs the turbine. The low pressure ammonia is then passed to a condenser where it is condensed into liquid ammonia. The liquid ammonia is then pumped back to the evaporator and the cycle repeats.

Ocean Thermal Power Plant Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is the thermal energy that occurs naturally within the earth. The molten interior within the earth contains vast quantities of thermal energy. Steam geyser and hot water springs occur where the rock is sufficiently permeable or fractured to permit water to find its way to the surface. At the locations where natural geyser and springs dont occur, the geothermal energy can be mined by drilling down into a hot underground aquifier. The heat from the hot impermeable rocks can be extracted by fracturing rocks at depth and then pumping water through the fissure. A typical diagram of a geothermal power plant is shown below:

Geothermal Energy Nuclear Energy Nuclear energy is the chemical energy released during the splitting or fusing of atomic nuclei. A nuclear reaction involves changes in the structure of the nucleus. As a result of such changes, the nucleus gains or loses one or more neutrons or protons, and release useful amounts of energy. Fission Process: Nuclear fission involves splitting the nucleus of heavy atoms, like uranium or plutonium in a controlled nuclear chain reaction. During fission heat is released and this can be used to generate high pressure steam to drive turbo-generators and produce electricity. A typical diagram of a nuclear power plant is provided below.

Nuclear Power Plant

Properties of steam
1.16: Properties of Steam A perfect gas does not change its phase during a thermodynamic process. However, a pure substance which is a homogenous substance retains its chemical composition even though it undergoes a change in phase during a thermodynamic process. Water is a pure substance, which can exist in solid, liquid and gaseous state. Steam is defined as vapor of water and is obtained by heating water beyond its boiling temperature (100 degrees Celsius). The important properties of steam are: pressure, temperature, specific volume, enthalpy, internal energy and entropy. 1.17Formation of Steam at Constant Pressure Consider 1 kg of water at 0 C take in a cylinder fitted with a freely moving frictionless piston as shown in the figure below. A chosen weight is placed over the piston so that the total weight of the piston and the chosen weight exert the required constant pressure p on the water. The condition of water at 0 C is represented by the point A on the temperature-enthalpy graph as shown in the figure below. The temperature at which the water boils depends on the pressure acting on it. This temperature is called as saturation temperature which is defined as the temperature at which the water begins to boil at the stated pressure. Sensible heat: Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water from 0C to the saturation temperature Ts at a given constant pressure. It is also called the enthalpy of the liquid.

Latent heat of evaporation: Amount of heat required to evaporate 1kg of water at saturation temperature Ts to 1kg of dry steam at the same saturation temperature at given constant pressure. Enthalpy of superheat: The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of dry steam from its saturation temperature to any desired higher temperature at given constant pressure. 1.18: Different States of Steam Wet steam When the water is heated beyond the saturation state at constant pressure it starts evaporating. The steam evolving from the surface of the water entrains finely divided water molecules in it. Wet steam: Two-phase mixture of entrained water molecules and steam in thermal equilibrium at the saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure. Dryness Fraction of steam: Ratio of mass of the actual dry steam present in a known quantity of wet steam to the total mass of wet steam. Mg = mass of dry steam present in the sample quantity of wet steam Mf = mass of suspended water molecules in the sample quantity of wet steam Dryness fraction x = Mass of Dry Steam present in Wet Steam Total mass of wet steam

Dry Saturated Steam A saturated steam at the saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure and having no water molecules entrained. Since the dry saturated steam does not contain any water molecules in it, its dryness fraction would be unity. Superheated Steam The steam which is heated beyond its dry saturated temperatures to temperatures higher than its saturated temperature at the given pressure. Enthalpy of Steam: Sum of the internal energy and the product of the pressure and volume. H = u + pv For constant pressure, the amount of heat supplied to water to convert into steam is equal to the change in enthalpy.

Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam Total amount of heat supplied at a given constant pressure to convert 1 kg of water into 1 kg of dry saturated steam at its saturation temperature. It is denoted as hg and will be equal to sum of the sensible heat hf and the latent heat evaporation hfg. Enthalpy of Wet Steam Total amount of heat supplied at constant pressure to convert 1kg of water at 0C to 1kg of wet steam at the specified dryness fraction. It is denoted as h and will be equal to the sum of the sensible heat and the product of the dryness fraction and the latent heat of evaporation. h = hf + xhfg , where x is the dryness fraction Enthalpy of superheated steam Total amount of heat supllied at a given constant pressure to convert 1kg of water at 0C into 1kg of superheated steam at the stated superheated temperature. It is denoted as hsup and will be equal to sum of the enthalpy of dry saturated steam and the amount of superheat. hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup Ts) kJ/kg where Tsup = superheated temperature Ts = saturated temperature Cps = specific heat of superheated steam 1.20: Specific Volume Specific volume of saturated water Volume occupied by 1kg of water at the saturation temperature at a given pressure denoted by Vf. Specific volume of dry saturated steam Volume occupied by 1kg of dry saturated steam at a given pressure denoted by Vg. Specific volume of wet steam When the steam is wet, its specific volume will be equal to the sum of the volume occupied by the dried up portion the steam in 1 kg of wet steam and the volume occupied by the entrained water molecules in the same 1kg of wet steam. V= xvg + (1 - x)vf Specific volume of superheated steam Volume occupied by 1kg of superheated steam at a given pressure and superheated temperature denoted by vsup. Vsup = vg Tsup Ts

1.21: External Work of Evaporation The fraction of the latent heat of vaporization which does an external work is called external work of evaporation. External work of evaporation per kg of dry saturated steam = p(vg vf) External work of evaporation per kg of dry saturated steam = pvg External work of evaporation per kg of wet steam = pxvg External work of evaporation per kg of superheated steam = pvsup 1.22: Internal Latent Heat Energy required to change the phase is called true latent heat or internal latent heat. Internal heat of dry saturated steam = (hfg pvg) 1.23: Internal Energy of Steam Internal energy of the steam is defined as the difference between the enthalpy of the steam and the external work of evaporation. Internal energy of dry steam: ug = hg - pvg Internal energy of wet steam: u = hf + xhfg - pxvg Internal energy of superheated steam: usup = hsup - pvsup