TRAINING REPORT

SIGNALLING AND TELECOMMUNICATION WORK IN INDIAN RAILWAYS

SUBMITTED BY:SAURABH PARASHAR ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ROORKEE, (2014 BATCH)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that SAURABH PARASHAR, a III year student of Electrical and Electronics branch from College of Engineering Roorkee had completed a 6 week training with Northern Eastern Railways (NER) in the following modules:-

i) ii) iii)

Basics of signaling Solid State Interlocking Microwave Communication

During this period she showed keen interest in every field. We wish him success for his future.

Date: - 11 July 2013

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement Abstract Introduction Module 1-Basics of signaling Role Of Signaling In Railway Operation Signalling Concepts Fixed Signals, Aspects & Indications Designation Of Signals Location Of Signals Axle Counter Module 2-Solid State Interlocking Introduction A Whistle-stop Tour of Railway Signaling Operation of Solid State Interlocking Overall System Architecture Generic SSI Software Module 3-Microwave Communication Introduction History of Telegraphic Signals Origin of Microwave Signals Microwave Communication Satellites Generation and Frequency Bands of Microwave Signals Microwave and Waveguides Uses of Microwave Signals

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Behind the completion of any successful work there lies the contribution of not one but many individuals who may have directly or indirectly contributed to it.

I first of all take the opportunity to thank NORTH EAST RAILWAYS (NER) for providing me this valuable opportunity to work and learn with them. During this training period everyone there had helped me in every possible way they can.
.

I am also thankful to my parents, my friends and colleagues for their invaluable support. A special note of thanks many of the railway personals for their help and suggestions.

SAURABH PARASHAR

ABSTRACT

This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from theoretical computer science may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior of the devices computer systems engineering practice seeks to put in place, and that this is immediately attainable with the present state of the art. The focus for this detailed study is provided by the type of solid state signaling and various communication systems currently being deployed throughout mainline railways. Safety and system reliability concerns dominate in this domain. With such motivation, two issues are tackled: the special problem of software quality assurance in these data-driven control systems, and the broader problem of design dependability. In the former case, the analysis is directed towards proving safety properties of the geographic data which encode the control logic for the railway interlocking; the latter examines the fidelity of the communication protocols upon which the distributed control system depends.

INTRODUCTION
Signaling is one of the most important aspects of Railway communication. In the very early days of the railways there was no fixed signaling to inform the driver of the state of the line ahead. Trains were driven on sight. But several unpleasant incidents accentuated the need for an efficient signaling system. Earliest system involved the Time Interval technique. Here time intervals were imposed between trains mostly around 10 mins. But due to the frequent breakdown of trains in those days this technique resulted in rear-end collisions. This gave rise to the fixed signaling system wherein the track was divided into fixed sections and each section was protected by a fixed signaling. This system is still being continued although changes have been brought about in the basic signaling methods. Earlier mechanical signals were used but today block signaling is through electric instruments. In the mid-19th century mechanical interlocking was used. The purpose was to prevent the route for a train from being set up and its protecting signal cleared if there was already another conflicting route setup. The most modern development in signal interlocking is SSI- a means of controlling the safety requirements at junctions using electronic circuits which replaced the relay systems supplied up to that time. In Indian Railways, first trial installation of SSI was provided at Srirangam station in 1987. Nowadays Track Circuits are used wherein the current flow in the track circuit will be interrupted by the presence of wheels and a stop signal will be shown. A proceed signal will be displayed if the current flows.

Module 1 BASICS OF SIGNAL ENGINEERING

ROLE OF SIGNALLING IN RAILWAY OPERATION

Railway Signaling and Communication Technology, though evolved primarily for safe working of trains plays an important part in increasing line capacity with minimum investment. With the advent of computers and extended communication network on the Railways, the scope of Signaling Technology has widened to incorporate even automatic operation. The broad areas of Railway Signaling and Communication Technology are: Block Working Trains are to be adequately spaced apart to prevent collision between trains running in the same direction and prevent trains entering on the same track from the opposite direction. This is achieved by block working between stations.

Interlocking
When trains are to be crossed or overtaken at stations, points and signals are to be worked in proper sequence to make passage of trains safe and interlocking between points and signals takes care of this.

 Train Detection
Track circuits can detect the presence of a train on a portion of track or axle counters and this information is used for controlling the signal, which in turn controls the train movements.

Automatic Warning System

As an aid to the driver to know the condition of the signal and to prevent accidents when the driver ignores the aspect of a stop signal, Automatic Warning System is employed.

Centralized Traffic Control and Remote Control

Economy is achieved and efficiency is increased by centralizing operation of points and Signals over a large area or a stretch of line. Remote stations are controlled from a central Location over a pair of lines using coded techniques.

Train Describer
The designation and number of trains in a section or line can be displayed to the central Control office so that the controller is aware of the position and designation of each train over the Section monitored by him.

SIGNALLING CONCEPTS
INTRODUCTION
Railway vehicles move on Steel Rail Track and are provided with flanged steel wheels. The rolling of the steel wheel on steel rail has the least friction and it is, therefore, one of the most efficient means of locomotion It also involves following things:

Control over movement of Trains Time Interval Method Space Interval Method
Signals

A "Signal", therefore, is a medium to convey a particular pre-determined meaning in nonverbal form. Various methods are used to convey the meaning by "Signals" in a non-verbal form as are used by Scouts, Policemen, road signs, Navy and Air Traffic Control, etc., which convey a definite information. The chart below gives the various forms that could be adopted.

FIXED SIGNALS, ASPECTS & INDICATIONS

In previous section, a mention was made about the use of different types of visual and audible signals, for controlling the movement of trains in all cases. No exceptions are allowed by Approved special Instructions in the following: (a) Fixed Signals (b) Hand Signals (c) Detonating Signals (d) Flare Signals

Multiple Aspect Upper Quadrant Signaling Stop Signal

It has been mentioned in previous para that the semaphore arm can be made to assume a midway position above horizontal and also another position in parallel with the extended line of the post on the left hand Upper Quadrant. In this way, it is possible to obtain more than 2 aspects in the Upper Quadrant region and hence, it is called "Multiple Aspect (more than 2 aspects) "Upper Quadrant" signaling as distinct from "two aspect Lower Quadrant Signaling".

Distant Signal
When a driver approaches the first stop signal he should be warned about its condition. Therefore, a signal similar to the Warner Signal in the 2-aspect signaling is also a necessity in Multiple Aspect Upper Quadrant signaling. This pre-warning signal is called a "DISTANT" signal. The term `Distant' is used here, as this is the farthest signal from the station on the approach side. The semaphore arm will have 3 positions - horizontal, 45

degrees above horizontal and 90 degrees above horizontal.

Multiple Aspect Colour Light Signals

Instead of having an arm by day and light by night it is preferable to have only lights as signals for both day and night and such signals are called Colour Light Signals. These are mainly used in busy suburban sections and main trunk routes, as these require electric power to operate them. Use of colour light signals is essential in the Electrified sections. Some of the advantages of Colour Light Signals over the semaphore signals are: (a) The day and night aspects are the same, therefore no confusion to the Driver. (b) The visibility can be obtained for longer range and the natural background adds to improve the visibility; especially it is excellent in the nights. (c) The signals are placed at driver's eye level. (d) The drooping of signal arm due to snow or external force is completely eliminated. (e) A combination of 4 aspects can be obtained.

(f) No mechanical transmission, no moving parts, so no wear and tear, and long range of operation are feasible.

(g) No kerosene is required and no necessity to depend on operating Staff for lighting lamps.

DESIGNATION OF SIGNALS
At a block station it is obligatory to provide certain number of signals for controlling the movements of trains. There we require some signals to deal with the trains approaching the station and some to deal with departure of trains from the station. When more than one stop signals are used a difficulty to identify them from each other will arise. Hence it is necessary to give some name to these signals. SIGNALS FOR RECEPTION: Signals, which are governing the approach and entry of trains into a station, are:

(a) PERMISSIVE SIGNALS:

A "WARNER' in case of 2-Aspect signaling can be placed below the first stop signal or below the Last Stop Signal or can be on a post by itself with fixed green light above. It is to warn the driver that he is approaching a stop signal or to warn him about the condition of block section ahead. In multiple aspects signaling a "DISTANT" signal is provided to indicate the driver about the condition of the stop signal ahead. If the sectional speed is 120 KMPH or above, two "DISTANT" signals shall be provided. In such cases, these signals are called DISTANT and INNER DISTANT respectively.

(b) STOP SIGNALS:

Minimum one permissive and one stop signal is sufficient for trains approaching a station. When stop signal is taken 'OFF' it permits the train to enter the station, this is called "HOME" signal of the station. At a station where two stop signals are provided in the approach, the first one shall be called "OUTER' and the next shall be "HOME". In some

cases where the distance between the Home signal and the Reception lines of the station is far away, one more stop signal may be provided, as One Home signal will not be sufficient to facilitate the reception. So a stop signal provided between Home and the Reception lines shall be called a ROUTING HOME". SIGNALS FOR DEPARTURE OF TRAINS: At the departure end of the station, the stop signals controlling the movement of trains leaving the station are:

(a) STARTER SIGNAL:

Where the departure of trains is controlled by only one stop signal, it is called Starter Signal and is the Last Stop Signal of the station. If two or more converging lines are there, the Starter shall be placed outside all connections on the line to which it refers. Where advanced starter is also provided, the starter referring to any line is placed so as to protect the facing point or fouling mark and shall not be less than 400m in advance of the Home signal.

(b) ADVANCED STARTER:

Where departure of trains is controlled by more than one Stop Signal, the Outer most starter signal shall be the Last Stop Signal of the station and is called "Advanced Starter". Unless approved under special instructions an "Advanced Starter" shall be placed outside all connections on the line to which it applies. It shall be placed at not less than 180m in the case of two aspect and 120m in multiple aspects signaling from the outermost point on single line and outside all connection. This distance shall be reckoned from the starter on double line. On special nominated sections where frequent shunting involving main line takes place the "Advanced Starter" signal may be placed at a distance of full train length beyond the trailing point and the track between trailing point and the advance starter

shall be track circuited. Where an advanced starter is provided, the starter referring to any line shall be placed so as to protect the first facing point or fouling mark; and shall not be less than 400m in advance of Home Signal.

(c) INTERMEDIATE/ROUTING STARTER:

Intermediate Starter is provided between starter & advanced starter where necessary, and is placed in rear of the point, which it protects.

LOCATION OF SIGNALS
Signal must be so located and aligned as to display the best possible view of their aspects to the driver of approaching train and shall avoid as far as possible the possibility of mistaking the aspect of one signal for the aspect of another, or confusion between the lights of running signals and the lights of subsidiary signals or any other lights. Signals should be normally on the left hand side or above the line to which they apply, unless there are special reasons to the contrary. All signal arms must be fixed on the left-hand side of the post. The other important considerations in locating the signals are that they should afford the required sighting distances and it should be possible to work or operate them efficiently, and should not infringe the schedule of dimensions. None of these considerations can be compromised. Signals should be so designed, failure of which shall assume the most restrictive aspect. It shall be noted that the adequate distances prescribed in these rules are minimum they may suitably be increased but not decreased, unless authorized by special instructions.

AXLE COUNTER
Axle counters and track circuits
Track circuits are used to identify the presence of a train in particular section of a track and protect against accidents occurring on account of two trains moving to the same section of the railway track. Track circuits use various techniques and axle counting is one of them. Axle counter counts axles. It counts axles in and out of section. If axles in not equal to axles out then section occupied. When a train goes past the entry end detector in counts are recorded and at that moment as the train has not got past the exit end detector there is an IN. Earlier Axle counters only monitored the amplitude of the signal from detectors. Present versions monitor both amplitude and phase. This gives additional discrimination between presence and absence of wheels. Detection of Direction: Detection of direction of movement is important and it is done by having two detectors adjacent to each other. Depending on the direction of movement the sequence of dips of the two detectors changes.

MODULE 2
SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

INTRODUCTION

Solid State Interlocking is a data-driven signal control system designed for use throughout the British railway system. SSI is a replacement for electromechanical interlocking---which is based on highly reliable relay technology---and has been designed with a view to modularity, improved flexibility in serving the needs of a diversity of rail traffic, and greater economy. The hugely complex relay circuitry found in many modern signalling installations is expensive to install, difficult to modify, and requires extensive housing---but the same functionality can be achieved with a relatively small number of interconnected solid state elements as long as they are individually sufficiently reliable. SSI has been designed to be compatible with current signalling practice and principles of interlocking design, and to maintain the operator's perception of the behavior and appearance of the control system.

A WHISTLE-STOP TOUR OF RAILWAY SIGNALING

Railway signaling engineers face a difficult distributed control problem. Train drivers can know little of the overall topology of the network through which they pass, or of the whereabouts of other trains in the network and their requirements. Safety is therefore invested in the control system, or interlocking, and drivers are required only to obey signals and speed limits. The task of the train dispatcher (signalman, or signal operator) is to adjust the setting of switches and signals to permit or inhibit traffic flow, but the interlocking has to be designed to protect the operator from

The network can be operated with more security and efficiency if the operators have a broad overview of the railway and the distribution of trains. Since the introduction of mechanical interlocking in the late 1800's, and as the technology has gradually improved, the tendency has therefore been for control to become progressively centralized with fewer signal control canters individually responsible for larger portions of the network. In the last decade Solid State Interlocking has introduced computer controlled signaling, but the task of designing a safe interlocking remains essentially unchanged.

At the signal control centre a control panel displays the current distribution of trains in the network, the current status of {signals}, and sometimes that of point switches (points) and other signaling equipment. The railway layout is depicted schematically on the panel.

OPERATION OF SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

There are seven (three aspect) main signals shown here, and three sets of points. It is British Rail's practice to associate routes only with main signals. The operator can select a route by pressing the button at the entrance signal (say, S7), then pressing the button at the exit signal---the consecutive main signal, being the entrance signal for the next route (S5). This sequence of events is interpreted as a panel route request, and is forwarded to the controlling computer for evaluation. Other panel requests arise from the points keys which are used to manually call (and hold) the points to the specified position or from button pull events (to cancel a route by pulling the entrance signal button).

Figure: Signals (Si) on the control panel appear on the left to the direction of travel, each signal has a lamp indicator, and each main signal has a button. Switches (points, Pi) show the normal position, and there is usually a points key on the panel so one can throw the points `manually'. Lamps illuminate those track sections (Ti) over which routes are locked (white), and those in which there are trains (red).

When the controlling computer receives a panel route request it evaluates the availability conditions specified for the route. These conditions are given in a database by Geographic Data which the control program evaluates in its on-going dialogue with the network. If the availability conditions are met the system responds by highlighting the track sections along the selected route on the display (otherwise the request is simply discarded). At this point the route is said to be locked: no conflicting route should be locked concurrently, and a property of the interlocking we should certainly verify is that no conflicting route can be locked concurrently. Once a route is locked the interlocking will automatically set the route. Firstly, this involves calling the points along the route into correct alignment. Secondly, the route must be proved---this includes checking that points are correctly aligned, that the filaments in the signal lamps are drawing current, and that signals controlling conflicting routes are on (i.e., red). Finally, the entrance signal can be switched off when the route is clear of other traffic---a driver approaching the signal will see it change from red to some less restrictive aspect (green, yellow, etc.), and an indicator on the control panel will be illuminated to notify the operators. The operation of Solid State Interlocking is organized around the concept of a polling cycle. During this period the controlling computer will exchange messages with each piece of signaling equipment to which it is attached. An outgoing command telegram will drive the track-side equipment to the desired state, and an incoming data telegram will report the current state of the device. Signaling equipment is interfaced with the SSI communications system through track-side functional modules. A points module will report whether the switch is detected normal or detected reverse depending on which, if either, of the electrical contacts in the switch is closed. A signal

module will report the status of the lamp proving circuit in the signal: if no current is flowing through the lamp filaments the lamp proving input in the data telegram will warn the signal operators about the faulty signal.

Other than conveying status information about points and signals, track-side functional modules report the current positions of trains. These are inferred from track circuit inputs to the modules. Track circuits are identified with track sections which are electrically insulated from one another. If the low voltage applied across the rails can be detected, this indicates there is no train in the section; a train entering the section will short the circuit causing the voltage to drop and the track section will be recorded as occupied at the control centre. Track circuits are simple, fail-safe devices, and one of the primary safety features of the railway. All actions performed by Solid State Interlocking---whether in response to periodic inputs from the track-side equipment, a periodic panel requests, or in preparing outgoing command telegrams---are governed by rules given in the Geographic Data that configure each Interlocking different.

OVERALL SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

SSI is a multicomputer system with two panel processors, a diagnostic processor, and three central interlocking processors which operate in repairable triple modular redundancy. Higherorder control devices such as route planning and automatic route setting computers are not part of SSI, but they can be interfaced with the system. The central interlocking processors are responsible for executing all signaling commands and producing correct system outputs, and operate in TMR to ensure high availability and single fault tolerance in the presence of occasional hardware faults. These are the safety critical elements of SSI. A TMR system has been implemented for hardware reliability: each subsystem is identical, and runs identical software. All outputs are voted upon, redundantly in each interlocking processor, and the system is designed so that a module will be disconnected in the event of a majority vote against it---SSI will continue to operate as long as the outputs of the remaining modules are in agreement. A replacement module is updated by the two functioning modules before being allowed online. (In the sequel we usually refer to the central interlocking processors collectively as the SSI, or the Interlocking.) The panel processors are responsible for tasks which are not safety critical such as interfacing with the signal control panel, the display, and other systems such as automatic route setting computers. These processors are run in duplex `hot standby' for reasons of availability. The diagnostic processor is accessible from a maintenance terminal (the technician's

console) through which the system's performance and fault status can be monitored, and whereby temporary restrictions on the Interlocking's behavior can be introduced. In the latter case this is a provision for temporarily barring routes, locking points, or imposing other restrictions that are not directly under the control of the signal operators (for example, at times when there is a need for track maintenance). A central feature of SSI is that the controlling computer is directly connected to track-side equipment by means of a duplex data highway carrying discrete signalling information. Track-side functional modules (TFMs) interface with signals and points to provide power switching under microprocessor control. Here, duplication of the hardware has been designed to ensure safe response to failures, but not fault masking: the TFM will set its outputs to the most restrictive state (e.g., signals at red) whenever a fault is detected or the duplicated control paths are found to diverge. One points module may be connected to two to four point switches, and can report up to four track circuit inputs. A signal module is usually connected to one signal and several nearby track circuits, but is flexible enough for any other desired function.

Figure: Schematic overview of the main features of SSI.

The operation of Solid State Interlocking is organized around the concept of a major cycle. During this period the central interlocking will address each of the track-side functional modules, and expect a reply from each in turn. A maximum of 63 TFMs can be connected to one SSI, and the major cycle is consequently divided into 64 minor cycles. In the zeroth cycle data are exchanged with the diagnostic processor. In each minor cycle the central interlocking will decode one incoming message (or data telegram) from the data highway, and process one outgoing command telegram. The cable conveying messages to and from the central interlocking is a screened twisted pair carrying relatively high signal levels. Cribbens discusses in detail the performance requirements for this vital component of the system: the minimum refresh rate for the TFMs, the necessity of real-time encoding and decoding of transmitted data, the geographic extent of the interlocking area and the need for an acceptable range without the need for repeaters (circa 15 km), are all factors that contribute to the design. A data rate of 20k bits per second has been adopted, and a cyclic polling strategy

implemented to ensure early detection of communications breakdown at either end of the link. The data path is duplicated and TFMs and central interlocking are designed to tolerate single faults on the line---detected through missed or corrupted messages. In each addressing cycle 25 bits of message data are padded with five parity bits to form a truncated (31,26) Hamming code which is transmitted in Manchester encoded biphase form. TFMs are configured to reply immediately upon receipt of a message from the central interlocking. Cribbens argues convincingly that the SSI transmission system is highly secure.

GENERIC SSI SOFTWARE

SSI has been designed to be data-driven with a generic program operating on rules held in a `geographic' database. These data configure each SSI installation differently, and define the specific interlocking functions (although the more primitive functions are directly supported by the software). The relationship between generic program and the data is one in which the former acts as an interpreter for the latter---for this reason we usually refer to the generic software as the control interpreter in the sequel. The Motorola 6800 microprocessors used in SSI have a 16-bit address space: 60---80k bytes are EPROM which hold the generic program (about 20k bytes), and the Geographic Data; 2k bytes are RAM, and the rest is used for input and output devices. The modest RAM is used, mainly, to hold the system's record of the state of the railway--generally referred to as the image of the railway, or the internal state in the sequel. All SSI software is organized on a cyclic basis with the major cycle determining the rate at which track-side equipment receive fresh commands, and the rate at which the image of the railway is updated. During one minor cycle the generic program: performs all redundancy management, self-test and error recovery procedures; updates system (software) timers and exchanges data with external devices such as panel processors; decodes one incoming data telegram and processes an associated block of Geographic Data; and processes the data associated with one outgoing command telegram. The latter phase is the most computational intensive part of the standard minor cycle because it is through these data that the Interlocking calculates the correct signal aspects.

The SSI minor cycle has a minimum duration of 9.5 ms, and a minimum major cycle time of 608 ms. However, SSI can operate reliably with a major cycle of up to 1,000 ms, with an individual minor cycle extensible to 30 ms. This flexibility is needed for handling panel requests. If the required minor cycle processes mentioned above can be completed in under the minimum minor cycle time, the control interpreter will process one of any pending panel requests (which are stored in a ring buffer). The data associated with a panel request must not require more than a further 20 ms of processing time---the data are structured such that accurate timing predictions can be made at compile time. If the minor cycle is too long the trackside functional modules will interpret the gaps between messages as data link faults, and will drive the equipment to the safe state in error.

The initialization software compares the internal state of each of the three interlocking processors to determine the required start up procedure. When power is first applied a `mode 1' startup is necessary: this sets the internal state to a (designated) safe configuration, forces all output telegrams to drive the track-side equipment to the safe state and disables processing of panel requests; after a suitable delay so that TFM inputs can bring the internal state up to date, the Interlocking can be enabled under supervision from the technician's console. After a short power failure much of the contents of RAM will have been preserved and a `mode 2' or `mode 3' start up is appropriate. A `mode 2' start up resets the internal state to the safe configuration but preserves any restrictions that had been applied through the technician's console---the system is disabled for a period long enough for all trains to come to a halt, and allowed to restart normal operation automatically. A `mode 3' start up involves a similar reset but the status of routes is also preserved, and the system restarts immediately.

Module 3
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION
The international telecommunications system relies on microwave and satellite links for long-distance international calls. Cable links are increasingly made of optical fibers. The capacity of these links is enormous. The TDRS-C (tracking and data-relay satellite communications) satellite, the worlds largest and most complex satellite can transmit in a single second the contents of a 20-volume encyclopedia, with each volume containing 1,200 pages of 2,000 words. A bundle of optical fibers, no thicker than a finger, can carry 10,000 phone calls more than a copper wire as thick as an arm. Microwave image of 3C353 galaxy at 8.4 GHz (36 mm).

HISTORY OF TELEGRAPHIC SIGNALS

Telegraph operators in a cable room during the late 1950s or early 1960s. At this time, telegrams were encoded as perforations on tape. The tape was fed into a machine that read the perforations and sent them as signals down a land line. A receiver at the far end reprocessed the message back onto tape. A telephone operator would then ring the intended recipient and read out the message. A telegraph receiver invented by the British physicist Charles Wheatstone in about 1840. In addition to the telegraph, Wheatstone also invented the rheostat (variable electrical resistor), and carried out experiments in underwater telegraphy. He also invented the concertina and the symposium, a chromatic mouth organ. Communications over a distance, generally by electronic means. Long-distance voice communication was pioneered in 1876 by Scottish scientist Alexander Graham Bell when he invented the telephone. The telegraph, radio, and television followed. Today it is possible to communicate internationally by telephone cable or by satellite or microwave link, with over 100,000 simultaneous conversations and several television channels being carried by the latest satellites.

ORIGIN OF MICROWAVE SIGNALS

The first mechanical telecommunications systems were semaphore and the heliograph (using flashes of sunlight), invented in the mid-19th century, but the forerunner of the present telecommunications age was the electric telegraph. The earliest practicable telegraph instrument was invented by William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in Britain in 1837 and used by railway companies. In the USA, Samuel Morse invented a signalling code, Morse code, which is still used, and a recording telegraph, first used commercially between England and France in 1851.

Following German physicist Heinrich Hertzs discovery of electromagnetic waves, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi pioneered a wireless telegraph, ancestor of the radio. He established wireless communication between England and France in 1899 and across the Atlantic in 1901. The modern telegraph uses teleprinters to send coded messages along telecommunications lines. Telegraphs are keyboard-operated machines that transmit a five-unit Baudot code (see baud). The receiving teleprinter automatically prints the received message. The modern version of the telegraph is e-mail in which text messages are sent electronically from computer to computer via network connections such as the Internet.

MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION SATTELITES

The chief method of relaying long-distance calls on land is microwave radio transmission. The drawback to long-distance voice communication via microwave radio transmission is that the transmissions follow a straight line from tower to tower, so that over the sea the system becomes impracticable. A solution was put forward in 1945 by the science fiction writer Arthur C Clarke, when he proposed a system of communications satellites in an orbit 35,900 km/22,300 mi above the Equator, where they would circle the Earth in exactly 24 hours, and thus appear fixed in the sky. Such a system is now in operation internationally, by Intelsat. The satellites are called geostationary satellites. The first to be successfully launched, by Delta rocket from Cape Canaveral, was Syncoms 2 in July 1963. Many such satellites are now in use, concentrated over heavy traffic areas such as the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans.

A general microwave set

GENERATION AND FREQUENCY BANDS OF MICROWAVE SIGNALS

Microwaves can be generated by a variety of means, generally divided into two categories: solid state devices and vacuumtube based devices. Solid state microwave devices are based on semiconductors such as silicon or gallium arsenide, and include field-effect transistors (FET's), bipolar junction transistors (BJT's), Gunn diodes, and IMPATT diodes. Specialized versions of standard transistors have been developed for higher speeds which are commonly used in microwave applications. Microwave variants of BJT's include the heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT), and microwave variants of FET's include the MESFET, the HEMT (also known as HFET), and LDMOS transistor. Vacuum tube based devices operate on the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron, klystron, traveling wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from approximately 1 GHz to 1000 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range.

Microwave Frequency Bands are defined in the table below:

Frequency range 1 to 2 GHz 2 to 4 GHz 4 to 8 GHz 8 to 12 GHz 12 to 18 GHz 18 to 26 GHz 26 to 40 GHz 30 to 50 GHz 40 to 60 GHz 50 to 75 GHz 60 to 90 GHz 75 to 110 GHz 90 to 140 GHz 110 to 170 GHz

Designation L band S band C band X band Ku band K band Ka band Q band U band V band E band W band F band D band

MICROWAVE AND WAVEGUIDES

Waveguide, device that controls the propagation of an electromagnetic wave so that the wave is forced to follow a path defined by the physical structure of the guide. Waveguides, which are useful chiefly at microwave frequencies in such applications as connecting the output amplifier of a radar set to its antenna, typically take the form of rectangular hollow metal tubes but have also been built into integrated circuits. A waveguide of a given dimension will not propagate electromagnetic waves lower than a certain frequency (the cutoff frequency). Generally speaking, the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave have a number of possible arrangements when the wave is traveling through a waveguide. Each of these arrangements is known as a mode of propagation. Waveguides also have some use at optical frequencies. In physics, optics, and telecommunication, a waveguide is an inhomogeneous (structured) material medium that confines and guides a propagating electromagnetic wave. In the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, a waveguide normally consists of a hollow metallic conductor, usually rectangular, elliptical, or circular in cross section. This type of waveguide may, under certain conditions, contain a solid or gaseous dielectric material. In the optical region, a waveguide used as a long transmission line consists of a solid dielectric filament (optical fiber), usually circular in cross section. In integrated optical circuits an optical waveguide may consist of a thin dielectric film.

In the radio frequency region, ionized layers of the stratosphere and refractive surfaces of the troposphere may also act as an atmospheric waveguide. In digital computing, the term waveguide can also be used for data buffers used as delay lines that simulate physical waveguide behavior, such as in digital waveguide synthesis.

Propagation in rectangular and circular waveguides Waveguide propagation modes depend on the operating wavelength and polarization and the shape and size of the guide. In hollow metallic waveguides, the fundamental modes are the transverse electric TE1,0 mode for rectangular and TE1,1 for circular waveguides, seen here in cross-section: A dielectric waveguide is a waveguide that consists of a dielectric material surrounded by another dielectric material, such as air, glass, or plastic, with a lower refractive index. An example of a dielectric waveguide is an optical fiber. Paradoxically, a metallic waveguide filled with a dielectric material is not a dielectric waveguide.

A closed waveguide is an electromagnetic waveguide (a) that is tubular, usually with a circular or rectangular cross section, (b) that has electrically conducting walls, (c) that may be hollow or filled with a dielectric material, (d) that can support a large number of discrete propagating modes, though only a few may be practical, (e) in which each discrete mode defines the propagation constant for that mode, (f) in which the field at any point is describable in terms of the supported modes, (g) in which there is no radiation field, and (h) in which discontinuities and bends cause mode conversion but not radiation. A slotted waveguide is generally used for radar and other similar applications.

USES OF MICROWAVE SIGNALS

A microwave oven uses a magnetron microwave generator to produce microwaves at a frequency of approximately 2.45 GHz for the purpose of cooking food. Microwaves cook food by causing molecules of water and other compounds to vibrate. The vibration creates heat which warms the food. Since organic matter is made up primarily of water, food is easily cooked by this method. Microwaves are used in communication satellite transmissions because microwaves pass easily through the earth's atmosphere with less interference than longer wavelengths. There is also much more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum. Radar also uses microwave radiation to detect the range, speed, and other characteristics of remote objects. Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11g and b specifications, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses an ISM band in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Internet Access services can be found in many countries (but not the USA) in the 3.54.0 GHz range.

Cable TV and Internet access on coax cable as well as broadcast television use some of the lower microwave frequencies. Some cell phone networks also use the lower microwave frequencies. Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and

early 1980s to research the possibilities of using Solar Power Satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.

A maser is a device similar to a laser, except that it works at microwave frequencies.