JIM JARMUSCH AND THE AMERICAN NATIONAL CINEMA

b y
P E T E R URQUHART
B . A . , The U n i v e r s i t y of Ma n i t ob a , 1991
A T H E S I S S UB MI TTED I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L ME NT OF
THE REQUI REMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
i n
THE F AC UL T Y OF GRADUATE S T UDI E S
( D epar t ment of T hea t r e and F i l m)
We a ccept t h i s t h e s i s as c on f or mi n g
t o t he r e q u i r e d s t a n da r d
THE U NI V E R S I T Y OF B R I T I S H COLUMB I A
J u l y , 1995
P e t e r U r quha r t , 1995
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced
degree at the University of British Col umbia, I agree that the Ubrary shall make it
freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive
copying of this thesis l o r schol arl y purposes may be granted by the head of my
department or by his or her representatives. It is , understood that copying or
publ ication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be al l owed without my written
permission.
Department of
The University of British Col umbi a
Vancouver, Canada
Date
DE- 6 (2/88)
11
Ji m Jarmusch and the American Nati o nal Cinema
Ab stract
J i m J a r mus ch i s a n A me r i c a n i n depen den t f i l m- ma k e r
whos e wor k, d e s p i t e i t s r e l a t i v e p o p u l a r i t y a nd d r o l l
v e n e e r , i s c o n s i s t e n t l y c o n t r a - H o l l y wo o d , t h e ma t i c a l l y ,
a e s t h e t i c a l l y , a nd i d e o l o g i c a l l y . I n t h i s t h e s i s , I
demon s t r a t e t hr oug h my c l o s e a n a l y s i s of J a r mus c h' s f our
ma j or wor ks t o da t e S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e ( 1984) , Down
B y L aw ( 1986 ) , My s t e r y T r a i n ( 1989) , a nd Ni g h t on E a r t h
(1991) t h a t J a r mus c h' s wor k s houl d b e s t b e r e g a r de d
b e s i de r e p r e s e n t a t i v e exa mpl es of ot he r c o n t r a - H o l l y wo o d
n a t i o n a l ci n ema s , r a t h e r t ha n h e l d up a g a i n s t t he H ol l y wood
ci n ema . U l t i ma t e l y , t h i s t h e s i s a r gues t h a t J a r mus c h' s
oeuv r e i s a s u p e r l a t i v e i n s t a n c e of t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l
ci n ema a h e n t i t y n ot commonl y h e l d t o e x i s t . I d e f i n e
t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l ci n ema as one c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t ( l i k e
t he F r e n c h n a t i o n a l ci nema ) of t he met a - s et of t he
i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema p r a c t i c e , a nd a s t h i s e n t i t y i s
d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r om H ol l y wood, a nd f r om ot he r n a t i o n s '
c omme r c i a l ci n ema s .
I n C ha pt er One, I l a y t he f oun da t i on f o r t he a b ove
a r gument wi t h a ppe a l s t o v a r i o u s e x pe r t s our c e s , e s p e c i a l l y
t hos e c on c e r n i n g con cept s of i d e o l o g y , a ut e ur i s m, n a t i o n a l
ci n ema , a nd t he a r t ci n ema as a c l a s s i f i a b l e mode of f i l m
p r a c t i c e .
I l l
T he f o l l o wi n g f our c ha pt e r s c o n s i s t of c l o s e a n a l y s e s
of J a r mus c h' s f our ma j or wor k s . C ha pt er Two c o n s i d e r s how
J a r mus ch i n v e r t s t he s t e r e ot y pe s of dr e a r y commun i s t E a s t
a nd s unny c a p i t a l i s t Wes t i n S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e . T he
empha s i s i n C ha pt er T hr ee i s on t he " t h i n g s - a r e - n o t - a s - t h e y -
s eem" n a t ur e o f e v e r y A me r i c a n c u l t u r a l phenomenon r a i s e d i n
Down B y L a w, a nd how t hes e r e v e r s a l s i l l u mi n a t e J a r mus c h' s
t a k e on h i s c u l t u r e . C ha pt er F our c o n s i d e r s t he c e n t r a l i t y
of t he r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r a c e t o A me r i c a n p op ul a r c u l t u r e
whi c h My s t e r y T r a i n p o s i t s . C ha pt er F i v e s hows how Ni g h t on
E a r t h . as a n a t u r a l out wa r d e x t e n s i o n of J a r mus c h' s t he ma t i c
a nd s t y l i s t i c p r e oc c up a t i on s , i s de s i g n e d e x p l i c i t l y a s a n
A me r i c a n a r t f i l m, as I am u s i n g t he t er m he r e . I n c ha pt e r
s i x , I b r i e f l y r e c a p i t u l a t e some of t he t h e o r e t i c a l a nd
i n d u s t r i a l s ug g e s t i on s t ha t I pr opos ed a t t he out s e t , we i g h
t hem a g a i n s t t he e v i de n c e pr e s e n t e d i n t he f our c l o s e
a n a l y s e s , a nd c on c l ude t ha t a c o n t r a - H o l l y wo o d A me r i c a n
n a t i o n a l ci n ema s u r e l y e x i s t s , a nd t ha t J i m J a r mus c h' s wor k
i s i t s exempl a r y i l l u s t r a t i o n .
i v
TABLE OP CONTENTS
A b s t r a c t i i
T a b l e of C on t e n t s i v
A ckn owl edgemen t s v
C ha pt er One: 1
I n t r o d u c t i o n : J i m J a r mus c h' s S ad a nd B e a u t i f u l W or l d
Not es t o C ha pt er One 18
C ha pt er T wo: 20
I ' m a s A me r i c a n a s Y ou a r e : S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e
Not es t o C ha pt er Two 37
C ha pt er T hr e e : 39
Down B y L a w: " I n C o n t r o l " or " S t uck i n J a i l ? "
Not es t o C ha pt er T hr ee 53
C ha pt er F our : 54
My s t e r y T r a i n : E l v i s was a H er o t o Mo s t . . .
Not es t o C ha pt er F our 6 9
C ha pt er F i v e : 71
A l l t he W o r l d ' s a S t a g e: Ni g h t on E a r t h
Not es t o C ha pt er F i v e 83
C ha pt er S i x : 85
C o n c l u s i o n : J i m J a r mus ch a nd t he A me r i c a n Na t i o n a l C i nema
Wor ks C i t e d 89
Acknowledgements
v
I woul d l i k e t o expr es s my s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o
P r o f e s s o r B r i a n Mc l l r o y , wi t h o u t whos e good- humour ed
a s s i s t a n c e t h i s p r o j e c t woul d n ot ha ve b een r e a l i z e d .
T ha n ks j u s t as l a r g e , f o r s uppor t of v a r i o u s k i n d s , a r e a l s o
ext en ded t o J e r r o l d a nd E l i n o r U r quha r t , P r o f e s s o r J ohn
Newt on , a nd t o K e l l i - A n n e U r quha r t .
1
Chapter One
I ntro ducti o n: Ji m Jarmusch's Sad and Bea u ti f u l World
When Ro b erto (pl ayed by Roberto Beni gni ) s t r o l l s o ut o f
the grimy ni ght i n Down By Law (1986) and announces,
unprovoked, that "ees a sad and b ea u ti f u l wo rl d," Zack (Tom
Wai ts), no t knowing what to make o f th i s f o rei gn stranger,
m utters, "hunh. Yeah, i t ' s a sad and b ea u ti f u l wo rl d
a l r i g h t. " Thi s one sho rt scene i s l a r gel y (but c er ta i nl y
no t co m pl etel y) emblematic o f Ji m Jarmusch's enti r e o euvre.
I t f eatures the chance enco unter o f two somewhat charming
deadbeats, one o f whom i s new to America, and b o th o f whom
share (wi th each o ther, and wi th Jarmusch) a h i p s ter 's
co nv i cti o n that the f i l t h , decay and degenerati o n
surro undi ng them i s a c tu a l l y strangel y b ea u ti f u l , o f ten-
ti m es amusing.
The i ntenti o n o f th i s paper i s nei ther to si m pl y
anal yze Jarmusch's f i l m s nor to c r i t i c a l l y examine moments
such as the one reco unted above. Rather, I b egi n wi th th i s
b r i ef scene sy no p si s to acknowledge strai ght- away that much
o f what f o l l o ws i s i nf l ec ted by unabashed auteuri sm . I w i l l
attempt to show del i b erate co nsi stenci es (and/or
i nco nsi stenci es) i n what Jarmusch does, c r i t i c a l l y examine
these co nsi stenci es (or i nco nsi stenci es, as the case may be)
2
as t he y r e f l e c t J a r mus c h' s domi n a n t a e s t h e t i c a nd t he ma t i c
c on c e r n s , a nd a t t r i b u t e t hem t o J a r mus c h' s e x p r e s s i o n a s a n
a ut e ur , a n a r t i s t .
B ut t h i s a u t e u r i s t e x a mi n a t i on of J a r mus c h' s f i l ms i s
n e i t h e r t he s o l e , n or ev en c e n t r a l , pur pos e o f t he f o l l o wi n g
wor k. I n s t e a d, I i n t e n d t o us e J a r mus c h' s oeuv r e as a n
i l l u s t r a t i v e exa mpl e, a nd a p a r t i c u l a r l y s t y l i s h on e, o f a
" n a t i o n a l " ci n ema , much i n t he way t ha t , s a y , A t om E goy a n
mi g ht b e d i s c u s s e d i n t er ms r e l a t i v e t o t he C a n a di a n c i n e ma .
P u z z l i n g as t h i s may seem a t f i r s t t o b e, my c l a i m i s
s i mp l e : t he r e e x i s t s a g r e a t many a l t e r n a t i v e i n depen den t
A me r i c a n f i l m- ma k e r s whos e wor k ought p r o p e r l y b e c o n s i d e r e d
t o b e e c o n o mi c a l l y , p o l i t i c a l l y , t h e ma t i c a l l y , a nd
a e s t h e t i c a l l y as much c o n t r a - H o l l y wo o d as a r e many o f t he
p r o d u c t i o n s of a ny ot he r n a t i o n a l ci n ema . I t i s my
c o n t e n t i o n t ha t J i m J a r mus c h' s wor k, as a n exempl a r y model
of t h i s A me r i c a n " n a t i o n a l " ci n ema , ca n a nd s h o u l d b e
f r u i t f u l l y exa mi n ed i n t h i s l i g h t .
Of c our s e , one i mp l i c a t i o n of my a r gument i s t h a t
H ol l y wood f i l ms a r e somehow not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a n
A me r i c a n " n a t i o n a l " ci n ema . I f f i l ms ca n b e s een as
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t he s o c i e t y a n d/ or c u l t u r e whi c h pr oduced
t hem a s a f e enough p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , I s ug g es t t he n how
i s i t t h a t I c l a i m t ha t some a l t e r n a t i v e i n depen den t
A me r i c a n f i l ms , a nd J a r mus c h' s s p e c i f i c a l l y , a r e mor e or
3
b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f A me r i c a n s o c i e t y t ha n a r e H ol l y wood
f i l ms ? T he s hor t a ns wer i s t ha t I ca n n ot c o mp l e t e l y .
H owev er , as my a r gument pr oc e e ds , wha t I hope w i l l emer ge i s
a c r i t i c a l met hodol og y , a n a l t e r n a t i v e a ppr oa ch t o e x a mi n i n g
J a r mus c h' s wor k, one whi c h c o n s i d e r s J a r mus c h' s f i l ms i n t he
same l i g h t as t ha t i n whi c h p r oduc t i on s f r om ot he r n a t i o n s
mi g ht b e c on s i de r e d c o n t r a - H o l l y wo o d . I t mi g ht a ppea r
t h a t wha t I am p r o p o s i n g i s s i mp l y t o l ump J a r mus ch a nd
ot he r n on - H ol l y wood A me r i c a n f i l m- ma k e r s i n wi t h e v e r y ot he r
n on - H ol l y wood f i l m- ma k e r , b e s he A n g ol a n or Zi mb a b wea n. Or ,
per ha ps , i t mi g ht a ppea r t ha t I am p r o p o s i n g n o t h i n g mor e
t ha n t h a t J a r mus c h' s f i l m' s s houl d b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t he t er ms
s ug g es t ed b y D a v i d B o r d we l l ' s a r t i c l e " A r t C i nema a s a Mode
of F i l m P r a c t i c e " (1979) ( or , f o r t ha t ma t t e r , b y a ny
d e f i n i t i o n o f " a r t c i n e ma " ) . H owev er , t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n ' s
i mpor t a n t t a s k w i l l b e t o de f i n e and t r a c e t he phenomenon,
a nd s t un n i n g r e c e n t a s cen den cy , of t he a l t e r n a t i v e
i n depen den t A me r i c a n " n a t i o n a l " ci n ema , r e l a t i v e t o ot he r
n a t i o n a l ci n ema s , t o t he c omp a r a t i v e l y ma i n s t r ea m A me r i c a n
" a ut eur ci n ema " ( A l l e n , S c or s e s e , e t a l . ) , a nd t o H o l l y wo o d .
T h i s chor e i s c r u c i a l s i n c e I i n t e n d c r i t i c a l , t h e o r e t i c a l ,
a nd h i s t o r i c a l con cer n s t o con v er g e i n t he c our s e of t h i s
pa per . A n d ev en mor e i mp o r t a n t l y , t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n s h a l l
f a ce t he a b ove n ot ed t h e o r e t i c a l pr ob l ems of " n a t i o n a l "
ci n ema hea d- on .
4
Furtherm o re, th i s i ntro ducti o n s h a l l attempt al so to
redeem the f o l l o wi ng chapters f rom the th eo r eti c a l problems
o f auteuri st f i l m study. By th i s I do no t presume that I
might " so l ve" these th eo r eti c a l problems, b ut I s h a l l
because I b el i eve i t an ab so l utel y necessary jo b i n l i g h t o f
the current state o f f i l m studi es address these
m i sgi vi ngs about the v a l i di ty o f auteuri sm di r ec tl y , ho pi ng
to at l ea s t reassure the reader that th i s work has no t been
wri tten i n a c r i t i c a l vacuum.
1
Jarmusch as an American "National" Film-maker:
In h i s i m po rtant co ntri b uti o n to the "Cinema We Need"
debate among c r i t i c s and enthusi asts o f Canadian f i l m
(which, provoked by Bruce El der's po l em i c "The Cinema We
Need," raged i n 1985), Ro b i n Wood's a r t i c l e "Whose Cinema?"
suggested that there was no di s c er ni b l e Canadian cinema to
ta l k about at a l l si nce the f i l m s produced i n Canada were
v i r t u a l l y i ndi sti ngui shab l e and i nv i s i b l e versi o ns o f
Hollywood's p ro ducti o n. Canadian cinema, acco rdi ng to
Wood, m erel y r ef l ec ted i t s minor r o l e as p art o f the
c a p i ta l i s t, p a tr i a r c h a l , i deo l o gi c a l apparatus. No m atter
how much one di sagrees wi th Wood's co ncl usi o ns about the
5
C a n a di a n ci n ema (as I do) , h i s s ug g e s t i on ha s r a mi f i c a t i o n s
f o r e v e r y n a t i o n ' s c i n e ma .
2
Wood' s a r gument does n ot r e s u l t
i n t he d i s mi s s a l o f e v e r y we s t e r n n a t i o n ' s ci n ema , howev er ,
b eca us e he c l a i ms t h a t C a n a da ' s ca n b e i g n or e d n ot o n l y
b eca us e i t i s i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e i d e o l o g i c a l l y f r om
H o l l y wo o d , b ut a l s o b eca us e i t i s , u n l i k e t he F r e n c h ci n ema
f o r exa mpl e, v i r t u a l l y un s een as w e l l . Ne v e r t h e l e s s , one
f o u n d a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e o f h i s a r gument t h a t p op ul a r
ci n ema s , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r n a t i o n a l i t y , r e f l e c t t he
domi n a n t i d e o l o g y of t h e i r s o c i e t y i s s oun d a nd i s wha t
i n i t i a l l y l e d me t o c o n s i d e r t he A me r i c a n a l t e r n a t i v e
i n depen den t ci n ema , and J a r mus c h' s f i l ms s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n
" n a t i o n a l " t e r ms .
A n ot he r a r t i c l e whi c h ha s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d my
t h i n k i n g on t he s e i s s ue s i s A ndr ew H i g s o n ' s "T he C on cept of
Na t i o n a l C i n e ma , " i n whi c h he n ot es t h a t e v e r y f i l m- ma k i n g
n a t i o n ha s a " q u a l i t y a r t c i n e ma , " i n a d d i t i o n t o emb r a ci n g
f i l ms , n a t i o n a l l y or e x t e r n a l l y pr oduced, whi c h mi g ht b e
c a l l e d t h i s n a t i o n ' s " popul a r ci n ema " ( H i g s on 37).
3
H i g s on
a l s o ob s er v es t h a t we commonl y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i s c u s s i o n s o f
" a r t ci n ema " f r om ones of " n a t i o n a l ci n ema " b eca us e a l t houg h
D a v i d B o r d we l l a nd ot he r s ha ve c o n v i n c i n g l y s hown t h a t " a r t
ci n ema " s houl d b e s een as a mode of f i l m p r a c t i c e , we ca n
a nd do d i s t i n g u i s h ea ch n a t i o n ' s " a r t ci n ema " f r om ot he r
6
n a t i o n s ' . T h i s i s t o s a y t ha t i t i s o n l y b eca us e of t he
mu l t i p l i c i t y o f n a t i o n a l ci n ema s t ha t we ca n d i s t i n g u i s h ,
s a y , t he B r i t i s h ci n ema f r om t he F r e n c h on e. I n a d d i t i o n ,
t he f i l ms a s s o c i a t e d wi t h n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema s a l s o
f r e q u e n t l y , b ut n ot a l wa y s , a ddr es s n a t i o n a l l y s p e c i f i c
i s s u e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o s ha r ed n a t i o n a l h i s t o r i e s ,
a e s t h e t i c a nd c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s , e t c . F ur t he r mor e , H i g s on
- - f o l l o wi n g Thomas E l s a e s s e r ' s l e a d ~ ob s er v es t h a t
H ol l y wood ca n n ot r e a l l y b e c on s i de r e d c o mp l e t e l y " ot he r " i n
any f i l m c u l t u r e b eca us e of i t s pr of oun d i mpa ct on a l l
n a t i o n a l ci n ema s ( H i g s on 39) .
T he c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t I dr aw f r om t he s e p o i n t s a r e :
1. S i n c e e v e r y n a t i o n ha s a " q u a l i t y a r t c i n e ma , " i t s houl d
f o l l o w t h a t A me r i c a ha s as w e l l . B y u s i n g t he t er m " a r t
ci n ema " t o d e s c r i b e t h i s s e t of f i l ms , I r e c o g n i z e t h a t I am
l a b o u r i n g un der t he s t r a i n of t he un f or t un a t e b a gga ge wh i c h
t h i s t er m c a r r i e s . T ha t i s , B o r d we l l ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f " a r t
ci n ema " s ounds as i f i t mi g ht a l t houg h i t does n ot
deny t he s t a t us of " a r t " t o c e r t a i n H ol l y wood f i l ms .
2. S i n c e we d i f f e r e n t i a t e b et ween n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema s
b eca us e of t h e i r mu l t i p l i c i t y , we s houl d b e a b l e t o i d e n t i f y
a n A me r i c a n one t o o .
3. S i n c e e v e r y n a t i o n ' s ci n ema i s a f f e c t e d b y H o l l y wo o d ' s
ma s s i v e i n f l u e n c e , a nd s i n c e , as Wood n ot e s , e v e r y we s t e r n
n a t i o n pr oduces some ( or many) f i l ms whi c h r e v e a l t h e i r
7
e x i s t e n c e as me r e l y p a r t of t he c a p i t a l i s t / p a t r i a r c h a l
i d e o l o g i c a l a ppa r a t us , i t s t a n ds t o r e a s on t h a t H o l l y wo o d ' s
e x i s t e n c e i n A me r i c a s houl d n ot n ega t e t he e x i s t e n c e o f a n
A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l ci n ema i n t he same t er ms t h a t a B e l g i a n
ci n ema , f o r i n s t a n c e , e x i s t s .
T hus , I c on c l ude t ha t e v e r y n a t i o n , a t l e a s t e v e r y
we s t e r n n a t i o n , ha s b ot h a n a t i o n a l ci n ema a nd a H o l l y wo o d -
l i k e ci n ema ( i n s o f a r as t he s e H o l l y wo o d - l i k e ci n ema s r e f l e c t
ea ch we s t e r n n a t i o n ' s r o l e i n t he ma chi n er y of
c a p i t a l i s t / p a t r i a r c h a l i d e o l o g y ) , wh i l e i n A me r i c a , t h e i r
H o l l y wo o d - l i k e ci n ema i s t he epony mous , a r c h e t y p i c a l exa mpl e
f o r e v e r y ot he r we s t e r n n a t i o n ' s H o l l y wo o d - l i k e ci n ema . A n d
f ur t he r mor e , t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l ci n ema (as I ha v e
d e l i n e a t e d i t ) i s b e s t s een as compa r ed t o t he n on - A me r i c a n
exa mpl es o f c o n t r a - H o l l y wo o d a e s t h e t i c s a nd i d e o l o g y l o c a t e d
i n ot he r n a t i o n a l ci n ema s . T he u n d e r l y i n g p r e s u p p o s i t i o n
her e i s t h a t H ol l y wood f i l ms (and t h e i r c oun t e r p a r t s - t he
p o p u l a r , H o l l y wo o d - l i k e , f i l ms pr oduced i n ot he r we s t e r n
n a t i on s ) do r e f l e c t t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n a nd con s umpt i on un der
c a p i t a l i s t - p a t r i a r c h a l i d e o l o g y . I a ckn owl edge t h a t t h i s i s
a b r oa d- r a n g i n g c l a i m, b ut am s a t i s f i e d of i t s g e n e r a l
a p p l i c a b i l i t y .
A s a n exa mpl e of one i mpor t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b et ween " a r t "
f i l ms a nd " popul a r " f i l ms , t he f i l ms of t he c oun t e r -
H ol l y wood ( or u n - H o l l y wo o d - l i k e ) n a t i o n a l ci n ema s a r e
8
t y p i c a l l y i n t e n de d t o b e (and u s u a l l y a r e) r e c e i v e d b y " . . .
a c o s mo p o l i t a n , n o n - c h a u v i n i s t s p e c t a t or who ca n empa t hi z e
wi t h c h a r a c t e r s f r om many n a t i o n s " ( L ev 5 ) . I woul d a dd
t h a t t he n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema a udi en ce i s a l s o mor e l i k e l y t o
a t l e a s t c o n s i d e r t hems el v es ( a c c u r a t e l y or n ot ) t o b e mor e
p o l i t i c a l l y awar e i n some va gue s en s e t ha n t he cons umer o f
e x c l u s i v e l y H o l l y wo o d - l i k e f i l ms , b e l i e v i n g t he f i l ms t he y
choos e t o wa t ch t o b e somehow l e s s t a i n t e d b y t he domi n a n t
i d e o l o g y c o l o u r i n g H o l l y wo o d - l i k e f i l ms .
4
T her e a r e
A me r i c a n pr e c e de n t s f o r t he n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema : R ob e r t
A l t ma n ha s made s e v e r a l f i l ms whi c h a r e e x p l i c i t l y de s i g n e d
as s uc h; I mages ( 1972) , a nd T hr ee Women (1977) a r e good
exa mpl es .
B ut why am I b o t h e r i n g t o , i n wha t i s o s t e n s i b l y a n
e x a mi n a t i on o f J i m J a r mus c h' s oeuv r e, j ump t hr oug h t he s e
hoops a nd go t hr oug h t he s e c o n t o r t i o n s t o " pr ov e " t he
e x i s t e n c e o f a c oun t e r - H ol l y wood A me r i c a n " n a t i o n a l " ci n ema ?
F i r s t b eca us e t he r e seems no good r e a s on t o c o n s i d e r h i s
f i l ms n ext t o H ol l y wood ones when t he y s o much mor e r es emb l e
t he q u a l i t y a r t ci n ema pr e domi n a t e l y ( b ut n ot e x c l u s i v e l y )
pr oduced i n ot he r c o u n t r i e s . A n d, s e c on dl y , b eca us e one
f e a t ur e t ha t J a r mus c h' s f i l ms s ha r e i s a t he ma t i c a ddr es s o f
t he con cept o f n a t i o n a l i t y , n a t i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p , a nd t he
" n a t ur e " o f A me r i c a a nd A mer i ca n s as compa r ed t o n on -
A me r i c a n s . I n t he s cen e whi c h c o n t r i b u t e s t he n e xt
c h a p t e r ' s t i t l e ( I ' m as A me r i c a n as Y ou A r e : S t r a n g e r T ha n
P a r a d i s e ) , E ddi e t e l l s W i l l y t ha t he ha d no i de a t h a t , " y ou
was b or n i n H un g a r y , or B uda pes t , or a ny o f t hos e p l a c e s ,
t houg ht y ou wer e a n A me r i c a n . " B ut W i l l y is a n A me r i c a n .
Or a t l e a s t he i s , as h i s a ns wer i n d i c a t e s , a s A me r i c a n a s
E ddi e i s .
Jarmusch as Artist/Author/Auteur:
I t i s a commonpl ace i n con t empor a r y d i s c u s s i o n s o f
a ut e ur i s m a nd a ut e ur s t o pa y a t l e a s t l i p - s e r v i c e t o t he
u b i q u i t y of a u t e u r i s t f i l m s t udy i n s p i t e of wha t ev er
t h e o r e t i c a l pr ob l ems may s ur r oun d t he i s s u e . D a v i d
B o r d we l l , H el en e K e y s s a r , a nd R ob e r t S e l f , f o r i n s t a n c e , a l
b e g i n t h e i r a ddr es s of t he que s t i on s s ur r oun di n g t he
l e g i t i ma c y o f a ut e ur i s m b y r e ma r k i n g on how u n i v e r s i t y
c our s e s , f i l m s o c i e t i e s and f e s t i v a l s , a nd t he p op ul a r a nd
a ca demi c p r e s s , a l l i n s i s t on t a l k i n g a b out f i l ms a n d/ or
c o l l e c t i o n s o f f i l ms i n t er ms t ha t b e t r a y t h e i r a u t e u r i s t
b en t b y wr i t i n g a b out d i r e c t o r s as a ut hor s ( Na r r a t i o n 211;
S e l f 4; K e y s s a r 7 ) .
T he ca s e of J i m J a r mus ch mi g ht n ot ha v e much s pa ce i n
t he c o n t r o v e r s y ov er a ut e ur i s m ( except i n t he h e a d i e s t o f
10
t h e o r e t i c a l o b j e c t i o n s ) s i n c e J a r mus ch i s a s much t he s o l e ,
or a t l e a s t domi n a n t , c r e a t o r of t he a r t o f h i s f i l ms as i s
v i r t u a l l y a ny f i l m- ma k e r . J a r mus ch wr i t e s h i s own s c r i p t s
( f or s p e c i f i c a c t o r s ) , d i r e c t s , and a c c o r d i n g t o Me l ody
L on don ( hi s e d i t o r ) wi e l d s g r e a t a u t h o r i t y ev en i n t h a t
pr oc e s s of t he f i l ms ' c r e a t i o n (B ugb ee 5 2 - 3 ) . I n f a c t ,
J a r mus ch a l s o p e r s o n a l l y n e g ot i a t e s mos t of t he d e a l s
s ur r oun di n g h i s f i l ms ' f i n a n c i n g , d i s t r i b u t i o n a nd
e x h i b i t i o n : s e l e c t i o n of a pr oduc e r , s a l e s t o v i d e o t a p e ,
s u b t i t l i n g , a nd f o r e i g n a nd dome s t i c a d v e r t i s i n g , e t c .
J a r mus ch demands s uch c on c e s s i on s f r om t hos e w i l l i n g t o
f i n a n c e h i s p r o d u c t i o n s . He i s i n cha r g e o f t he c r e a t i o n o f
h i s f i l ms ' " mea n i n g" t hr oug h ev er y s t a g e o f t h e i r
dev el opmen t .
5
Or i s he?
I n " R ob er t A l t ma n a nd t he T heor y o f A u t h o r s h i p , " R ob e r t
S e l f document s t wo of t he domi n a n t t h e o r e t i c a l doub t s a b out
a u t e u r i s m' s l e g i t i ma c y . F i r s t , q u o t i n g S t ephen C r o f t s ,
( a ut eur i s m) pe r pe t ua t e s t he d i v o r c e b et ween
a r t i s t i c pr oduc t and any s o c i a l d e t e r mi n a t i o n ,
b ot h a t t he l e v e l of p r o d u c t i o n ( t he s y ndr ome o f
t he c r e a t i v e a ut hor ) a nd a t t he l e v e l o f r e a d i n g
( t he r e a de r who [ r e] pr oduces i d e o l o g y wh i l e
pr on oun c i n g * o b j e c t i v e ' c r i t i c a l j udgment )
( C r o f t s , q t d . i n S e l f , 3 ) .
S econ d, S e l f quot es R o s i l a n d C owa r d a nd J ohn E l l i s :
i n s t e a d of s howi n g t he r i c h n e s s of t he t e x t i n i t s
open n es s , i t s r e a d a b i l i t y i n t he mea n i n gs t h a t ca n
b e pr oduced f r om i t , [ a ut eur i s m] a i ms a t a
p a r t i c u l a r s o r t of c l o s u r e ( 3 ) .
11
D e s p i t e t he s e t wo ( ab ove n ot ed) que s t i on s a b out
a u t e u r i s m' s t e n a b i l i t y , S e l f , a nd i t seems many , many
c r i t i c s who b r oa c h t he s ub j e c t , c on c l ude s t h a t d e s p i t e
a u t e u r i s m' s l i mi t a t i o n s i n a c c oun t i n g f o r a f i l m' s
" me a n i n g ( s ) , " t he r e i s a g r e a t c on v e n i e n c e i n n a mi n g a s e t
of f i l ms R ob e r t A l t ma n or J i m J a r mus ch b eca us e t he
" a u t h o r ' s " name s e r v e s a u s e f u l a nd p a r t i c u l a r pur pos e :
a c c o r d i n g t o Mi c h e l F o u c a u l t , " ( t he name of t he a ut hor )
c h a r a c t e r i z e s a p a r t i c u l a r manner of d i s c o u r s e " ( F ouc a ul t
2 8 4 ) . A n d n ot o n l y s houl d t h i s " p a r t i c u l a r manner o f
d i s c o u r s e " b ea r t he name J i m J a r mus ch, i t s h o u l d ,
a d mi t t e d l y , b e f u r t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d a s P e t e r U r q u h a r t ' s J i m
J a r mus ch, s i n c e a t t he l e v e l o f my r e a d i n g , a nd d e s p i t e my
b e s t e f f o r t s t o a v o i d t he " pr ob l em" of i d e o l o g y , a l l manner
of i d e o l o g i c a l ( r e ) p r o d u c t i o n s houl d b e a s s umed.
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t he i s s u e of i d e o l o g i c a l ( r e ) p r o d u c t i o n
ha s cr opped up i n t h i s v e r y b r i e f g l a n c e a t a ut e ur i s m, wh i l e
t h i s same i s s u e i s c e n t r a l t o my ca s e f o r t he e x i s t e n c e of
t he A me r i c a n " n a t i o n a l " ci n ema . I n deed, t he c on c e pt s o f
a ut hor s hi p a nd n a t i o n a l ci n ema con v er g e i n ot he r i mpor t a n t
way s t o o . T he s o - c a l l e d q u a l i t y a r t ci n ema
( i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y ) t ha t f or ms t he met a - s et o f n a t i o n a l
ci n ema s (as I am u s i n g t he t er m) c o n s i s t s o f v i r t u a l l y b y
d e f i n i t i o n , B o r d we l l ' s d e f i n i t i o n a t l e a s t a pa n t heon of
a ut e ur s . T hes e a r e a ut e ur s who a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r t he
12
e x i s t e n c e o f t he s e n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema s , n ot j u s t f o r t h e i r
s i mp l e pr es umed u t i l i t y as a r t i s t - c r e a t o r s , b ut a l s o b eca us e
t he e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r " v o i c e " i n t hes e f i l ms emb odi es one
o f t h i s "mode of f i l m p r a c t i c e ' s " d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
( " A r t " 59- 6 0 ) . C on f oun di n g t h i s t i d y c o n t e n t i o n , P e t e r L e v
c l a i ms t h a t B o r d we l l ' s " f o r ma l i s t " d e f i n i t i o n o f a r t ci n ema ,
"does n ot p r o v i d e a n a dequa t e b a s i s f o r a s o c i a l - h i s t o r i c a l ,
r a t h e r t ha n a s t r i c t l y a e s t h e t i c a c c o u n t . . . " ( 4 ) . P er ha ps
i t d o e s n ' t , b ut e x a c t l y as S e l f , A n dr ew, K e y s s a r , a nd
Na r emor e' s d i s c u s s i o n s of a ut e ur i s m pr oc e e d, B o r d we l l ' s
d e f i n i t i o n o f a r t ci n ema , opens a s pa ce i n a f i l m' s mea n i n g
( a t t he l e v e l s of c r e a t i o n a nd of r e c e p t i on ) f o r t he
i n f l u e n c e of t he a r t i s t / c r e a t o r . T he o v e r a l l we i g ht t h a t
ought p r o p e r l y b e ceded t o i n t e n t i o n a l c r e a t i o n b y a n
i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t i s i mp o s s i b l e t o s a y , b ut t h a t i t s h o u l d
b e g r a n t e d some we i g ht seems i mp o s s i b l e t o r e a s on a b l y den y .
The American National Cinema:
H ol l y wood n ev er f u n c t i o n s as s i mp l y one t er m
wi t h i n a s y s t em of e q u a l l y we i g ht e d d i f f e r e n c e s .
H ol l y wood i s n ot o n l y t he mos t i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y
powe r f ul ci n ema i t ha s a l s o , o f c our s e , f o r
many y e a r s b een a n i n t e g r a l a nd n a t u r a l i z e d p a r t
of t he n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e , or t he p op ul a r
i ma g i n a t i o n , of mos t c o u n t r i e s i n whi c h ci n ema i s
a n e s t a b l i s h e d e n t e r t a i n me n t f or m. I n ot he r
wor ds , H ol l y wood ha s b ecome one o f t hos e c u l t u r a l
13
t r a d i t i o n s whi c h f eed i n t o t he s o - c a l l e d n a t i o n a l
ci n ema s of , f o r i n s t a n c e , t he we s t e r n E ur opea n
n a t i o n s ( H i g s on 3 9) .
One i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t ur e of H i g s o n ' s p o i n t her e i s t h a t
i t l e n ds i t s e l f u n p r o b l e ma t i c a l l y t o i n v e r s e a p p l i c a t i o n .
W h i l e t he f i l ms a s s o c i a t e d wi t h n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema s ha v e
n ev er h e l d a n y t h i n g l i k e t he wor l d- wi de c omme r c i a l s way t h a t
H o l l y wo o d ' s ha v e, t h e i r c r i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e ha s b een
pr of oun d, n o t a b l y upon t he g e n e r a t i on s of ( of t e n f i l m- s c h o o l
educa t ed) A me r i c a n c i n e a s t e s a r r i v i n g s i n c e t he 196 0s . J u s t
as H ol l y wood mus t a l wa y s b e c on s i de r e d as a n i mpor t a n t p a r t
of e v e r y n a t i o n a l f i l m c u l t u r e , s o t oo n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema s
s houl d b e c on s i de r e d h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l upon b ot h t he
H o l l y wo o d , a nd t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l , c i n e ma . I n f a c t , i t
i s commonl y n ot ed t h a t t he r i s e of t he s o - c a l l e d New
A me r i c a n C i nema ( i n t he 196 0s and ' 7 0 s ) , whi c h pr oduced s uch
f i l ms as E a s y R i d e r ( D en n i s H opper , 196 9) , T he G r a dua t e
( Mi ke Ni c h o l s , 196 7) , Mi d n i g h t Cowb oy ( J ohn S c h l e s i n g e r ,
196 9) , a nd B on n i e a nd C l y de ( A r t hur P en n , 196 7) was t he
d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t he i n f l u e n c e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema s
on H ol l y wood a nd A me r i c a n f i l m p r o d u c t i o n a nd c on s umpt i on .
What one f i n d s e v o l v i n g i n t h i s p e r i o d i n t he A me r i c a n
ci n ema i s s omet hi n g of a H o l l y wo o d / a r t ci n ema h y b r i d , one
whi c h i s per ha ps b e s t e x e mp l i f i e d b y d i r e c t o r s s uch a s
Ma r t i n S c or s e s e a nd F r a n c i s F or d C oppol a - d i r e c t o r s who
14
made s ma l l , p e r s o n a l , of t e n i n depen den t f i l ms , i n t e r s p e r s e d
wi t h b i g - b udg e t , s t a r - d r i v e n H ol l y wood p r o d u c t i o n s .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , " i n depen den ce" f r om t he ma j or H ol l y wood
s t u d i o s ha s n ev er b een a v e r y u s e f u l c r i t e r i a f o r
c a t e g o r i z i n g A me r i c a n f i l ms , except i n s t r i c t l y i n d u s t r i a l
t e r ms . J i m H i l l i e r n ot es t he l on g t r a d i t i o n o f
i n de pe n de n t l y pr oduced A me r i c a n f i l ms : " b y t he l a t e 1950s ,
t wo - t h i r d s of f e a t ur e s wer e b e i n g made b y i n d e p e n d e n t s . . , "
b ut H i l l i e r goes on t o p o i n t out t ha t t he v a s t ma j o r i t y of
t he s e r e c e i v e d f u l l s t u d i o f i n a n c i n g a nd d i s t r i b u t i o n ( 9) .
T he c u r r e n t s t a t e o f A me r i c a n f i l m p r o d u c t i o n i s l i t t l e
d i f f e r e n t . H i l l i e r d e s c r i b e s t he mor e s u c c e s s f u l o f t he
n ewl y f or med i n depen den t f i l m p r o d u c t i o n compa n i es ( C a s t l e
R ock, f o r i n s t a n c e ) as p os s e s s i n g " l i mi t e d i n de pe n de n c e , "
b eca us e of t h e i r r e l i a n c e , l i k e t hos e i n depen den t
p r o d u c t i o n s of t he 1950s , on f i n a n c i n g a nd d i s t r i b u t i o n
t hr oug h t he ma j or s t u d i o s (9) .
I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s i n f l u e n c e ( however r e l a t i v e l y mi n or
i n p r a c t i c e ) on H ol l y wood, t he i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema a l s o
e x e r t e d a cut e i n f l u e n c e on t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l a r t
c i n e ma .
6
J ohn C a s s a v e t e s , P a u l Mo r r i s e y , a nd A n dy W a r hol
a l l made i n depen den t a r t f i l ms whi c h owed as much t o t he
i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema as t he y d i d t o t he s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n
of t he A me r i c a n a v a n t - g a r de ( Ken n et h A n g e r , S t a n B r a ka g e ,
15
May a D er en , e t c . ) . C a s s a v e t e s , Mo r r i s e y , a nd W a r hol ,
per ha ps ev en mor e s o t ha n t he H ol l y wood a ut e ur s men t i on ed
a b ov e, ca n b e s een a s d i r e c t p r e c u r s o r s o f t he con t empor a r y
wave o f A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l f i l m- ma k e r s , whi c h i n c l u d e s (among
many , many ot her s ) J ohn S a y l e s , Gus V a n S a n t , R i c h a r d
L i n k l a t e r , a nd J i m J a r mus ch.
T o g e t a r oun d t he pr ob l em o f t he r e l a t i v e us e l e s s n e s s
o f t he t er m " i n depen den t " i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f A me r i c a n ci n ema ,
i n t he i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e i r b ook Of f H o l l y wo o d : T he Ma k i n g
a nd Ma r k e t i n g o f I n depen den t F i l ms , D a v i d R os en a nd P e t e r
H a mi l t o n d e f i n e t he pa r a met er s of t h e i r s t udy un der t he t er m
" s p e c i a l t y f i l ms . " T he A me r i c a n f i l ms f a l l i n g un der t h i s
r u b r i c , l i k e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r t f i l ms , " s ha r e a common
huma ni s m, a nd a r e n e i t h e r r a c i s t , s e x i s t , n or
e x p l o i t a t i v e . . . ( whi ch i s ) t he key d i f f e r e n c e b et ween
s p e c i a l t y f i l ms a nd i n de pe n de n t l y - pr oduc e d, l ow- b udg et g en r e
f i l ms " ( x v i i - x v i i i ) . T hey mi g ht ha ve a dded t h a t s p e c i a l t y
f i l ms s houl d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d as we l l f r om i n de p e n de n t l y -
pr oduced b l o c k b u s t e r s s uch as T e r mi n a t or 2: J udgement Day
(J ames C a mer on, 1992) . R os en a nd H a mi l t o n ha v e s ug g es t ed,
howev er , a r e a s on a b l y u s e f u l d e f i n i t i o n f o r wha t I am
a t t e mpt i n g t o e x p l i c i t l y a r gue f o r ~ a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t he
e x i s t e n c e of a s e t of A me r i c a n f i l ms whi c h a r e n ot o n l y
t y p i c a l l y f i n a n c e d (and of t e n d i s t r i b u t e d ) i n depen den t o f
H o l l y wo o d ' s ma c hi n e r y , b ut a r e a l s o t o v a r y i n g deg r ees
16
i n depen den t of , or o u t s i d e of , p r e v a i l i n g H ol l y wood f i l m
p r a c t i c e a e s t h e t i c a l l y , t h e ma t i c a l l y , a nd p o l i t i c a l l y .
I n a n ot her r e c e n t s t udy of t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l
ci n ema , D on a l d L y on s b e g i n s b y r e ma r k i n g t h a t " i t i s much
e a s i e r t o a gr ee t ha t t h i s i s a r i c h a nd p r o d u c t i v e moment
f o r A me r i c a n i n depen den t f i l mma k i n g t ha n i t i s t o dema r ca t e
t he b oun da r i e s of t h a t f i e l d ( x i ) . " T h i s s i t u a t i o n i s
a n a l og ous t o t he r e c e n t c o n d i t i o n of t he b us i n e s s o f p op ul a r
mus i c . Ni r v a n a ' s mu l t i - p l a t i n u m a l b um Nev er mi n d (1992) was
t he f i r s t punk r oc k r e c o r d i n g t o make ma s s i v e p r o f i t s ( t en s
of mi l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s ) , p r o v o k i n g a h i t h e r t o un he a r d- of
t i d a l wave of p u n k / a l t e r n a t i v e b ands b e i n g s i g n e d t o ma j or
r e c o r d l a b e l s , t he p u b l i c ( i . e . popul a r ) a ccept a n ce o f
f o r me r l y " s p e c i a l t y " mu s i c a l g en r es now a s s ur e d. I t i s
commonl y a r g ued t ha t t he r e c o r d ' s g i a n t s uc c e s s p l a y e d a
l a r g e r o l e i n open i n g s pa ce i n r a d i o a nd pop v i d e o
pr ogr a mmi n g f o r a l l manner of n on - ma i n s t r ea m, or
" a l t e r n a t i v e " mus i c whi c h woul d ot he r wi s e ha ve r ema i n ed
p r o f o u n d l y ma r g i n a l i z e d ( s ee, f o r i n s t a n c e , C MJ , a n d/ or
H i l l ) . I n t he mov i e b us i n e s s t he r e i s no s i n g l e f i l m t h a t
ca n b e s een as t he c omme r c i a l b r e a kt hr oug h t h a t Nev er mi n d
wa s , b ut J i m J a r mus c h' s S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e (1985) was
s omet hi n g o f a wa t er s hed f i l m i n t he h i s t o r y of t he A me r i c a n
n a t i o n a l ci n ema , a movement whi c h ha s much i n common wi t h
t he ma ki n g a nd ma r k e t i n g of s o - c a l l e d " a l t e r n a t i v e " mus i c .
17
A s J . Hob er man op i n e s :
S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a di s e was one o f t he mor e
f e l i c i t o u s p o p u l a r i z a t i o n s of a v a n t - g a r de
t e c hn i que s . J a r mus ch n ot o n l y ev oked a c e r t a i n
mood o f New Y or k p o s t h i p h i p s t e r i s m, he
s y n t h e s i z e d a numb er of p o s t s t r u c t u r a l
s t r a t e g i e s . . . ( Moder n i s m 143) .
T he r e l a t i v e p o p u l a r i t y en j oy ed b y t he f i l m d e s p i t e i t s
a v a n t - g a r de t e n de n c i e s , opened popul a r door s f o r A me r i c a n
a r t f i l ms i n t he same way t ha t Nev er mi n d made punk r o c k mor e
i mme di a t e l y a v a i l a b l e a nd a l l o wa b l e i n c omme r c i a l c o n t e x t s .
One e v i d e n t r e s u l t o f t he p o p u l a r i z a t i o n of t he A me r i c a n
n a t i o n a l ci n ema i s t ha t a n un pr eceden t ed numb er of t he s e
f i l ms ha v e won i mpor t a n t p r i z e s a t t he i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i l m
f e s t i v a l s S ex. L i e s and V i de ot a pe won t he P a l me d ' o r a t
C a nnes i n 1989; B e f or e S un r i s e won t he B e s t D i r e c t o r p r i z e
( f or R i c h a r d L i n k l a t e r ) i n B e r l i n i n 1995; a nd S t r a n g e r T ha n
P a r a d i s e c a pt ur e d t he C amer a d ' o r a t C a nnes i n 1984 a nd
t h e i r b ox o f f i c e per f or ma n ce ha ve b een i n p a r a l l e l
a s cen den cy .
Notes to Chapter One
18
1. Ro b ert Sel f wrote i n "Robert Altman and the Theory o f
Autho rshi p : " "To address any body o f f i l m s b eari ng the name
o f one di r ec to r , as I have done f o r some ti m e wi th the f i l m s
o f Ro b ert Altman, wi tho ut co nf ro nti ng these p ersp ecti ves
(the th eo r eti c a l o b jecti o ns to auteuri sm ) i s to anal y z e
tho se f i l m s i n a c r i t i c a l vacuum." Cinema J o urnal 25:1 ( F a l l
1985) : 3-4.
2. Geo f f Pevere argues i n " Radi cal M argi nal i a: Sub versi ve
si gns f rom the Hi nterl and" ( Ci neActi o n! 6 (Summer/Fall
1986) : 50-56) that whi l e Wood's anal y si s o f the r o l e o f
i deo l o gy i n Canadian cinema may be i n many cases accurate,
there al so exi s ts i n the Canadian cinema a r a di c a l ,
o p p o si ti o nal co unter- current o f regi o nal , low-budget f i l m s .
I suggest that Pevere i s q ui te co rrect i n h i s co ntenti o n,
and h i s view has i nf l uenced my asserti o n that the American
nati o nal cinema i s s i m i l a r l y o p p o si ti o nal . In sho rt, Pevere
and I agree h ea r ti l y wi th Wood's argument that much Canadian
cinema does si m pl y r ef l ec t i t s r o l e i n the
c a p i ta l i s t/p a tr i a r c h a l machinery, but we respo nd by p o i nti ng
to the exi stence o f a body o f work which Wood i s ei th er
unaware o f , o r unconcerned wi th r a di c a l and regi o nal
Canadian f i l m s .
3. Hi gso n's co ncep ti o n o f nati o nal cinema di f f er s f rom
mine, however. He cl ai m s that i t i s o nl y thro ugh examining
the enti r e f i l m cul ture o f a nati o n - exam i nati o ns o f f i l m
c r i ti c i s m , i ndu s tr i a l co ncerns, and, c r u c i a l l y , thro ugh the
study o f sp ectato rshi p and recep ti o n theo ry that a nati o nal
cinema can be i denti f i ed. Thi s may be so, and where our
o p i ni o ns d i f f e r may be si m pl y a m atter o f term i no l o gy . I'd
l i k e to c a l l each nati o n's a r t cinema (an enti ty Hi gso n does
no t di sp ute the exi stence o f ) i t s " nati o nal " cinema because
th i s term i no l o gy greatl y f a c i l i t a t e s di scussi o ns o f the so rt
which I have undertaken here.
4. I have no documentation to suppo rt th i s cl ai m .
However, i t seems a reaso nab l e enough assumption that the
a r t cinema audi ence a r r i v es wi th at l ea s t some di f f er ent
exp ectati o ns than does, say, Wayne's World's audi ence.
5. Fo r usef ul acco unts o f Jarmusch's to ta l " c o ntr o l " o f
h i s f i l m s , see V i c to r i a Bugbee and/or Ri chard Go l d.
19
6 . My q u a l i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s b eca us e, a s J . Hob er man p o i n t s
out :
G eor ge L uca s and S t ev en S p i e l b e r g a r e t he mos t
s u c c e s s f u l f i l m- ma k e r s who ev er l i v e d , wi t h t he
s i x t o p - g r o s s i n g mov i es i n A me r i c a n H i s t o r y .
M i l l i o n a i r e s many t i me s ov e r , t he y ca n do wha t ev er
t he y wa n t . L uca s ev en i n s i s t s t h a t wha t he woul d
r e a l l y l i k e t o do a r e e x p e r i me n t a l , n o n - n a r r a t i v e
f i l ms . B ut who' s k i d d i n g who? What t he s e guy s
wa n t , a p p a r e n t l y , i s I n di a n a J on es a nd t he T empl e
of Doom ( Moder n i s m 195) .
20
Chapter Two
I'm as American as You Are: Stranger Than Paradi se
Thi s i s a f i l m that goes beyond no stal gi a toward
some Pl ato ni c sense o f Americanness (Modernism
202) .
The aestheti c b o undari es i n the '80s have been
b l urred by numerous cro sso vers. That The Ato m i c
Caf e and Sherman's March co ul d enjo y commercial
runs, that the Nati o nal So ci ety o f F i l m Cr i t i c s
would name as b est f i l m s Stranger Than Paradi se
and Bl ue V el vet ( rather than Ghandi and Hannah and
Her Si sters) i ndi cate the p o p ul ar acceptance o f at
l ea s t some a-g work (Modernism 177).
These two q uo tati o ns p i t h i l y del i neate th i s chap ter's
two major co ncerns. F i r s t, i n th i s chapter I s h a l l go to
some l engths to show that Hoberman's q ui p about Stranger
Than Paradi se's " Pl ato ni c sense o f Americanness" i s no t o nl y
enti r el y tenab l e, but al so that i t suggests a f r u i t f u l and
i l l u m i na ti ng approach to a f i l m (and an oeuvre) which I am
attem pti ng to p ai nt as q u i ntes s enti a l l y of the American
nati o nal cinema. Seco ndl y, Stranger Than Paradi se's
p o s i ti o n as an i m po rtant " cro ss- o ver" b reakthro ugh f o r the
American nati o nal cinema s h a l l recei ve sub stanti al attenti o n
here, p avi ng the way as the f i l m does f o r numerous ensui ng
independent American a r t f i l m s, as wel l as a nti c i p a ti ng to a
great degree Jarmusch's own subsequent work. F i na l l y , th i s
chapter w i l l al so di scuss the f i l m i n terms suggested by a
21
s y n t h e s i s o f t he s e t wo p r i n c i p a l p o i n t s : s i n c e a g r e a t d e a l
o f t he f i l ms of t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l ci n ema e x h i b i t t h i s
s o r t of a v a n t - g a r de / popul a r h y b r i d i z a t i o n , i t w i l l b e a r g ued
her e t h a t f i l ms s uch as W a r h o l ' s E mpi r e ( 196 6 ) , C a s s a v e t e s '
S hadows ( 1959) , a nd e s p e c i a l l y J ames B e n n i n g ' s A me r i c a n mi d -
wes t " p os t c a r d" mov i es a n t i c i p a t e S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e a s
much as E ur opea n or J a pa n es e a r t f i l ms do, a nd f u r t h e r , t h a t
S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e was an i mpor t a n t p a r t o f a c u l t u r a l
s h i f t whi c h ha s r e s u l t e d i n t he i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f a l l k i n d s
of f o r me r l y " a l t e r n a t i v e " a nd ev en a v a n t - g a r de p op ul a r
c u l t u r a l t e n de n c i e s i n t o t he ma i n s t r ea m of t o d a y ' s A me r i c a n
c u l t u r e .
1
B ut f i r s t , i t s houl d b e n ot ed t ha t S t r a n g e r T ha n
P a r a d i s e was n ot J i m J a r mus c h' s f i r s t f e a t ur e f i l m. I n 1980,
as p a r t of h i s M. F . A . degr ee a t New Y or k U n i v e r s i t y , he
wr ot e , pr oduc e d, d i r e c t e d , a nd e d i t e d P er ma nent V a c a t i o n , a n
e i g h t y - mi n u t e b l a c k and whi t e f i l m whi c h saw a v e r y l i mi t e d
r e l e a s e .
2
T h i s f i l m was s omet hi n g of a c u l t s uc c e s s i n
E ur ope, wher e i t won p r i z e s a t t he Mannhei m a nd F i g u e i r a da
F oz f e s t i v a l s , a nd ev en made a modes t p r o f i t ( S a n t e 146 ) .
I n A me r i c a , howev er , P er ma nent V a c a t i o n was v i r t u a l l y
un s een , b ut was f o r a t i me i n t he 1980s a v a i l a b l e on
v i d e o t a p e . I t woul d a ppea r t ha t P er ma nent V a c a t i o n
e x p r e s s l y a n t i c i p a t e s some o f t he r e c u r r i n g t r op e s a nd
mo t i f s p r e v a l e n t i n J a r mus c h' s s ub s equen t ma t ur e wor k s . F or
22
i n s t a n c e , New Y or k T i mes c r i t i c V i n c e n t C a nb y ma i n t a i n e d
t h a t P er ma nent V a c a t i o n " i s n ot an un r e c og n i z e d ma s t e r pi e c e ,
b ut i t i s c l e a r l y t he f or e r un n e r of t he e c c e n t r i c comedi es
t o come, " a nd a l s o t ha t t he f i l m c o n s i s t s of , " a q u a n t i t y o f
r a w ma t e r i a l t h a t woul d l a t e r b e r e f i n e d i n t o t hr e e o f t he
f u n n i e s t , wi s e s t comedi es of t he l a s t deca de ( " V a c a t i o n "
C17) .
3
Two y e a r s a f t e r t he c omp l e t i on o f P er ma nent V a c a t i o n .
J a r mus ch made t he f i r s t t h i r d of S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e .
"T he New W o r l d " whi c h s t ood a s an aut onomous t h i r t y -
mi n ut e s hor t f i l m f r om f o r t y mi n ut es o f r a w 35- mm. f i l m
s t oc k don a t ed b y Wi m Wen der s .
4
I n 1984, J a r mus ch compl et ed
t he r e ma i n i n g t wo - t h i r d s of S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e , a nd t he
f i n a l v e r s i o n went on t o wi n t he C amer a d ' o r a t C a n n es ,
among many ot he r f e s t i v a l p r i z e s , as we l l a s b ecomi n g a
s i g n i f i c a n t p op ul a r s ucces s i n A me r i c a a nd a r oun d t he wo r l d .
B ut wha t i s i t a b out S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e t h a t makes
t he f i l m f e e l s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y A mer i ca n ? What a b out
t he f i l m pr ov oke d H ob er ma n ' s r ema r k a b out t he f i l m' s
" p l a t o n i c s en s e of A me r i c a n n e s s ? " I ha v e s e v e r a l
s ug g e s t i on s : f i r s t , and mos t s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t he f i l m' s
t a c i t compa r i s on t hr oug h t he r e v e r s a l o f t he s t e r e ot y p e -
- of t he e a s t e r n and we s t e r n c o l d wa r b l o c k s ( i . e . , t h a t New
Y o r k , C l e v e l a n d , a nd F l o r i d a a r e as g r i m or gr i mmer p l a c e s
t ha n B uda pes t i s ) i s a n a r g ua b l y mor e a c c ur a t e p o r t r a i t of
2 3
A me r i c a n s o c i e t y t ha n a r e t he t y p i c a l H ol l y wood
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a mb i t i ous A mer i ca n s un der b e n i g n
c a p i t a l i s m. A mb i t i o n , whi c h i s c e n t r a l t o c a p i t a l i s m a nd t o
H ol l y wood r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of A me r i c a n s o c i e t y , i s c o mp l e t e l y
a b s en t f r om t he f i l m' s c h a r a c t e r s , a nd t h i s a b s en ce i s
n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t e d i n t he f i l m' s t r e a t me n t o f A me r i c a n
c u l t u r e . S e c on dl y , t he f i l m' s s y s t e ma t i c e v o c a t i o n s of , a nd
r e f e r e n c e s t o , A me r i c a n j un k c u l t u r e ( f o o t b a l l a nd c a r t oon s
on t e l e v i s i o n , B udwei s er b eer , C h e s t e r f i e l d c i g a r e t t e s , hot
dog s , a nd S c r e a mi n ' J a y H a wki n s , e t c . ) a r e t e n de r e d i n t he
mi ds t o f t he f i l m' s p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l l a n ds c a pe , d r a i n i n g
t he s e a r t i f a c t s of t h e i r a f f i r ma t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s , a nd
r e v e a l i n g t he v a c u i t y of f a i t h i n t he i n n o v a t i o n a nd
pr og r e s s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h p r o t o t y p i c a l l y A me r i c a n cons umer
pr oduc t s s uch a s T . V . d i n n e r s . F i n a l l y , as p a r t of t he
f i l m' s c or e , t he p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o A me r i c a a nd
A me r i c a n c i t i z e n s h i p whi c h t he E ur opea n i mmi g r a n t s
( W i l l i e / B e l a , E v a , a nd A un t L ot t e ) de v e l op, a nd t he deg r ee
t o whi c h t hes e c ha r a c t e r s a r e a s s i mi l a t e d i n t o A me r i c a a nd
i t s c u l t u r e , a l s o n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t s t a r k l y upon A me r i c a n
c u l t u r e .
P a r t - wa y i n t o t h e i r d r i v e f r om New Y or k C i t y t o
C l e v e l a n d , E ddi e a s k s , " d i d y ou ev er n o t i c e , W i l l i e ,
wher ev er we go, i t a l l l ook s t he s a me, " a nd e l s e whe r e , s t i l l
mor e p o i n t e d l y , "does C l e v e l a n d l ook a l i t t l e l i k e
24
B uda pes t ? " T he d e s o l a t i o n of a l l o f t he f i l m' s l o c a t i o n s
a r e c l e a r l y meant t o r ous e a n A me r i c a n ' s c on c e pt i on s of t he
s t e r e ot y p e s o f any of t he War saw pa c t c i t i e s : L e n i n g r a d ,
K r a kow, E a s t B e r l i n , or B uda pes t . A n d i n a d d i t i o n t o t he
c h e e r l e s s mi s e - e n - s c e n e , t he f i l m' s us e of b l a c k - a n d - wh i t e ,
h i g h - c o n t r a s t f i l m s t oc k f u r t h e r un de r s c or e s i t s s t r a t e g y on
t h i s f r o n t . T h i s r e v e r s a l of t he s t e r e ot y pe i s a t on ce p a r t
o f t he f i l m' s a mus i n g modus operandi, a nd a s u b t l e p o l i t i c a l
s t a t emen t as w e l l , s i n c e t he r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t he e a s t e r n
b l o c k whi c h A mer i ca n s wer e t y p i c a l l y expos ed t o ( c i r c a 1984)
c o n s i s t e d of i ma ges of r e l e n t l e s s , mi n d l e s s , a nd humour l es s
t o i l f o r t he s a ke of t he S t a t e , a nd t i n y , g r i my , un hea t ed
S t a t e hous i n g , b a d f ood, a nd s o on . T ha t e x a c t l y t he same
c o u l d b e s a i d a b out a s i g n i f i c a n t - p a r t of A me r i c a i s , l i k e
t he e n t i r e f i l m, a t once f unny and d e p r e s s i n g .
T he f i l m' s s e t t i n g s a r e o n l y p a r t of i t s c un n i n g mi s e -
en - s cen e, howev er . I n a n i n g e n i ous i n v e r s i o n of t he
s t e r e o t y p i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of c i t i z e n s un der communi s m,
J a r mus ch cos t umes h i s A mer i ca n s i n u t t e r l y a n t e d i l u v i a n
f a s h i o n s : E d d i e ' s a r g y l e s wea t er , W i l l i e ' s 1940s s h i r t s a nd
b a ggy z o o t - s u i t t r o u s e r s ( n a t u r a l l y s uppor t e d b y
s us pe n de r s ) , a nd t h e i r u b i q u i t o u s f e dor a ha t s . A l l o f t h e i r
c l o t h e s a r e c o n s c i o u s l y out of s t y l e , whi c h i s wha t a l l
c i t i z e n s of B uda pes t ( or L e n i n g r a d , e t c . ) a r e p e r c e i v e d b y
A me r i c a n s a t l e a s t b y A mer i ca n s c o n d i t i o n e d b y t y p i c a l
25
H ol l y wood r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o b e. I n f a c t , E ddi e a nd
W i l l i e seem t o b e coded as o u t s i d e r s or f o r e i g n e r s ev en i n
t h e i r own c oun t r y . A n ot he r wo r l d , a n " o r d i n a r y " A me r i c a ,
does seem t o e x i s t o u t s i d e of t h e i r dr a b e x i s t e n c e s ,
howev er , as e v i de n c e d b y t h e i r o c c a s i o n a l ( b ut v e r y few)
i n t e r a c t i o n s wi t h ot he r A mer i ca n s ( i . e . , ev er y b ody b ut E v a
a nd A un t L o t t e ) . T hes e few s cen es o f i n t e r a c t i o n a r e
t e l l i n g b eca us e s i n c e s o much o f t he f i l m f oc us e s on W i l l i e
a nd E d d i e , we t e n d t o s t a r t t a k i n g t h e i r we i r d wo r l d as
n a t u r a l , u n t i l J a r mus ch j ux t a pos e s our her oes wi t h
" ev er y da y " A me r i c a n s .
B e f or e t he f i r s t s uch en coun t er , t houg h, we s ee t he
poke r game i n whi c h W i l l i e a nd E ddi e a r e a l mos t ca ug ht
c h e a t i n g . S t r a n g e l y , t he c a r d - p l a y e r s c l o s e l y r es emb l e
W i l l i e a nd E ddi e i n t h e i r manner a nd d r e s s , one ev en wea r s a
b o w- t i e . T hes e h i p s t e r dea db ea t c ha r a c t e r s e x i s t t o c o n t r a s t
wi t h t he n ext c ha r a c t e r t o c r os s W i l l i e a nd E d d i e ' s p a t h .
S h o r t l y a f t e r t he c a r d game en coun t er , we s ee E ddi e a nd
W i l l i e d r i v i n g out of New Y o r k , ha v i n g a l r e a d y de c i de d t o
v i s i t E v a i n C l e v e l a n d . W i l l i e i n s t r u c t s E ddi e t o p u l l t he
c a r ov e r t o t he s i d e of t he r oa d s o he ca n p l a y a l i t t l e
j ok e on t he man s t a n di n g a t a b us - s t op. B ut a f t e r a s k i n g
t he man "do y ou know whi c h way i s C l e v e l a n d ? , " t he man
a n g r i l y r es pon ds wi t h , "hey gi mme a b r ea k, I ' m j u s t g o i n g t o
wo r k . " When W i l l i e a s ks wher e t he man wor k s , we f i n d out
26
t ha t he i s a f a c t o r y - wo r k e r . D r i v i n g away , W i l l i e a nd E ddi e
ca n s c a r c e l y h i d e t h e i r d i s b e l i e f : " P oor guy ! G od! Y ou
s h o u l d n ' t ha v e g i v e n hi m s uch a ha r d t i me . C an y ou i ma g i n e
wo r k i n g i n a factory?
9
." E ddi e e x c l a i ms . E ddi e a nd W i l l i e
a r e somehow r emoved f r om t h e i r c u l t u r e o b v i o u s l y o f t h e i r
own v o l i t i o n i t s houl d b e n ot ed t h a t t he v e r y t houg ht o f
t o i l i n g i n a f a c t o r y i s s hoc k i n g a nd u p s e t t i n g t o t hem. Not
o n l y do W i l l i e a nd E ddi e l a c k c o n v e n t i o n a l a mb i t i on s a nd
c a p i t a l i s t wo r k - e t h i c , ev en t h e i r p e t t y h u s t l i n g a nd
g a mb l i n g i s a p p a r e n t l y s l o t h f u l l y un mot i v a t e d.
T he o n l y ot he r pe r s on t ha t E ddi e a nd W i l l i e meet i s
E v a ' s a l mo s t - b o y f r i e n d , B i l l y , who, wh i l e n ev er o v e r t l y
r i d i c u l e d or mi s t r e a t e d b y t he f i l m' s ot he r c h a r a c t e r s , i s
n e i t h e r a c c or de d much d i g n i t y b y t he f i l m. B i l l y d o e s n ' t
ha v e much t o do i n t he f i l m, b ut one t h i n g he does i s
s ug g es t t h a t he a nd E v a go t o s ee a " f o r e i g n f l i c k " on a
da t e . E v a , per ha ps mi s un de r s t a n di n g t h a t B i l l y means a n a r t
f i l m, s ug g es t s a k un g - f u mov i e i n s t e a d .
W i l l i e ' s g r i my a pa r t men t , A un t L o t t e ' s hous e, a nd ev en
t he F l o r i d a mot e l r oom a r e a l s o p a r t of t he f i l m' s
B u d a p e s t i z a t i o n - o f - A me r i c a game. E v a a s ks of W i l l i e ' s T . V .
d i n n e r , "wha t does t ha t meat come fr om? I t d o e s n ' t ev en
l ook l i k e mea t . " T h i s s cen e i s h i l a r i o u s l y i n d i c a t i v e of
t he f i l m' s s t r a t e g y : s omet hi n g c l a s s i c a l l y A me r i c a n , t he
T . V . d i n n e r , i s t ur n e d i n t o s omet hi n g s t r a i g h t f r om t he
27
c l i c h e d - H u n g a r i a n k i t c h e n , meat s o d e l e t e r i o u s , t h a t i t s
v e r y o r i g i n i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . A n d y e t , as W i l l i e p a t i e n t l y
e x p l a i n s t o h i s un e n l i g ht e n e d H un g a r i a n c o u s i n , " t h i s i s t he
way we ea t i n A me r i c a . S ee, I g ot my mea t , I g ot my
pot a t oe s , I g ot my v e g e t a b l e s , I g ot my d e s s e r t , a nd I d o n ' t
ev en ha ve t o wa s h t he di s he s a f t e r . " I n t e r e s t i n g l y , l a t e r
i n t he f i l m, when E v a wor ks a t a hot dog s t a n d i n C l e v e l a n d ,
W i l l i e , E d d i e , a nd E v a a l l s ha r e t h e i r d i s t a s t e f o r hot dog s ,
per ha ps t he u l t i ma t e A me r i c a n f ood, c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d as
t he y a r e wi t h b a s e b a l l , t he n a t i o n a l pa s t i me .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t he e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n - i n f l e c t e d mi s e - e n -
s cen e, S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e ' s n a r r a t i v e a l s o s p e c i f i c a l l y
ev okes t he empt y t o i l of t he comr ade un der communi sm p o s i t e d
b y v i r t u a l l y a l l A me r i c a n c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . I t i s
i n t e r e s t i n g t o n ot e her e t ha t t h i s i s a n e x t r e me l y s p e c i f i c
exa mpl e of t he i d e o l o g i c a l e f f e c t of c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n
whi c h I a ddr es s ed v e r y b r i e f l y i n t he l a s t c ha pt e r . T ha t
i s , H ol l y wood f i l ms ha v e c r e a t e d f o r A me r i c a n s ( and t o a
deg r ee, t he wor l d) a n i mage of t he e a s t e r n E ur opea n c i t y a nd
c i t i z e n , i ma ges whi c h a r e n e c e s s a r i l y i n b l a c k a nd wh i t e ,
c ov e r e d i n s oot , u g l y , s h i f t l e s s , a nd g r i m. Of c our s e ,
t he s e wor ds a l s o p e r f e c t l y d e s c r i b e E ddi e a nd W i l l i e ' s
wo r l d . E ddi e a nd W i l l i e ' s s h i f t l e s s n e s s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
a n a ma z i n g s h i f t l e s s n a r r a t i v e . Or wha t would b e a n
a ma z i n g l y s h i f t l e s s n a r r a t i v e , i f i t wer e n ot f o r E v a ' s
28
a r r i v a l i n "T he New W o r l d , " as t he f i l m' s f i r s t s e c t i o n i s
t i t l e d .
E v a i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r v i r t u a l l y e v e r y t h i n g t h a t
ha ppens i n t he f i l m, a f a c t whi c h i mp l i e s t h a t i f E v a d i d
n ot a r r i v e i n New Y o r k , n o t h i n g woul d ev er ha ppen t o E ddi e
a nd W i l l i e . A l l a c t i o n , except f o r c a r d - p l a y i n g a nd
r a c e t r a c k - g o i n g whi c h a r e a p p a r e n t l y E ddi e a nd W i l l i e ' s
o n l y a c t i v i t i e s i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t he f o r c e o f E v a ' s
pr e s e n c e . T he a x i s upon whi c h f i s h - d u t - o f - wa t e r s t o r i e s
( whi ch t h i s i s , of a k i n d) t u r n , i s t h a t t he y pr e s e n t a
f i l m- ma k e r t he p o s s i b i l i t y t o v i e w t he humdr um a nd t he b a n a l
wi t h a f r e s h new p e r s p e c t i v e t hr oug h t he ey es o f a new-
comer , a n o u t s i d e r . T h i s i s a t a c t i c whi c h J a r mus ch
r e p e a t e d l y r e t u r n s t o t hr oug hout h i s c a r e e r , a nd i n S t r a n g e r
T ha n P a r a d i s e , a s i t does e l s e whe r e , t he e f f e c t i s a c hi e v e d
as de s i g n e d: a " P l a t o n i c s en s e of A me r i c a n n e s s " i s a c hi e v e d
b y s e e i n g t he A me r i c a n l a n ds c a pe , h i s t o r y , c u l t u r e , a nd
t r a d i t i o n s t hr oug h t he f r e s h y oun g ey es of a e i g ht e e n y e a r -
o l d g i r l f r om B uda pe s t .
5
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , E v a does a r r i v e i n
A me r i c a wi t h p l e n t y of p r e - c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n s o f wha t t he
c oun t r y a nd t he c u l t u r e i s g oi n g t o b e l i k e , a nd o f wha t i s
c o n s i d e r e d h i p . S he s mokes o n l y C h e s t e r f i e l d s b eca us e s he
knows t hem t o b e h i p pr es uma b l y f r om some a r c h a i c
A me r i c a n c u l t u r a l pr oduc t s ( pr ob a b l y H ol l y wood f i l ms ) , f r om
t he l a s t t i me t h a t t he y wer e a c t u a l l y h i p . S he l i s t e n s o n l y
29
t o he r " ma i n ma n,
1 1
S cr ea mi n J a y H a wki n s , who r e pr e s e n t s t o
E v a t he u l t i ma t e A me r i c a n mus i c , wh i l e some mi g ht c o n s i d e r
ot he r A me r i c a n i n n o v a t i o n s , compos er s , or pe r f or me r s t o b e
c u s t o ma r i l y c i t e d a s a r c h e t y p i c a l l y A me r i c a n t he
G e r s hwi n s , T h e l o n i u s Monk, Mi l e s D a v i s , a nd C h a r l i e P a r k e r ,
or ev en E l v i s P r e s l e y , f o r i n s t a n c e . A n d her f on dn es s f o r
da t e d A me r i c a n s l a n g ("my ma i n ma n , " "b ug o f f " ) a l s o s i t u a t e
he r i n a we i r d t i me wa r p s omewher e j u s t a f t e r s cr ub b ed
Y a n kee G . I . s ha nded out chewi n g gum t o s h e l l - s h o c k e d ,
E ur opea n c h i l d r e n .
When, n ea r t he end of "T he New W o r l d , " t he f i l m' s f i r s t
s e c t i o n , E v a i s l e a v i n g W i l l i e ' s a pa r t men t f o r C l e v e l a n d ,
W i l l i e a s ks her t o l e a v e b e hi n d some of t he c i g a r e t t e s whi c h
s he ha s s h o p l i f t e d . A t f i r s t , E v a i s r e l u c t a n t t o compl y
b eca us e s he i s a f r a i d t ha t t he s e New Y or k C i t y
C h e s t e r f i e l d s , whi c h l ook a nd t a s t e s o good t o he r , w i l l b e
u n a v a i l a b l e i n C l e v e l a n d . I t ' s o n l y when W i l l i e a s s ur e s E v a
t h a t a c a r t o n of C h e s t e r f i e l d s b ought a ny wher e i n t he U n i t e d
S t a t e s w i l l l ook a nd t a s t e e x a c t l y t he same, does E v a a gr ee
t o l e a v e some b e hi n d f o r her c o u s i n . T he i mpor t a n ce o f t h i s
s cen e, b ey on d i t s s ur f a c e u t i l i t y as p a r t o f t he f i l m' s
f i s h - o u t - o f - wa t e r comedy , i s t h a t i t demon s t r a t es t he
c o n t r a d i c t o r y s t a t us of A me r i c a n j un k c u l t u r e as h a v i n g b ot h
homog e n i z i n g a nd h e t e r o g e n i z i n g q u a l i t i e s , depen di n g on who
i s r e g a r d i n g a g i v e n a r t i f a c t . F or E v a , C h e s t e r f i e l d
30
c i g a r e t t e s a r e a s i g n of A me r i c a n c o o l i n t he same way t h a t
S c r e a mi n ' J a y H a wk i n s ' mus i c i s , as i s t he e x p r e s s i o n " b ug
o f f . " T o W i l l i e , t houg h, C h e s t e r f i e l d c i g a r e t t e s d o n ' t
"mean" a n y t h i n g n e a r l y s o pr of oun d. B r a n d name a nd
f r a n c h i s e homogen ei t y a r e s uch a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t he
A me r i c a n c u l t u r a l l a n ds c a pe , t ha t J a r mus ch us es t he
C h e s t e r f i e l d ' s b r a n d name as a way of l o o k i n g b a ck on t he
da y s when c e r t a i n b r a n d names ha d a d i f f e r e n t ca che t ha n
t he y d i d i n 1984. T h i s i s why t he c h a r a c t e r ' s wa r dr ob es
( l i k e t he pa s s e C h e s t e r f i e l d s b r a n d name) a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o
t he s o - o u t - o f - s t y l e - i t s - i n a mb i ence of t he f i l m a nd i t s
c h a r a c t e r s . One ca n as s ume t ha t i t was t h i s f e a t ur e o f t he
f i l m pr ompt ed H ob er ma n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n ( quot ed i n t he l a s t
cha pt er ) o f S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e ' s " p o s t - h i p h i p s t e r i s m. "
B y f l a g r a n t l y i n v e r t i n g t he s t e r e o t y p i c a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of commun i s t , oppr e s s e d, e a s t e r n E ur ope a nd
o f c a p i t a l i s t , f r e e , A me r i c a , J a r mus ch i l l u mi n a t e s t he
A me r i c a n c u l t u r e b y compa r i n g and c o n t r a s t i n g i t t o wha t
A me r i c a n s ha ve p e r c e i v e d t o b e i t s op p os i t e - t he " en emy ' s "
c u l t u r e . A n a l o g o u s l y , S t r a n g e r T han P a r a di s e r e v e r s e s t he
r o l e s a nd deg r ees of i n f l u e n c e of t he E ur opea n a r t ci n ema
a nd H o l l y wo o d . T he r e s u l t of t h i s r e v e r s a l i s p l a i n enough
a n A me r i c a n a r t f i l m, one whi c h i s d i s t i n c t i v e l y ( t hr oug h
d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o E ur ope) A me r i c a n i n f l a v o u r , t on e , s t y l e ,
e t c . , i s b or n . S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a di s e
31
i s a s u p e r l a t i v e exa mpl e of t he s o r t of c r o s s - c u l t u r a l
f e r t i l i z a t i o n t ha t i s one of t he a r t c i n e ma ' s ( i . e . t he
me t a - s e t ' s ) d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h i s i s t o s a y , as
A n dr ew H i g s on n ot e s , t ha t H ol l y wood ha s a s i g n i f i c a n t a f f e c t
on t he f i l m c u l t u r e i n e v e r y n a t i o n ; s o, t o o , t he a r t f i l m,
e s p e c i a l l y t he E ur opea n on e, a f f e c t s e v e r y n a t i o n ' s f i l m
c u l t u r e as w e l l . One ca n a l mos t s en s e t he d e l i g h t a nd
compl et e a wa r en es s of t he phenomenon of A me r i c a n , E ur opea n ,
a nd ev en A s i a n , c u l t u r a l c r o s s - f e r t i l i z a t i o n i n J a r mus c h' s
own d e s c r i p t i o n of S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e : " I t ' s a n eo-
r e a l i s t i c b l a c k comedy i n t he s t y l e of a n i ma g i n a r y E a s t
E ur opea n d i r e c t o r ob s es s ed wi t h Ozu a nd T he H oney mooner s "
( qt d. i n Moder n i s m 20 1) . " T oky o S t o r y , " a f t e r Oz u' s f i l m,
i s t he name o f t he hor s e t hey de c i de t o b e t on e a r l y i n t he
f i l m ( f r om a s e l e c t i o n whi c h a l s o i n c l u d e s hor s e s named
a f t e r Oz u' s L a t e S p r i n g a nd P a s s i n g F a n c y ) .
I n t he s cen e wher e W i l l i e t e l l s E ddi e t h a t he i s as
" A me r i c a n " a s E ddi e i s , S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e pr ompt s i t s
s p e c t a t o r t o q u e s t i o n t he n a t ur e of p e r s o n a l n a t i o n a l i t y .
I n t he mos t p r o s a i c s en s e, s u r e l y W i l l i e i s , l i k e E d d i e , a n
A me r i c a n c i t i z e n ; t he y b ot h pr ob a b l y ha ve A me r i c a n
p a s s p o r t s , v o t i n g r i g h t s , a nd a l l of t he ot he r r e l a t i v e l y
mundane r i g h t s a nd r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l
c i t i z e n s h i p (as t he y a r e s p e c i f i e d i n t he A me r i c a n
c o n s t i t u t i o n a nd r e l e v a n t i mmi g r a t i on a nd n a t u r a l i z a t i o n
32
l e g i s l a t i o n ) . B ut t hes e b a n a l i t i e s a r e n ot wha t W i l l i e i s
t a l k i n g a b out . R a t he r , he means t ha t h i s n a t ur e , h i s
t emper a ment , h i s es s en ce a r e , d e s p i t e h i s c oun t r y o f b i r t h ,
as A me r i c a n as E d d i e ' s .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , b eca us e (as t he f i l m v e r y g r a d u a l l y
r e v e a l s ) , E v a seems t o s ha r e s o much i n common wi t h E ddi e
a nd W i l l i e i n s o f a r as t h e i r wo r l d v i e ws a nd s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s
( n ot t o men t i on t h e i r n o t i o n s of " c o o l " ) a r e i n ha r mony , E v a
i s as A me r i c a n a s t he f i l m' s t wo dea db ea t s f r om t he v e r y
moment s he a r r i v e s i n New Y or k C i t y . B ut a s B a r b a r a K r ug e r
n ot e s :
S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a di s e i s r e a l l y a b out c o o l , i n
t h a t c o o l i s a b out g e s t u r e . . . . C o o l i s a l wa y s s een
a nd n ev er h e a r d . . . . C o o l knows i t s l i mi t a t i o n s a nd
i s c o o l enough t o keep t hem a s weet s e c r e t ( 6 2) .
K r u g e r ' s o b s e r v a t i o n a p p l i e s t o t he f i l m' s c h a r a c t e r s a s
w e l l a s t o t he f i l m' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t he A me r i c a n ci n ema .
A d d r e s s i n g t he c on n e c t i on s b et ween c u l t u r e , hegemony , a nd
s t y l e , D i c k H eb di g e s ug g es t s t ha t coun t er - heg emon i c
i n c l i n a t i o n s a r e of t e n e xpr e s s e d o b l i q u e l y t hr oug h s t y l e .
S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e ' s c ha r a c t e r s a r e n ot t he ms e l v e s a wa r e
o f t h e i r r o l e i n t h i s pr oc e s s , b ut J a r mus ch c l e a r l y i s , as
e v i de n c e d b y h i s f i l m' s h a n d l i n g of f i l m s t y l e , f a s h i o n , a nd
mi s e - e n - s c e n e . A n d s i n c e t he t hr e e p r i n c i p l e h i p s t e r s ' o n l y
r e a l " a n t a g on i s t " i s A un t L o t t e (and o n l y when t he t hr e e
de c i de t o s p l i t f o r F l o r i d a ) , i t woul d a ppea r t he f i l m s e t s
33
up a g e n e r a t i o n a l c o n f l i c t , r a t h e r t ha n a t r u l y c u l t u r a l
on e. A un t L o t t e ha s b een i n A me r i c a f o r y e a r s b ut s pea ks
v e r y l i t t l e E n g l i s h , a nd as demon s t r a t ed b y he r a ut oma t i c
p r o d u c t i o n o f s t ea mi n g g oul a s h upon W i l l i e a nd E d d i e ' s
a r r i v a l i n C l e v e l a n d , s he s o l i d l y r e t a i n s he r H un g a r i a n
h e r i t a g e . Of c our s e , W i l l i e ha s b een a t t e mpt i n g t o s hed h i s
H un g a r i a n a n c e s t r y l i k e a di s e a s e s i n c e h i s a r r i v a l i n " t he
new wo r l d . " B ut E v a , as oppos ed t o A un t L o t t e a nd W i l l i e ' s
ext r eme r e a c t i o n s t o t h e i r new en v i r on men t , b l e n ds c u l t u r e s ,
ma i n t a i n s he r t i e s t o t he o l d , wh i l e r o b u s t l y emb r a ci n g t he
new as w e l l . A n d t he e x i s t e n c e of t h i s g e n e r a t i o n a l
c o n f l i c t a s one o f t he f i l m' s s c a r c e s our c e s o f dr a ma ,
e s p e c i a l l y when c oupl e d wi t h t he f i l m' s p l o t "a s
u n e v e n t f u l a s o r d i n a r y l i f e i t s e l f " ( B o r d we l l 1988, b n Oz u,
1) i s c e r t a i n l y f u r t h e r e v i de n c e o f S t r a n g e r T ha n
P a r a d i s e ' s c on s c i ous homage t o Oz u.
J a r mus ch t o l d J a n e t Ma s l i n of t he New Y or k T i mes t h a t
he " s t i l l t h i n k s of t he f i l m as a n un der g r oun d f i l m t h a t
somehow c r os s e d ov e r " ( " D i r e c t o r " C 8 ) , a nd pr oduc e r S a r a
D r i v e r ha s r ema r ked,
I t h i n k t he s ucces s of S t r a n g e r a nd ot he r
i n depen den t f i l ms i s e s t a b l i s h i n g a pa t h a nd
ope n i n g t h i n g s up f o r ev er y b ody . E v e r y t h i n g ' s
c ha n g i n g . Y ou ca n f e e l i t " ( S ei den b er g 17 ) .
T he p l e t h o r a of p op ul a r a nd c r i t i c a l p r a i s e whi c h g r e e t e d
t he a r r i v a l o f J a r mus c h' s s econ d f e a t ur e f i l m was
34
a s t o n i s h i n g g i v e n t he f i l m' s a v a n t - g a r de c ompl e x i on a nd
a l mos t compl et e a b s en ce of t he i n g r e d i e n t s t y p i c a l l y f oun d,
a nd o f t e n c on s i de r e d r e q u i s i t e , i n popul a r f i l ms . B ut as J .
Hob er man n ot es ( a t t he s t a r t of t h i s c h a p t e r ) , S t r a n g e r T ha n
P a r a d i s e ' s e x t r e me l y p o s i t i v e r e c e p t i o n was p a r t of a l a r g e r
t en den cy i n t he con s umpt i on of , a nd r e a c t i o n t o , f i l ms i n
A me r i c a i n t he 1980s t he g r owi n g a ccept a n ce o f a b e r r a n t ,
f o r me r l y un popul a r , modes of f i l m p r a c t i c e . I n a 1986
a r t i c l e , T i m H ol mes r e f l e c t e d on S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e ' s
i n f l u e n c e upon t he A me r i c a n ci n ema :
T he c omme r c i a l s ucces s of t he f i l m t ook
ev er y b ody b y s u r p r i s e . H er e was a mov i e wi t h no
s ex, no v i o l e n c e , no c a r cha s es , no s p e c i a l
e f f e c t s ; t he mi n i ma l d i a l o g u e was l a c o n i c a nd
dea dpa n ; ea ch s cen e c o n s i s t e d of a l o n g , s i n g l e
s hot f r om a s o l i t a r y ca mer a a n g l e . B ut S t r a n g e r
ha d i t s own r hy t hm, c e n t e r i n g on t he a l mos t
i mp e r c e p t i b l y v a r y i n g i n t e r v a l s b et ween i t s
p u n c t u a t i n g b l a c k o u t f r a mes , a nd t he i mpe c c a b l y
d r o l l d e l i v e r y of i t s p r i n c i p l e c h a r a c t e r s . T he
f i l m a nnounced t he a r r i v a l of a new comi c
s e n s i b i l i t y t ha t a ckn owl edged p ul p wh i l e
d i s p e n s i n g wi t h camp. S t r a n g e r ' s s uc c e s s r e v e a l e d
t he a r t i s t i c a nd c omme r c i a l p o t e n t i a l o f
i n depen den t c i n e ma . . . ( 3 8) .
S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a di s e i s an a v a n t - g a r de f i l m whi c h
r e a c he d a l a r g e popul a r a udi e n c e . Not a b l e among t he
a t t e n t i o n whi c h t he f i l m r e c e i v e d i n i n d u s t r y c i r c l e s , t he
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y e n t h u s i a s t i c V a r i e t y a r t i c l e , ' " P a r a d i s e '
P a s s es $ 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . . . " wh i c h , wh i l e d e s c r i b i n g t he f i l m' s
d i s t r i b u t i o n s t r a t e g y , en t hus ed:
35
p r o j e c t i n g i t s f i r s t r un s t o b e compl et ed b y t he
end of t he y e a r , ( t he d i s t r i b u t o r ) pegs u l t i ma t e
U . S . r e n t a l s f r om t he f i l m a t $ 2, 500, 000 " (24)
Of t he a v a n t - g a r de wor k whi c h t he f i l m mos t r e s e mb l e s ,
Hob er man ha s ob s e r v e d t he f i l m' s a f f i n i t y t o J ames B e n n i n g ' s
8 1/ 2 X 11 ( 1974) , a nd 11 X 14 ( 1976 ) . I woul d s ug g es t t h a t
B e n n i n g ' s H i m a nd Me (1982) a l s o a n t i c i p a t e s t he f i l m t o a
l a r g e deg r ee, a nd r es emb l es S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e ev en mor e
c l o s e l y t ha n B e n n i n g ' s e a r l i e r f i l ms do. B e n n i n g ' s wor k,
whi c h i s much mor e r i g o r o u s l y f o r ma l i s t t ha n J a r mus c h' s ,
o f t e n r e l i e s upon t he s u p e r - l o n g t a k e , f r a mi n g i ma ges wi t h
s t r i c t a t t e n t i o n t o a l l t hr e e a xes ( b ut e s p e c i a l l y t he Z
a x i s ) a nd l i n g e r i n g on t h i s i mage f o r wha t ca n o n l y b e
c o n s i d e r e d a s t o n i s h i n g l y l o n g p e r i o d s of t i me . H i m a nd Me
ha s s hot s , f o r i n s t a n c e , of mor e t ha n 11 mi n ut es of s t a t i c
ca mer a wi t h no human i n t e r v e n t i o n .
V i n c e n t C anb y wr ot e i n h i s r e v i e w of P er ma nent V a c a t i o n
t h a t , " i n l a t e r f i l ms Mr . J a r mus ch demon s t r a t es a s i n g u l a r
g i f t f o r t he k i n d of n a r r a t i v e t ha t , wi t h o u t t he a udi e n c e s '
a wa r en es s , b u i l d s t o an i n e v i t a b l e pa y of f " ( C 17) . A c c u r a t e
a s t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s wi t h r e g a r d t o J a r mus c h' s ma j or
f i l ms , C a n b y ' s r ema r ks a r e a l s o p e r f e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o
J ames B e n n i n g ' s H i m and Me. wher e t he n a r r a t i v e e x i s t s i n
o n l y t he mos t n eb ul ous of f or ms , u n t i l t he f i n a l s equen ce
makes s en s e of a l mos t e v e r y one o f t he f i l m' s many d e t a i l s
36
whi c h upon t h e i r i n i t i a l p r e s e n t a t i o n pr ov oke d n o t h i n g b ut
puz z l e me n t . T he b u i l d - u p t o t he p a y o f f i s , a s C a nb y wr i t e s ,
unknown t o t he a udi e n c e , s o upon i t s a r r i v a l t he
s a t i s f a c t i o n i s a l l t he g r e a t e r . T h i s s t r a t e g y , o f
wi t h h o l d i n g a f i l m' s " t r i c k " ( whi ch i n t he ca s e o f
J a r mus c h' s f i l ms i s a l wa y s s i t u a t e d i n t he way t he s t o r y i s
t o l d ) , i s common p r a c t i c e i n e x p e r i me n t a l or a v a n t - g a r de
f i l m- ma k i n g . I n a d d i t i o n t o t he p e r t i n e n t exa mpl e o f
B e n n i n g ' s oeuv r e, one c o u l d c i t e as exa mpl es o f t h i s
phenomenon many c a n o n i c a l e x p e r i me n t a l f i l ms , s uch as
Mi c h a e l S n ow' s Wa v el en g t h ( 196 9) . I n t he ca s e of S t r a n g e r
T ha n P a r a d i s e , t he n a r r a t i v e ' s f i n a l t r i c k s e n di n g
W i l l i e , a l on e , b a ck t o B uda pes t , a nd l e a v i n g E v a , n e wl y -
we a l t hy , i n F l o r i d a i s p e r f e c t l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o t he
f i l m' s o v e r a l l i l l u mi n a t i o n of t he n a t ur e o f A me r i c a t hr oug h
c ompa r i s on a nd c o n t r a s t t o communi s t e a s t e r n E ur ope .
J a r mus c h' s d a l l i a n c e wi t h n a r r a t i v e s ub t e r f ug e i n h i s
e n s ui n g f i l ms s h a l l b e pr omi n en t among t he f o l l o wi n g
c h a p t e r s ' c on c e r n s .
Not es t o C ha pt er Two
37
1. I n H ob er ma n ' s V i l l a g e V o i c e r e v i e w of t he f i l m ( whi ch i s
r e p r i n t e d i n V u l g a r Moder n i s m ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : T empl e
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1991) ) , he c a t a l og ue s a whol e hos t o f a r t
f i l m a nd a v a n t - g a r de i n f l u e n c e s :
W i t h i t s d i s l o c a t e d t r a v e l o g u e , S t r a n g e r T ha n
P a r a d i s e s ug g es t s Wim Wen der s ' K i n g s o f t he R oa d;
t he t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l y s ha b b y moons ca pes ev oke C ha n t e l
A c k e r ma n ' s News f r om Home a nd t he a b s en ce o f r e v e r s e
a n g l e s her J ea n n e D i e l ma n ; wh i l e t he s ha g g y - dog
n a r r a t i v e a nd v i g n e t t e s t r u c t u r e a r e a n t i c i p a t e d b y
J i m B e n n i n g ' s 8 1/2 X 11 a nd 11 X 14.
Hob er man goes on t o a dd, t houg h, t h a t :
J a r mus ch d i s p l a y s f r e e - f l o a t i n g a f f i n i t i e s t o
f i l mma k e r s as d i s p a r a t e as R on R i c e a nd C a r l D r e y e r
as w e l l , b ut S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e i s f a r mor e t ha n
t he sum of i n f l u e n c e s ( 202) .
I ha v e c a l l e d 8 1/2 X 11. 11 X 14
F
a nd H i m a nd Me B e n n i n g ' s
" p o s t - c a r d mov i es " b eca us e t hey a r e l a r g e l y c ompr i s e d o f
e x t r e me l y l o n g , un c ut , s hot s f r om a f i x e d ca mer a p o s i t i o n o f
s t r a n g e l y b e a u t i f u l a nd c a r e f u l l y compos ed i n e r t i ma ges of
A me r i c a n a .
2. One f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d f a c t a b out J a r mus c h' s t i me a t
N . Y . U . i s t ha t he was Ni c h o l a s R a y ' s t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t . I n
a l mos t e v e r y a r t i c l e a b out J a r mus ch a nd S t r a n g e r T ha n
P a r a d i s e wr i t t e n i n 1984 or 1985, t h i s f a c t was r a i s e d .
3. T he r e a de r w i l l n ot e f r om my l i s t o f wor ks c i t e d t h a t
C a nb y r e v i e we d P er ma nent V a c a t i o n i n 1990, y e a r s a f t e r i t s
i n i t i a l r e l e a s e , on t he o c c a s i o n of t he p u b l i c s c r e e n i n g of
t he A n t hol og y F i l m A r c h i v e ' s 35- mm. b l ow- up o f t he 16 - mm
o r i g i n a l .
4. A p p a r e n t l y b eca us e he was i mpr es s ed b y P er ma nent
V a c a t i o n , a nd s ought t o en cour a ge J a r mus c h' s u n r e a l i z e d
p o t e n t i a l , Wender s ga ve J a r mus ch t he f i l m- s t o c k a f t e r J a r mus ch
wor ked on t he Wen der s / Ni c h o l a s R ay c o l l a b o r a t i o n L i g h t n i n g
Ov er Wa t er (1982) ( S a n t e 146 ) .
38
5 . T he f i l m does n ot r e v e a l E v a ' s a ge. W h i l e many
commen t a t or s a gr ee i n o b s e r v i n g t h a t s he i s y oun g er t ha n
W i l l i e a nd E ddi e ~ a p o i n t made f a i r l y e x p l i c i t l y b y t he f i l m
her age v a r i e s i n r e v i e ws a nd a r t i c l e s on t he f i l m f r om
s i x t e e n t o t we n t y - on e . E i g ht e e n i s j u s t my g ues s .
39
Chapter Three
Down By Law; "Stuck i n J a i l " o r " In Co ntro l ?"
T he U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e d e s t i n e d e i t h e r t o s ur moun t
t he gor geous h i s t o r y of f e u d a l i s m, or e l s e pr ov e
t he mos t t r emendous f a i l u r e of t i me .
Walt Whitman, "Democratic V istas. " (318)
Down B y L a w' s (1986 ) open i n g t r a c k i n g s hot s o f
o b l i q u e l y - f r a me d New Or l e a n s s t r e e t s a nd hi g hwa y s ( whi ch
a ppea r t o ha ve b een s hot t hr oug h t he wi ndow o f a mov i n g ca r )
ma n i f e s t t he degr ee t o whi c h t he f i l m whi c h f o l l o ws w i l l
s ha r e i t s t i t l e ' s a mb i guous a n d/ or c o n t r a d i c t o r y c h a r a c t e r .
J a r mus ch may a gr ee wi t h W a l t Whi t ma n t ha t " t he U n i t e d S t a t e s
t hems el v es a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t he g r e a t e s t poem, " b ut
J a r mus c h' s r ea s on s f o r t h i n k i n g s o a r e t he o p p o s i t e , or
s omet hi n g l i k e t he o p p o s i t e , of Whi t ma n ' s r e a s on s . T h i s
l i n e f r om Whi t ma n ' s pr e f a c e t o t he 1855 e d i t i o n o f L ea v es o f
G r a s s i s among t he mos t famous ob s e r v a t i on s i n a l l A me r i c a n
l i t e r a t u r e . I t i s t he c o n t e n t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s t h a t
W hi t ma n ' s r ema r k i s a n o b s e r v a t i o n whi c h J a r mus c h' s oeuvi r e
t a k e s a s one of i t s s t a r t i n g p o i n t s : t he U n i t e d S t a t e s
t hems el v es a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l l y t he g r e a t e s t f i l m.
J a r mus c h' s p e r s p e c t i v e t owa r d t he s t a t e a nd p o t e n t i a l o f h i s
n a t i o n i s mor e c y n i c a l , l e s s c e l e b r a t o r y , b ut no l e s s
commemor a t i ve t ha n W hi t ma n ' s , howev er . B ob t e l l i n g l y
40
pr e f a c e s h i s p r i s o n - b r e a k p l a n wi t h , " I t h i n k a f i l m I ha v e
s een w i l l h e l p . A n A me r i c a n f i l m. L o t s o f a c t i o n . V e r y
good f i l m . " A n d j u s t a f t e r s c a l i n g t he p r i s o n ' s wa l l s , B ob
e x c l a i ms , "We ha ve es ca pedI L i k e i n A me r i c a n mov i e s ! "
B ob b i e , J a c k ' s p r o s t i t u t e / g i r l f r i e n d c l a r i f i e s
J a r mus c h' s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t a k e on Whi t ma n ' s c e l e b r a t o r y
opt i mi s m a b out t he A me r i c a n democr a cy : "My momma us ed t o
s a y t h a t A me r i c a i s a b i g me l t i n g pot , b eca us e y ou b r i n g i t
t o a b o i l a nd a l l t he s cum r i s e s t o t he t op . S o may b e
t h e r e ' s hope f o r y ou y e t , J a c k . " " Y ou a l wa y s ma k i n ' b i g
p l a n s f o ' t omor r ow, b eca us e y ou a l wa y s f u c k i n ' up t o d a y . "
A l t h o u g h i t s ounds a s t hough i t s houl d mean s omet hi n g
l i k e " s t uc k i n j a i l " or a r e l a t e d c on c e pt , t he s t r e e t s l a n g
phr a s e "down b y l a w" l o o s e l y t r a n s l a t e s , a c c o r d i n g t o
J a r mus ch h i ms e l f , as " i n c o n t r o l " ( Hol mes 3 8 ) . I n ot he r
c o n t e x t s , a s S p i k e L ee e x p l a i n e d t o B r en da B o l l a g , "down b y
l a w" ca n a l s o r e f e r t o ,
someone y ou ca n r e a l l y coun t on , u s i n g "down" i n
a s en s e r e mi n i s c e n t of " he ' s r e a l l y down" = " he ' s
a good pe r s on " ( e s p e c i a l l y one who' s r ea dy t o
p a r t i c i p a t e i n a n y t hi n g ) ( B o l l a g 1 1 ) .
1
T ha t t he f i l m' s t i t l e a c t u a l l y means s omet hi n g l i k e t he
o p p o s i t e of wha t one mi g ht expect i t t o mean i l l u s t r a t e s t he
s u b v e r s i v e p o s i t i o n t he f i l m a s s umes , a p o s i t i o n whi c h
r e v e r b e r a t e s t hr oug hout , i n many i n t e r c o n n e c t e d wa y s . F or
i n s t a n c e , of t he f i l m' s t hr e e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s , who i s
41
a c t u a l l y "down b y l a w" ( or , i n J a r mus c h' s wor ds , " i n
c o n t r o l " ) ? A n d who o f t he t hr e e J b el i ev es hi m or h e r s e l f t o
b e "down b y l a w" ? I n one p i v o t a l s cen e, Down B y L aw r e v e a l s
t he r e a c h of i t s r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g y on t h i s f r o n t : B ob ,
a f f l i c t e d wi t h a s t ub b or n ca s e of h i c c u p s , a s ks J a c k f o r a
c i g a r e t t e . S u r l y as e v e r , J a c k r e b ut s , " c i g a r e t t e s d o n ' t
wor k f o r h i c c u p s , n ot i n t h i s c oun t r y , a n y wa y . " Mor e
r i d i c u l o u s wor ds ha ve s c a r c e l y b een s poken on s c r e e n , a nd
e v e r y s p e c t a t o r , a f t e r l a u g h i n g a t J a c k ' s pr e pos t e r ous
a s s umpt i on of a u t h o r i t y , ca n n ot h e l p b ut b e d i s t r a c t e d b y
t he r e a l i z a t i o n t ha t ev en di m J a c k s en s es t h a t s omet hi n g i s
wr on g a b out h i s a s s umpt i on of a u t h o r i t y on t h i s s u b j e c t .
T he s p e c t a t o r i s f u r t h e r di s ma y ed once s he r e c o g n i z e s J a c k ' s
f l e e t i n g c o n c e p t i o n t h a t per ha ps , i n some c o u n t r i e s ,
c i g a r e t t e s do a l l e v i a t e h i c c u p s .
C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , J a c k g r e e t s B o b ' s announcement o f h i s
d i s c o v e r y o f a n es ca pe r out e wi t h t he a s t o n i s h i n g l y
r i d i c u l o u s r ema r k, " B ob , i f t he r e was a way t o g e t out of
he r e , we woul d know a b out i t . " J u s t as i n t he
c i g a r e t t e / h i c c u p s ca s e, one s en s es t ha t ev en J a c k h i ms e l f
r e c o g n i z e s t h a t h i s l a ug ha b l e pr e s umpt i on of a u t h o r i t y on
t he i s s u e i s un der mi n ed b y t he v e r y c o mp e l l i n g e v i de n c e t o
t he c o n t r a r y . J a c k b e l i e v e s h i ms e l f t o b e "down b y l a w" i n
t he p h r a s e ' s a c t u a l s en s e, wh i l e t he o n l y way i n whi c h he i s
"down b y l a w" i s i n t he s en s e whi c h t he phr a s e con v ey s t o
42
t he u n i n i t i a t e d .
J a c k ' s compl et e l a c k of kn owl edg e, a nd of c o n t r o l , of
ma t t e r s b ot h wi t h i n , a nd b ey on d, h i s own s pher e ( he ' s ev en
a n i n f e r i o r pi mp) r e v e a l s t he i n a c c u r a c y o f h i s p a t h e t i c
a s s umpt i on o f a u t h o r i t y . L i k e wi s e Za ck; he knows t h a t t he r e
i s s omet hi n g wr on g wi t h h i s l i f e , b ut he does n ot know wha t
t h a t s omet hi n g i s ; he does n ot know wha t t o do a b out i t a n d,
f ur t he r mor e , does n ot ev en r e c o g n i z e t h a t n e a r l y e v e r y t h i n g
he does i s mi s g ui de d, i mpr uden t , and c omp l e t e l y i l l -
c o n s i d e r e d . I n f a c t , some of t he v e r y f i r s t n a r r a t i v e
i n f o r ma t i o n t h a t Down B y Law s u p p l i e s i s t ha t J a c k a nd Za ck
( even t h e i r names o b v i o u s l y con n ect t hem) a r e compl et e
s hmucks i n v e r y s i mi l a r wa y s . B ot h of t hem a r e s e t up i n
t he same wa y , b y pe opl e t he y s houl d n ev er ha ve t r u s t e d , i n
s i t u a t i o n s whi c h c l e a r l y r e v e a l t h e i r wi t l e s s n e s s a nd t h e i r
c r e d u l i t y . Not o n l y a r e t he s e t - ups s i mi l a r , a nd t he
d e c e p t i o n un n eces s a r y a nd a v o i d a b l e (as f a r a s J a c k a nd Za ck
a r e c on c e r n e d) , b ut b ot h s e t - ups a r e p r e d i c a t e d upon t he
p e r p e t r a t o r ' s kn owl edg e, a nd s k i l f u l ma n i p u l a t i o n , of t he
v i c t i m' s v a i n a nd f a l s e mi s c o n c e p t i o n of h i s p o s i t i o n of
power a nd a u t h o r i t y . T h i s i s t o s a y t h a t t he men who t a k e
a dv a n t a ge o f b ot h J a c k and Za ck p l a y on t h e i r v i c t i ms ' s e l f
d e l u s i o n s . G i g s a y s t o J a c k , " I a dmi t , i t ' s no s e c r e t wher e
y o u ' r e h e a d e d . . . ( i . e . t o a mor e powe r f ul un de r wor l d
p o s i t i o n ) , " b eca us e he knows t ha t b y s t r o k i n g J a c k ' s
43
r i di c u l o u s ego he w i l l be ab l e to l ure him i nto the v i c e-
squad's trap . "You gonna remember me f o r the r es t o f yo ur
l i f e f o r th i s , " Gi g says, ominously, as i f taunti ng Jack.
Si m i l a r l y , Presto n, the hood who sets up Zack, knows that he
must p retend to cede to Zack's sel f -assum ed p o s i ti o n o f
power i n o rder to co nvi nce him to dri v e the i nf ected Jaguar
acro ss town. Both Jack and Zack b el i eve them sel ves to be
"down by law," whi l e b o th co ul d no t be more wrong. Af ter
catchi ng a sustai ned i nv ecti v e, duri ng which h i s g i r l f r i e n d
i s thro wi ng h i s meagre p o ssessi o ns i nto the s tr eet, the o nl y
respo nse Zack can muster i s , "I guess i t ' s o ver between us
Laurette?"
Co nversel y, Ro b erto (who magnanimously urges everyone
he meets to c a l l him "Bob" because, "ees the same"), whi l e
nearl y co m pl etel y l acki ng i n the b asi c communication s k i l l s
p ro b ab l y necessary f o r achievement i n America, i s tr u l y
"down by law," i n b o th Jarmusch's and Lee's sense o f th i s
strange term. And l i k e the exp ressi o n i t s e l f i m p l i es, Bob
seems out o f c o ntr o l . One c r i t i c c a l l ed Bob, "an I ta l i a n
whose dazed hummingbird l o o k b el i es h i s a b i l i t y to get
thi ngs done" ( " F esti val " 52). Bob di sco vers and shares h i s
escape ro ute f rom the Orl eans Pari sh Pri so n; Bob catches and
cooks the rab b i t when the three f u gi ti v es haven't eaten f o r
days; and Bob di sco vers, i n the most sp ectacul ar- y et
i nstance o f the f i l m 's magic real i sm , Lu i gi ' s Ti nto p , the
44
I t a l i a n r e s t a u r a n t i n whi c h h i s a nd h i s f r i e n d s s a l v a t i o n
l i e s .
2
I n f a c t , e v e r y t h i n g B ob does , wh i l e o f t e n i n i t i a l l y
a n n oy i n g t o J a c k a nd Za ck, i s b e n e f i c i a l t o t he t r i o . He
ha s l u c k a nd s k i l l , t houg h. I t i s t hr oug h h i s u n b r i d l e d
opt i mi s m, e n t hus i a s m, a nd p o s i t i v i s m, whi c h a r e c o mp l e t e l y
a t odds wi t h wha t we f i n d i n J a c k a nd Za c k ' s s our
demea nour s , t ha t t he f i l m c o u l d b e s een t o s ug g es t
Whi t ma n es quel y t ha t a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e i s v i t a l l y
n e c e s s a r y f o r s uc c e s s i n t h i s l i f e . B ob " g et s t he g i r l " (a
H ol l y wood e n di n g s t a p l e ) , a nd he n ot o n l y es ca pes ( whi ch i s
a l l J a c k a nd Za ck c o u l d hope f o r ) , b ut h e ' s a c t u a l l y much
b e t t e r o f f t ha n t he y a r e , s i n c e he f a l l s i n l o v e , ha s a j o b ,
a t t a i n i n g , t he r e b y , e v e r y t h i n g he c o u l d p o s s i b l y wa n t .
I t s houl d b e n ot e d, howev er , t ha t B ob does ha v e some
b a d l u c k , a nd does n ot a l wa y s s ucceed a t f i r s t . He wa s , f o r
exa mpl e, ca ug ht c h e a t i n g a t pok e r , a n i n c i d e n t t h a t pr ov oke d
t he cha s e whi c h r e s u l t e d i n hi m b e i n g cha r g ed wi t h mur der .
B ut i t i s t he good humour wi t h whi c h B ob f a c e s t he s e
s i t u a t i o n s t ha t a t f i r s t s e t s hi m a pa r t f r om h i s gr umpy
c e l l - ma t e s . A s V i n c e n t C anb y wr ot e , B ob f a ces t he mur der
cha r g e "a s i f i n c on v e n i e n c e d b y b a d wea t her a t an a i r p o r t "
("Up t he R i v e r " C21) . H i s e t e r n a l opt i mi s m, a nd t he
s ub s equen t good f or t un e whi c h f o l l o ws t h i s a t t i t u d e , i s
d i r e c t l y t i e d t o B o b ' s p a s s i o n f o r A me r i c a n poe t s . "Do y ou
l i k e W a l t Weet man? " B ob a s ks n e i t h e r J a c k n or Za ck
45
s p e c i f i c a l l y , out of t he b l ue i n t h e i r c e l l . " L ea v es of
G r a s s . . . , " B ob c o n t i n u e s , v a g ue l y , t o no one i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
" I l o v e W a l t Weet ma n. " What woul d i t t e l l us i f B ob a dmi r ed
S t ev en s or E l l i o t or P oun d, or some ot he r A me r i c a n poet ?
G i v e n B o b ' s u n r e mi t t i n g en t hus i a s m and hope f ul n e s s , Whi t ma n
i s c l e a r l y t he b e s t poet f o r J a r mus ch t o a s s o c i a t e wi t h h i s
I t a l i a n c h a r a c t e r , e x c i t e d as Whi t ma n was f o r t he p r os p e c t s
o f t he emer g i n g A me r i c a n democr a cy i n t he 19t h c e n t u r y .
A l mos t a s a mpl y as t he f i l m ev okes Whi t ma n , R ob e r t
F r o s t i s a n ot her g h o s t l y pr es en ce i n Down B y L a w. W h i l e
a r g ua b l y l e s s i mpor t a n t t o t he n a r r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i v e l y ,
F r o s t ' s mos t famous wor k ( whi ch B ob h i l a r i o u s l y r e c i t e s t he
f i r s t few l i n e s of i n I t a l i a n ) does s uppl y t he f i l m wi t h
p a r t o f i t s b i g f i n i s h , i t s " t r i c k " e n di n g . T ha t F r o s t ' s
"T he R oa d Not T a ken " (1916 ) ha s r e a l l y v e r y l i t t l e t o do
wi t h t he c h o i c e of r oa ds f a c i n g J a c k a nd Za ck a t t he f i l m' s
c o n c l u s i o n , i s n ot a f a c t whi c h d i mi n i s h e s t he poem' s
r e l e v a n c e t o t he f i l m.
T h i s ma t t e r of t he f i l m' s e n di n g b r oa ches t he b us i n e s s
of how we g ot t he r e . Down B y L aw ends wi t h B ob a nd
Ni c o l e t t a , i n a s t a t e of pop- ey ed, l o v e - a t - f i r s t - s i g h t
b l i s s , r e ma i n i n g t og e t he r a t L u i g i ' s T i n t o p , a nd J a c k a nd
Za ck hea d o f f , ea ch On t he R oa d, u n t i l i t con v er g es i n wha t
we as s ume t o b e a y e l l o w wood. T her e i s no R oa d Not T a ken
f o r our t r a v e l l e r s t houg h, s o t he y c h e e r f u l l y a g r ee t o t a k e
46
whi c he v e r r oa d t he ot he r does n ot . H er e, as i n t he ca s e o f
h i s t wi s t on Whi t ma n ' s s e n s i b i l i t y , J a r mus ch e x p l o i t s t he
con cept of t he phr a s e "down b y l a w" i n r e l a t i o n t o a n ot he r
of A me r i c a ' s b e s t known poems , b y one o f A me r i c a ' s b e s t
known, a nd mos t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y A me r i c a n , poe t s R ob e r t
F r o s t . T he a mb i g ui t y of F r o s t ' s famous "T he R oa d Not T a ken "
i s v a l u a b l y e x p l i c a t e d b y Mor de c a i Ma r c us : "T he poem' s
p o p u l a r i t y seems t o b e b a s ed on t he mi s t a k e n n o t i o n t h a t i t
c e l e b r a t e s t he t r i umph o f i n depen den t c h o i c e s - mos t l i k e l y
F r o s t ' s c h o i c e s as a r t i s t a nd ma n . " Ma r cus c o n t i n u e s , ev en
mor e r e v e a l i n g l y when c on s i de r e d i n t he c on t e x t o f i t s us e
i n Down B y L a w
f
" . . . t h e poem' s s e e mi n g l y g e n i a l c e l e b r a t i o n
o f a f or t un a t e c h o i c e r ema i n s s e d u c t i v e , ev en t o t hos e who
p e r c e i v e a s a t i r i c a l i n t e n t i o n " ( 6 4) . B ob i s e v i d e n t l y
a wa r e o f wha t Ma r cus c a l l s F r o s t ' s s u b t l e r mes s age (B ob
c a l l s " B ob " F r o s t a v e r y c y n i c a l ma n) , y e t he r ema i n s
s educed b y t he poem' s g e n i a l s ur f a c e mes s a ge.
A l o y s i o u s , P er ma nent V a c a t i o n ' s p r o t a g o n i s t , s a y s :
" Wha t ' s a s t o r y any way except one of t hos e c on n e c t - t he - dot s
dr a wi n g s t h a t i n t he end f or ms a p i c t u r e of s omet hi n g ? I go
f r om t h i s p l a c e or pe r s on t o t ha t p l a c e or pe r s on a n d, y ou
know, i t r e a l l y d o e s n ' t make t ha t much d i f f e r e n c e . " A n d
B r en da B o l l a g r ema r ks :
T he p o i n t o f de pa r t ur e f o r t he c o n s t r u c t i o n of
47
Down B y Law woul d seem t o ha ve b een t he q u e s t i o n s ,
Wher e does a s t o r y come fr om? How does a f i l m-
maker i s o l a t e t he el emen t s o f a n a r r a t i v e f r om t he
v a s t a nd het er og en eous a s s emb l a ge of ma t e r i a l t o
whi c h t he ca mer a g i v e s hi m a c c e s s ? ( 11) .
B o l l a g a l s o ob s er v es t ha t ea ch of t he pr e mi s e s whi c h
i n t r o d u c e t he c ha r a c t e r s c o u l d v e r y we l l b e H ol l y wood f i l ms
i n t h e i r own r i g h t ( s ma l l - t i me pi mp g et s s e t - up, i t i n e r a n t
d i s c - j o c k e y f r a med f o r mur der , e t c . ) a nd y e t ea ch o f t he s e
pr e mi s e s i s s y s t e ma t i c a l l y a b a ndoned b y J a r mus ch as t he f i l m
pr oc e e ds . T hes e pr emi s es a r e a b a ndoned b eca us e o f
J a r mus c h' s d e s i r e t o show us s omet hi n g ot he r t ha n wha t we
e xpe c t t o s ee. A s he s a y s , " I ' d r a t h e r make a mov i e a b out a
guy wa l k i n g h i s dog t ha n a b out t he emper or of C h i n a " ( S a n t e
148) .
H a r l a n J a cob s on s ug g es t s t ha t Down B y L aw i s a s t o r y
a b out " l o s t pur pos e" i n A me r i c a , i n t he same way t h a t A l e x
C o x ' s S i d a nd Na n cy , t he F r e a r s / K u r e i s h i f i l ms , or Mi c h a e l
A p t e d ' s 7 t o 35 Up f i l ms a r e i n some way a b out B r i t a i n ' s
n a t i o n a l deca y ( " F e s t i v a l " 52 ) . T h i s i s wher e t he f i l m' s
e v o c a t i o n of Whi t ma n seems mos t r e l e v a n t , e s p e c i a l l y i n
l i g h t of t he r e v e r s a l of mea n i n g i mp l i e d b y t he f i l m' s
t i t l e . "T he U n i t e d S t a t e s t hems el v es a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t he
g r e a t e s t poem: " B o b ' s Whi t ma nes que, u n b r i d l e d opt i mi s m
( t ha t whi c h a l l o ws hi m t o b e l i e v e Whi t ma n was r i g h t ) p l a y
a g a i n s t t he f i l m' s r e v e l a t i o n of A me r i c a n d e t r i t u s , o f " l o s t
pur pos e . " T h i s s en t i men t may seem r a t h e r t r i t e , e s p e c i a l l y
48
i n t h i s age o f " c on t r a c t s wi t h A me r i c a " i n t he U . S .
C on g r e s s , a nd "common s en s e r e v o l u t i o n s " i n On t a r i o , b ut i t
i s e xpr e s s e d wi t h enough g ood- n a t ur ed i n c o n g r u i t y , a s t o
r e n de r i t , l i k e J a r mus c h' s e n t i r e oeuv r e, s i mu l t a n e o u s l y
a mus i n g a nd v a g ue l y me l a n c hol y . Or , as J a c ob s oh wr i t e s :
J a r mus ch ha s f a s hi on e d a f un n y p a r a b l e t h a t l o o k s
a t A me r i c a a nd s a t i r i z e s why t he c oun t r y d o e s n ' t
wor k any mor e un l e s s y o u ' r e a n i mmi g r a n t t oo
i g n or a n t t o know wha t t he r u l e s a r e a nd t h a t
t h e y ' v e choked o f f t he n a t i v e s ' a i r s up p l y
( " F e s t i v a l " 51) .
R e l a t e d l y , s e v e r a l of t he a r t i c l e s wr i t t e n a t t he t i me
o f t he f i l m' s r e l e a s e d e s c r i b e B ob as a t o u r i s t , b ut i n
f a c t , nowher e does t he f i l m g i v e a ny i n d i c a t i o n wha t B ob i s
d o i n g i n A me r i c a . A l l we l e a r n a b out h i s pa s t i s t h a t ( and
t h i s i s n ' t r e a l l y t ha t f a r " pa s t " ) he g ot ca ug ht c h e a t i n g a t
c a r d s , t hr ew a n e i g h t - b a l l a t one o f h i s pur s ue r s , a nd
k i l l e d hi m. B ut we do know wha t Ni c o l e t t a i s d o i n g i n
A me r i c a . H er U n c l e L u i g i , who won t he T i n t o p i n a poke r
game, d i e d on t he v e r y same da y her b i r t h d a y t h a t he r
b o y f r i e n d l e f t he r , s o s he de c i de d t o move t o L o u i s i a n a , a nd
t a k e ov e r t he " b u s i n e s s . " T hus , s he ' s b een mi n di n g t he
p l a c e , b a s i c a l l y j u s t wa i t i n g f o r B ob t o t u r n up, e v e r
s i n c e . I s t h i s a n A me r i c a n Dr eam s t o r y ? A v a r i a t i o n on
H o r a t i o A l g e r ? T her e a r e no e x c e p t i o n a l l y me r i t o r i o u s f o l k s
i n t h i s f i l m - no ha r d wor k, no d r i v e , no a mb i t i o n ; " good"
pe opl e do g e t a hea d, b ut t he y do n ot p u l l t hems el v es up b y
49
t h e i r b oot s t r a p s , as C ongr es s ma n G i n g r i c h mi g ht ha v e t hem.
A f t e r S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e ' s enor mous s uc c e s s , Down
B y L aw was much a n t i c i p a t e d b y c r i t i c s a nd b y J a r mus c h' s b y -
t he n - g r owi n g l e g i o n o f f a n s . A t f i r s t g l a n c e , t he t wo
f i l ms ' s i mi l a r i t i e s a r e s t r i k i n g : b ot h a r e b l a c k - a n d - wh i t e ,
s l ow- mov i n g mov i es a b out t hr e e c h a r a c t e r s , one o f whom i s
E ur opea n a nd i n p o s s e s s i o n of f a r mor e g r a ce a nd goodn es s
t ha n e i t h e r of h i s or her A me r i c a n f o i l s . A s w e l l , b ot h
f i l ms a r e e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n s e e i n g a s pe c t s o f
A me r i c a n c u l t u r e t hr oug h t he ey es of i t s E ur opea n n ew- comer .
A l s o a t f i r s t g l a n c e , i t mi g ht a ppea r t h a t R ob e r t o
B e n i g n i ' s B ob me r e l y r e p l a c e s S t r a n g e r ' s E v a a s t he
e n i g ma t i c wi de - e y e d f o r e i g n e r i n A me r i c a , Tom W a i t s '
mumb l i n g Za c k / L e e B a b y Si mms r e p l a c e s mumb l i n g E d d i e , a nd
J ohn L u r i e ' s i n o r d i n a t e l y i r a s c i b l e J a c k r e p l a c e s J ohn
L u r i e ' s i n o r d i n a t e l y i r a s c i b l e W i l l i e , i n an ot he r wi s e
c or r e s p on di n g n a r r a t i v e .
B ut one i mpor t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b et ween Down B y L aw a nd
S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a di s e i s ea ch f i l m' s t r e a t me n t o f p e r s o n a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s b et ween c h a r a c t e r s , and e s p e c i a l l y t he
t r e a t me n t of l o v e a nd r oma n ce. I n h i s mode r a t e l y
un f a v our a b l e r e v i e w o f t he f i l m, D a v i d E l d e n s t e i n a s t u t e l y
ob s e r v e d:
. . . howe v e r s u c c e s s f u l he ( J a r mus ch) i s i n
50
c a p t u r i n g h i s s en s e o f human d e s o l a t i o n on s c r e e n ,
h e ' s n ot u s i n g h i s a r t t o wor k through t h a t
d e s o l a t i o n , a nd come out s omewher e e l s e ( 6 4) .
T h i s i s t o a l a r g e degr ee a c c ur a t e i n t he ca s es o f S t r a n g e r
T ha n P a r a d i s e a nd Down B y L aw (and r ema i n s s omewhat t r u e f o r
My s t e r y T r a i n , b ut l e s s s o f o r Ni g h t on E a r t h ) , b ut I r a i s e
E l d e n s t e i n ' s p o i n t her e b eca us e p a r t of Down B y L a w' s
s t r e n g t h l i e s i n i t s a b i l i t y t o r e n de r ev en human d e s o l a t i o n
i n a t l e a s t mi l d l y a mus i n g s i t u a t i o n s . A f t e r J a c k a nd Za ck
ha ve s ha r ed t h e i r p r i s o n c e l l f o r a t i me , t he r e i s a p e r i o d
of a few da y s d u r i n g whi c h Za ck r e f us e s t o s pea k. When he
f i n a l l y does , a nd r e v e a l s t ha t he i s L ee B a b y S i mms ,
un empl oy ed d i s c - j o c k e y , J a c k ca n n ot b e l i e v e i t . " Ma n , wha t
i s wr on g wi t h y ou? I t ' s l i k e p u l l i n ' t e e t h t r y i n ' t o g e t
y ou t o t a l k , a nd y o u ' r e a f u c k i n ' de e j a y . " J a c k f a i l s t o
r e a l i z e , o f c our s e , t ha t t he r e i s no good r e a s on why i t
s h o u l d b e e a s i e r f o r a deej a y t o t a l k t ha n f o r a n y b ody e l s e .
B ut t h i s excha n ge does p e r mi t a t i n y degr ee o f c o n t a c t
b et ween t he t wo men (who ha ve s t a u n c h l y r e f us e d t o b ecome
p r i s o n es ca pe mov i e " b uddi e s " ) , b eca us e L ee B a b y Si mms does
g i v e a f i c t i o n a l t r a f f i c r e p o r t , much t o J a c k ' s d e l i g h t .
T he ot he r r e a s on I r a i s e d E l d e n s t e i n ' s c omp l a i n t a b out
J a r mus c h' s t r e a t me n t of human d e s o l a t i o n i s b eca us e i t i s
i n t e r e s t i n g t o n ot e how J a r mus ch b l o c k s a nd f r a mes h i s
c h a r a c t e r s . One mi g ht e xpe c t , i n f i l ms wi t h s uch ma s s i v e
51
d i s t a n c e b et ween pe opl e , t ha t t hey woul d b e k e pt l i t e r a l l y
s e pa r a t e b y t he ca mer a . B ut J a r mus ch n ev er s hoot s a
c o n v e r s a t i o n i n t he s t a n da r d s h o t / r e v e r s e s hot ma nner , a nd
t y p i c a l l y f or c e s a l l t hr e e of h i s c ha r a c t e r s t o s ha r e t he
same f r a me.
3
T hr oughout t he p o s t - j a i l - b r e a k p o r t i o n of t he
f i l m, we a r e a l mos t a l wa y s i n t he company o f t he t hr e e
c h a r a c t e r s , who a l mos t a l wa y s s ha r e t he f r a me i n medi um t o
medi um- l on g s hot . W h i l e a v a r i a t i o n of t h i s s t r a t e g y l e a ds
i n S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a di s e t o i n c r e a s i n g , b ut a l wa y s s e v e r e l y
mut ed a nd u n f u l f i l l e d , s e x u a l t e n s i o n b et ween E v a a nd E ddi e
( and per ha ps b et ween E v a a nd W i l l i e as w e l l ) , t he a ppa r en t
a b s en ce o f s uch t e n s i o n i n Down B y L aw i s e x pl ode d b y B ob
a nd Ni c o l e t t a ' s t e n de r e a r l y mor n i n g da nce n ea r t he end o f
t he f i l m. T he da n c e ' s poi g n a n ce i s a mp l i f i e d b y our
r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f Za c k ' s , b ut e s p e c i a l l y J a c k ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p s
wi t h women, a nd per ha ps ev en mor e s o b y t he l o v e r s ' e f f u s i v e
pr es en ce i n t he f r o n t of t he f r a me, wi t h J a c k a nd Za ck
s t i l l t he r e b ut r e l e g a t e d t o a s pa ce deep i n t he Z a x i s .
T h i s s hot i s o n l y one exa mpl e ( a l b e i t a s t r i k i n g one) of one
t he f i l m' s n o v e l f or ma l p r o p e r t i e s , whi c h i s , a s d e s c r i b e d
b y J a r mus ch: " . . . whe n e v e r y ou s ee s omet hi n g or someone
( t ha t a c h a r a c t e r s e e s ) , y ou s ee t hem s e e i n g i t " ( R ey na ud
5 ) . T he s p e c t a t or mi g ht n ot e x p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i z e t he f i l m' s
a dher en ce t o t hes e s o r t s of p r i n c i p l e s ( S t r a n g e r ' s
me t i c u l o u s dependence upon s equence s hot s i s a n ot her
52
pr omi n e n t exa mpl e) , b ut t he e f f e c t of t he s e d e v i c e s , ev en
when t he y r e ma i n u n n o t i c e d , i s t o r e n de r t he e x pe r i e n c e of
t he f i l m s t r a n g e , i f n ot e x o t i c . A s we s h a l l s ee i n t he
p r oc e e di n g c ha pt e r s , n o t wi t h s t a n d i n g t he a ppea r a n ce o f
i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n v e n t i o n a l c ompl e xi on s t o h i s f i l ms , J a r mus ch
c on t i n ue s t o a dopt un c on v e n t i on a l t a c t i c s i n or de r t o
pr oduce u t t e r l y o r i g i n a l wor k s .
53
Not es t o C ha pt er T hr ee
1. B o l l a g a s ked L ee a b out t he phr a s e a t t he 1986 C a nnes
F i l m F e s t i v a l (wher e Down B y L aw a l s o pr emi er ed) b eca us e i n
L e e ' s S he ' s G ot t a Have I t . L e e ' s c h a r a c t e r , Ma r s B l a c kma n ,
when r emi n ded t h a t May 19 i s Ma l c ol m X ' s b i r t h d a y , r e p l i e s
wi t h , " Y e a h, he was down b y l a w. "
2. T he t er m " ma gi c r e a l i s m" may n ot b e q u i t e r i g h t , b ut i n
Down B y L aw t he p l o t t ur n s on a few mi r a c l e s whi c h oc c ur
c o mp l e t e l y o f f - s c r e e n - n o t a b l y , t he p r i s o n es ca pe a nd t he
s u c c e s s f u l r a b b i t - h u n t . A n d t he a ppea r a n ce o f Ni c o l e t t a a nd
L u i g i ' s T i n t o p ( " i s t h i s a mi r a g e ? " Za ck a s ks ) i s a
r e ma r ka b l e ev en t whi c h t he f i l m g l o s s e s ov e r , a s i t does t he
es ca pe a nd r a b b i t - h u n t , wi t h i t s b l a s e , b ut e s s e n t i a l l y
r e a l i s t i c , t on e .
3. I n f a c t , n ot o n l y does J a r mus ch r e s i s t s h o o t i n g
c o n v e r s a t i o n s i n t he c o n v e n t i o n a l ma nner , b ut i n t h i s f i l m,
whi c h l o o k s much l e s s f o r ma l l y a b s t i n e n t t ha n S t r a n g e r T ha n
P a r a d i s e does , t he r e i s n ot one r e v e r s e s hot t o b e f oun d.
54
Chapter Fo ur
Mystery Trai n: El v i s was a Hero to Most...
E l v i s was a her o t o mos t ,
b ut he n ev er meant s h i t t o me, y ou s ee;
S t r a i g h t up r a c i s t , t ha t s ucka wa s ,
S i mpl e a nd p l a i n . . .
. . . mo s t of my her oes d o n ' t a ppea r on no s t a mps
From the song "Fight the Power" by Public
Enemy
1
I n t wen t y y e a r s , when S p i k e ( L ee) i s t he Mi n i s t e r
o f C u l t u r e , I ' l l b e ma ki n g wh i t e s p l o i t a t i o n
mov i e s .
Jim Jarmusch (qtd. in Sante 146)
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t ha t B r en da B o l l a g ' s r e p o r t f r om t he
1986 C a nnes F i l m F e s t i v a l i n F i l m Q u a r t e r l y ( whi ch I c i t e d
i n t he l a s t cha pt er ) s houl d ha ve f oc us e d on t he
cor r es pon den ces b et ween J a r mus c h' s e n t r y , Down B y L a w, a nd
S p i k e L e e ' s , S he ' s G ot t a H a ve i t . B o l l a g ' s d e c i s i o n t o
f oc us on t he c on n e c t i on s b et ween t he t wo f i l m- ma k e r s '
p r e d i l e c t i o n s seems r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y p r o p h e t i c b eca us e L ee
a nd J a r mus c h' s n ext f i l ms ha ve ev en mor e i n common t ha n
t h e i r 1986 a ccompl i s hmen t s , a t l e a s t i n s o f a r as t he s e f i l ms
t a k e t he r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r a c i a l t e n s i o n t o c u l t u r e ( i n t he
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s ens e) a nd t o pop c u l t u r e (as b ot h o f t he s e
e n t i t i e s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r om " h i g h c u l t u r e " ) a s t h e i r
p r i ma r y t he ma t i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n .
2
C on s i de r e d a s a whol e , J i m J a r mus c h' s e n t i r e oeuv r e
55
r e v e a l s t he i mp l a u s i b l e , e n i g ma t i c s t o r y of E l v i s P r e s l e y ' s
c a r e e r ( and e s p e c i a l l y h i s pos t humous c u l t u r a l i n v o c a t i o n s ) ,
wi t h i t s l a b y r i n t h i n e c u l t u r a l mea n i n gs , as a p e r f e c t l y a pt
met a phor f o r J a r mus c h' s own e x p r e s s i on s of t he s t a t e of
A me r i c a n c u l t u r e a nd s o c i e t y . R oot ed i n r a c i a l a mb i g u i t y ,
c ommmodi f i c a t i on , and a p p r o p r i a t i o n , t he t r a j e c t o r y o f E l v i s
P r e s l e y ' s c a r e e r i s the s t o r y of A me r i c a n c u l t u r e of , a t
t he v e r y l e a s t , a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of A me r i c a n p op ul a r
c u l t u r e s i n c e t he 1950s , and i n My s t e r y T r a i n . J a r mus ch
f a s hi on s f r om h i s u s u a l b a g of t r i c k s a n i n c r e d i b l y
e c on omi c a l a l l e g o r y o f h i s c u l t u r e a nd h i s s o c i e t y .
S e e t hi n g wi t h h o s t i l i t y a nd r es en t men t , P u b l i c E n emy ' s
s on g " F i g h t t he P ower " b ot h opens a nd c l o s e s S p i k e L e e ' s Do
t he R i g h t T h i n g . I ha ve c i t e d t he s on g ' s mos t n o t o r i o u s
l i n e s a b ove b eca us e t he y b ea r d i r e c t l y on wha t a ny c u l t u r a l
e v o c a t i o n of E l v i s P r e s l e y mus t n e c e s s a r i l y a ddr es s r a c e ,
r a c i s m, a nd A me r i c a n popul a r c u l t u r e . T hes e i s s u e s a r e among
My s t e r y T r a i n ' s c e n t r a l c on c e r n s , a nd as i s s u e s a t t he
c e n t r e of A me r i c a n c u l t u r e , i t i s n ot s u r p r i s i n g t h a t
J a r mus ch s houl d t a c k l e t hem hea d- on . A s w e l l , I i n c l u d e d t he
l i n e a b out her oes and s t amps ( whi ch comes i n t he s on g a few
l i n e s a f t e r t he b ul k of my quot a t i on ) b eca us e t h i s l i n e
c l e a r l y l i n k s t he s on g ' s p a s s i on a t e r es en t men t of r a c i s t
i n s t i t u t i o n s t o Do t he R i g h t T h i n g ' s r i o t - p r o v o k i n g
q u e s t i o n , "why a r e n ' t t he r e any b l a c k f o l k s on S a l ' s " W a l l
5 6
of F a me, " a q u e s t i o n whi c h J o h n n y / E l v i s ( J oe S t r ummer )
echoes i n My s t e r y T r a i n . Why , J ohn n y won der s , woul d a b l a c k
h o t e l , wi t h (as he s a y s ) b l a c k dudes wo r k i n g on t he des k,
ha v e a p o r t r a i t of E l v i s P r e s l e y on t he w a l l i n s t e a d o f one
o f Ot i s R e ddi n g or Ma r t i n L ut he r K i n g ? I n t h i s c ha pt e r , I
s h a l l a t t empt t o map out some of t he mu l t i t u d i n o u s d e v i c e s
J a r mus ch c o n s c r i p t s t o f l e s h out t h i s s t o r y of t he
r e l a t i o n s h i p of r a c e t o con t empor a r y A me r i c a n p op ul a r
c u l t u r e .
F i r s t , My s t e r y T r a i n ' s Memphi s c on j ur e s a t l e a s t t wo
dea d k i n g s : E l v i s P r e s l e y , k i n g of r oc k a nd r o l l , a nd
Me mphi s ' s mos t famous c i t i z e n , and Ma r t i n L ut he r K i n g J r . ,
who was mur der ed i n Memphi s . T he a s s a s s i n a t e d c i v i l r i g h t s
l e a de r e x h i b i t s o n l y a g h o s t l y pr es en ce i n t he f i l m, t houg h.
T he o n l y e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o K i n g i n t he f i l m ( ot her t ha n
t he one n ot ed a b ov e) , oc c ur s when we n o t i c e h i s p o r t r a i t
hung on t he b a ck of t he door a t S hades b a r , t he ' " b l a ck" b a r
wher e J ohn n y , dr un k t o h e l l , commi s er a t es wi t h h i s b l a c k
f or mer c o- wor k e r s . B ut t he r e mi g ht ev en b e a t h i r d k i n g i n
My s t e r y T r a i n . J oe S t r ummer seems a n i n s p i r e d c a s t i n g
c h o i c e f o r t he r o l e of J o h n n y / E l v i s b eca us e of t he my r i a d
c u l t u r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s he c a r r i e s . A s t he l e a de r o f t he
C l a s h , who a l on g wi t h t he S ex P i s t o l s wer e t he mos t
n o t o r i o u s , i n f l u e n t i a l , and famous b a nds of t he f i r s t wave
of B r i t i s h punk r o c k , S t r ummer i s a n e x t r e me l y s i g n i f i c a n t
57
c u l t u r a l f i g u r e , as we l l as a k i n d of k i n g f o r many o f t he
p o s t - P r e s l e y , punk g e n e r a t i on o f pop a nd r o c k mus i c f a n s .
T ha t S t r ummer a ppea r s i n t he f i l m as a g r u f f E n g l i s hma n who
seems t o p r e f e r t he company o f A f r i c a n - A me r i c a n s i s
i n t e r e s t i n g b eca us e of t he C l a s h ' s c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n wi t h
L on don ' s Wes t I n d i a n commun i t y , mos t c l e a r l y e v i d e n t v i a
t h e i r i n c o r p o r a t i o n of r egga e mus i c i n t o t h e i r ot he r wi s e
c o n v e n t i o n a l punk s oun d. T he c ov e r of one of t h e i r v e r y
e a r l y s i n g l e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y t i t l e d " Whi t e R i o t " was
a dor n ed b y a phot og r a ph of t he r a c i a l d i s t u r b a n c e s a t t he
1976 No t t i n g H i l l C a r n i v a l i n L on don . One c h r o n i c l e r o f t he
e a r l y i n c a r n a t i o n s of E n g l i s h punk ha s s u c c i n c t l y l i n k e d t he
C l a s h t o t he i n f l u e n c e o f b l a c k c u l t u r e on pun k:
Mos t c o n s p i c u o u s l y amongs t punk g r oups , t he C l a s h
wer e h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d n ot o n l y b y t he mus i c , b ut
a l s o t he v i s u a l i c on og r a phy of B l a c k J a ma i ca n
s t r e e t s t y l e ( H eb di ge 2 9) .
" R a ce mu s i c , " we l e a r n f r om t he S un S t u d i o ' s f a s t -
t a l k i n g t o u r - g u i d e , i s wha t C o l . Tom P a r k e r hoped t o r e c o r d
a t h i s Memphi s s t u d i o . T he t o u r - g u i d e e x p l a i n s t h a t P a r k e r ,
a n a s t ut e b us i n es s ma n , hoped t o c a p i t a l i z e on t he p op ul a r
s oun d of t he v a r i o u s b l a c k f or ms comi n g out o f t he a r e a ( a l l
b l ue s b a s ed) b y t e mpe r i n g t h e i r w i l d r a un c hi n e s s i n or de r t o
b r oa den t h e i r a p p e a l . T he e v o l u t i o n of r oc k a nd r o l l mus i c ,
a nd t he e v o l u t i o n o f punk mus i c some t wen t y or s o y e a r s
l a t e r ha d much i n common. A s D i c k H eb di g e n ot e s , t he r e ca n
58
b e l i t t l e un de r s t a n di n g of t he "punk" phenomenon ( a nd
t h e r e f o r e , I woul d s ub mi t , all s ub s equen t r oc k a nd pop
mus i c) wi t h o u t an a p p r e c i a t i o n of pun k ' s r e l i a n c e ,
mu s i c a l l y , on r egga e mus i c , and on i t s c u l t u r a l
a p p r o p r i a t i o n s of b ot h Wes t I n d i a n c u l t u r e a nd t he mi l i e u x
of b l a c k wo r k i n g - c l a s s B r i t o n s , many o f whom, n a t u r a l l y ,
wer e o f Wes t I n d i a n de s c e n t . I n s hor t , S t r ummer ' s
a s s o c i a t i o n s wi t h t he c l o s e t i e b et ween r oc k a nd r o l l mus i c
a nd r a c e a r e as s i g n i f i c a n t as a l mos t a ny p op ul a r
e n t e r t a i n e r o f t he pa s t f o r t y y e a r s , wi t h t he c on s pi c uous
e x c e p t i o n of E l v i s P r e s l e y h i ms e l f .
Of c our s e , one p o s s i b l e r a mi f i c a t i o n of t h i s a n a l og y i s
t h a t i t c o u l d v e r y e a s i l y b e t a k e n as c r i t i c i s m of
S t r ummer ' s f u n c t i o n as a c u l t u r a l i c o n , a nd of t he C l a s h ' s
a p p r o p r i a t i o n of b l a c k ( a g a i n , mos t l y Wes t I n di a n ) c u l t u r e .
T ha t i s , d e s p i t e t he C l a s h ' s b e s t e f f o r t s , a nd u n d e n i a b l y
a l t r u i s t i c mot i v e s f o r cha mpi on i n g b l a c k n e s s i n l a t e -
s e v e n t i e s E n g l a n d, t he f a c t r ema i n s t ha t E l v i s P r e s l e y a nd
punk r o c k i n i t s e n t i r e c u l t u r a l r e a c h wer e r e g a r de d b y a
v a s t ma j o r i t y of wo r k i n g - c l a s s b l a c k s as u t t e r l y i r r e l e v a n t
a t b e s t , a nd r e p r e h e n s i b l e a t wo r s t .
3
W h i l e i t woul d b e un r e a s on a b l e t o a t t empt a whol e s a l e
a n a l og y b et ween t he a dv en t of r oc k a nd r o l l a nd t ha t o f
pun k, i t w i l l b e u s e f u l her e f o r me t o a t l e a s t s t a t e some
of t he i n d i s p u t a b l e ( a nd, i n some c a s e s , per ha ps ob v i ous )
59
c on n e c t i on s f o r t he pur pos es of s h o r i n g up my a r gument t h a t
J a r mus ch us es t he s i mi l a r i t i e s b et ween t he s e t wo c u l t u r a l
phenomena t o i l l u mi n a t e h i s v i e w of t he muddi ed wa t e r s of
r a c e a nd A me r i c a n popul a r c u l t u r e . F i r s t , b ot h e a r l y r o c k
a nd r o l l a nd punk wer e f e l t b y t he ma i n s t r ea m of t h e i r
s o c i e t i e s t o b e s c a n da l ous , r ude, a n t i - s o c i a l , a n d, i n
s h o r t , a b a d i n f l u e n c e on t he t een a g er s who wer e t y p i c a l l y
dr a wn t o t he s e f or ms . S econ d, as I ha ve a l r e a d y n ot e d, b ot h
f or ms owed a g r e a t deb t t o b l a c k c u l t u r e a nd mus i c : b l ue s
i n one ca s e, r egga e i n t he ot he r . A n d f i n a l l y , t he
i r r e s i s t i b l e c omme r c i a l v a l u e of b ot h r oc k a nd r o l l a nd punk
wer e q u i c k l y r e c o g n i z e d a nd e x p l o i t e d . T hus t he r a p i d
emer gence i n t he 1950s of c omp l e t e l y n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g ,
b r o a d l y c omme r c i a l r oc k a nd r o l l mus i c , a p r o f i t a b l e a nd
e x p l o i t a b l e t een a ge ma r ket , a n d, i n t he con t empor a r y ca s e,
t he r i d i c u l o u s i n c o n g r u i t y of popul a r c omme r c i a l r a d i o
s t a t i o n s b r o a d c a s t i n g Ni r v a n a ' s b l i s t e r i n g , s c r e e c h i n g
" S me l l s L i k e T een S p i r i t " i mme di a t e l y b e f or e or a f t e r a ny
E l t o n J ohn or W hi t n ey H ous t on r oc k b a l l a d one woul d c a r e t o
name.
T hes e t r a n s f or ma t i on s of c u l t u r a l phenomena f r om
n a s t y a n n oy a n ce, t o ma i n s t r ea m c u l t u r e a r e a n i mpor t a n t
p a r t of My s t e r y T r a i n ' s t h r u s t . A n d as we ha ve s een , i n b ot h
t he ca s e of r oc k a nd r o l l i n t he e a r l y 1950s , a nd t h a t o f
punk i n t he 1970s , t he i n i t i a l r i s e was t he r e s u l t o f t h e f t
60
f r om b l a c k c u l t u r e . T h i s t r a n s f o r ma t i v e q u a l i t y i n t he
r e c e p t i o n o f c u l t u r a l a r t i f a c t s i s ma n i f e s t i n many f or ms
c o n s i d e r t he e v o l v i n g i mpr e s s i on s of c i n e ma t i c " r e a l i s m" - -
b ut f o r t he pur pos es of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , a few s p e c i f i c
ma t t e r s me r i t a t t e n t i o n . F i r s t , ma i n s t r ea m r e c u p e r a t i o n i s
i n e v i t a b l e a nd on g oi n g . S econ d, t he mea n i n gs a nd v a l u e s
a s s i g n e d t o c u l t u r a l a r t i f a c t s a r e c omp l e t e l y f l u i d , a s t he
ca s e of P r e s l e y s o c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s . I r e f e r t he r e a de r t o
Ma r c us ' Dead E l v i s : C h r o n i c l e of a C u l t u r a l Ob s e s s i on f o r
a s t o n i s h i n g exa mpl es of t h i s phenomenon. A s Ma r cus
s umma r i z es :
T he e n or mi t y of ( E l v i s ' ) i mpa ct on c u l t u r e , on
mi l l i o n s of pe opl e , was n ev er r e a l l y c l e a r when he
was a l i v e ; i t was mos t l y hi dde n . When he d i e d ,
t he ev en t was a k i n d of e x p l o s i o n t h a t went o f f
s i l e n t l y . . . . N o on e, I t h i n k , c o u l d ha ve p r e d i c t e d
t he u b i q u i t y , t he p l a y f u l n e s s , t he p e r v e r s i t y , t he
t e r r o r , a nd t he f un of t h i s , o f E l v i s P r e s l e y ' s
s econ d l i f e . . . ( x i i i ) .
B ut t he exa mpl e of pun k, and ev en mor e s p e c i f i c a l l y , J oe
S t r ummer ' s p e r s o n a l c u l t u r a l mea n i n g , i s i n s p i r i n g , or a t
t he v e r y l e a s t interesting t o a moder a t e s egment o f t he
wh i t e p o p u l a t i o n , b ut of no i n t e r e s t wha t ev er t o t he v a s t
ma j o r i t y of A f r i c a n A me r i c a n s , e s p e c i a l l y s out he r n , wo r k i n g -
c l a s s b l a c k s .
b e l l hooks , t he b l a c k A me r i c a n f e mi n i s t c u l t u r e c r i t i c
r ema r ks on t he e x i s t e n c e of t he g en ui n e a d mi r a t i o n o f b l a c k
c u l t u r e a nd s ub s equen t c e l e b r a t i o n of i t b y some " h i p " wh i t e
6 1
f o l k s d e s p i t e t he wi de s pr e a d c ommodi f i c a t i on a nd
a p p r o p r i a t i o n whi c h s he s ees ( a c c ur a t e l y ) as r u n - o f - t h e - mi l l
wh i t e s upr e mi c i s m a nd i mp e r i a l i s m. I n f a c t , i n her es t eemed
b ook l e n g t h s t udy of r a c e and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n A me r i c a n
c u l t u r e ( i n whi c h s he r e f e r s c o n t i n u a l l y t o f i l m b eca us e,
"mor e t ha n a ny ot he r medi a e x pe r i e n c e , ( f i l m) de t e r mi n e s how
b l a c k n e s s a nd b l a c k pe opl e a r e s een , a nd how ot he r g r oups
w i l l r es pon d t o us b a s ed on t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t he s e
c o n s t r u c t e d a nd cons umed i ma ges " ( 6 ) ) , hooks c i t e s o n l y t wo
" whi t e " f i l ms whi c h do n ot r e s o r t t o t he c o n t e n t i o u s
c o mmo d i f i c a t i o n a nd a p p r o p r i a t i o n of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f
b l a c k n e s s J ohn W a t e r s ' s a t i r e H a i r s p r a y ( 1988) , a nd
J a r mus c h' s My s t e r y T r a i n (36 ) .
My s t e r y T r a i n i s b r a c k e t e d b y i ma ges o f a t r a i n
a r r i v i n g i n ( t hen l e a v i n g ) Memphi s , a nd b y t wo d i f f e r e n t
v e r s i o n s o f t he epony mous t heme s on g , t he f i r s t s un g b y
E l v i s P r e s l e y , and t he s econ d, r e c or de d t wo y e a r s e a r l i e r
( i n 1953) , s ung b y J u n i o r P a r k e r , a b l a c k r hy t hm a nd b l u e s
a r t i s t . J a r mus c h' s i n c l u s i o n of t he o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f t he
s on g t h a t E l v i s "made i n t o " a h i t i s b ut on e, a nd per ha ps
t he mos t ob v i ous , exa mpl e of h i s f un wi t h mus i c i n t he f i l m,
b ot h whi t e r oc k a nd r o l l , a nd b l a c k r hy t hm a nd b l u e s .
4
T he
d i e g e t i c i n c l u s i o n of t he l e g e n da r y R . a nd B . man R uf us
T homa s ' s "Memphi s T r a i n " ( J ohn n y ' s f i r s t j ukeb ox s e l e c t i o n
i n S ha des b a r ) i s j u s t as c l e v e r . Thomas h i ms e l f a ppea r s a s
62
t he g r a c i o u s c i g a r - s mok e r i n t he Memphi s t r a i n s t a t i o n (he
t ha n ks J un a nd Mi t s u k o f o r t he l i g h t i n J a pa n e s e ! ) , a nd
t he f i r s t v e r s e of h i s s on g g l a r i n g l y expos es J a r mus c h' s
i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t he f i l m' s t r i p a r t i t e n a r r a t i v e f or m:
" T r a i n numb er on e, i s gone down t he l i n e ; T r a i n , n umb e r t wo,
i s gone down t he l i n e ; T r a i n numb er t hr e e , i s gone down t he
l i n e . "
Once a g a i n , i t a ppea r s t ha t one o f J a r mus c h' s c e n t r a l
c on c e r n s i n My s t e r y T r a i n (as i t was i n t he t wo f i l ms
t h u s f a r exa mi ned) i s t o exa mi ne t he A me r i c a n wa s t e l a n d
( whi ch i s a l l he ev er s hows us of t he A me r i c a n l a n ds ca pe)
t hr oug h t he ey es of newcomer s t o t he c oun t r y . A s J .
Hob er man h e l p f u l l y ob s e r v e s , t houg h, J un a nd Mi t s u k o ,
c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s of t he f i l m' s f i r s t s e c t i o n " F a r f r om
Y okoha ma " a r e n ot , as E v a a nd B ob wer e (and L u i s a a nd J ohn n y
a r e ) , r e c e n t i mmi g r a n t s t o A me r i c a , b ut r a t h e r t he y a r e
t o u r i s t s , wi t h f a r l e s s s t a ke i n t he s t r a n g e c u l t u r e t he y
en coun t er t ha n t he y woul d b e i f t he y ha d t o n e g o t i a t e t h i s
c u l t u r e i n t he way t ha t r e c e n t i mmi g r a n t s t y p i c a l l y mus t
( " I n d i v i d u a l i s t s " 59).
J ohn n y i s a n ot her J a r mus c hi a n f o r e i g n e r wi t l i a t wi s t .
A p p a r e n t l y a c c l i ma t i z e d t o Memphi s , J ohn n y ha s b ecome chummy
wi t h s e v e r a l of h i s b l a c k c o- wor k e r s , who t e a s e hi m b y
c a l l i n g hi m E l v i s , pr es uma b l y b eca us e of h i s P r e s l e y -
6 3
i n f l e c t e d g r e a s e r h a i r - s t y l e . J ohn n y ha t es h i s . n i c k n a me
t houg h ( mo t i v a t i o n enough f o r h i s f r i e n d s t o p e r s i s t i n
u s i n g i t ) , a nd on ce s n a r l s , " D on ' t c a l l me t h a t ! Why d o n ' t
y ou t r y C a r l P e r k i n s J r . or s omet hi n g ? " I t i s s t r a n g e t h a t
J ohn n y s h o u l d s ug g es t t he name of P e r k i n s , s i n c e he was one
of t he wh i t e r , mor e c o u n t r y - i n f l e c t e d a r t i s t s of t he f i r s t
wave of r o c k a nd r o l l , a nd s i n c e J ohn n y ha s a l r e a d y
d i s p l a y e d h i s a f f i n i t y f o r t h i n g s b l a c k . B ut P e r k i n s does
ha v e h i s p a r t i s a n s ( J un , f o r i n s t a n c e , c l e a r l y p r e f e r s
P e r k i n s t o P r e s l e y ) , a nd t he r e was a t i me i n t he 1950s t h a t
P e r k i n s , n ot P r e s l e y , c l a i me d t he t i t l e " k i n g of r oc k a nd
r o l l . "
5
J ohn n y ' s b l a c k f r i e n d s a r e a l s o much mor e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l t ha n he i s a b out t h e i r r e c e n t j ob l o s s , h a v i n g
e x pe r i e n c e d l a y - o f f s b e f or e , no doub t . " Y ou l u c k y y ou ha d a
j ob i n t he f i r s t p l a c e , " J ohn n y ' s f or mer c o- wor k e r s a y s ,
e c hoi n g J a c k ' s a dmoni s hment t o B ob upon B o b ' s l o s s of h i s
n ot eb ook c o n t a i n i n g e v e r y E n g l i s h i d i o m he e v e r ( E ncount er ed:
" Ma n , y ou l u c k y t o ev en b e a l i v e . " T hes e a r e n ot e s p e c i a l l y
h o p e f u l or o p t i mi s t i c wo r l d - v i e ws , a nd t he y a r e i n b ot h
ca s es e s s e n t i a l l y t r u e . J ohn n y a l s o a c t s t he mos t l i k e a n
s t e r e o t y p i c a l A me r i c a n i n some way s ( a t l e a s t a s f a r a s h i s
gun p l a y i s c on c e r n e d) .
E l v i s ha s many i n c a r n a t i o n s i n t h i s f i l m, b ut t hr e e
e s s e n t i a l on es . T he J a pa n es e t een a g er s b e l i e v e t h a t t he
mos t i mpor t a n t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t ur e o f A me r i c a n c u l t u r e ,
64
t he d i f f e r e n c e t ha t mos t c l e a r l y ma r ks t he s e p a r a t i o n
b et ween J a pa n a nd A me r i c a , i s t he e x i s t e n c e o f E l v i s
P r e s l e y . "We d i d n ' t ha ve E l v i s i n J a pa n . T h i s i s n o t h i n g
l i k e J a p a n , " Mi t s u k o d r e a mi l y r ema r ks wh i l s t g a z i n g up
Me mphi s ' s l a r g e b r on z e s t a t ue commemor a t i ng t he k i n g o f r o c k
a nd r o l l . F or t hes e t wo k i d s , E l v i s r e pr e s e n t s s omet hi n g
i n t a n g i b l y c o o l , h i p , a nd e s s e n t i a l l y good a b out A me r i c a n
c u l t u r e , much i n t he way t ha t S c r e a mi n ' J a y H a wki n s ( her
ma i n man) a c t s as E v a ' s t ouc hs t on e of A me r i c a n a , a nd l i k e
Whi t ma n a nd F r o s t oper a t e f o r B ob .
I n t he s econ d s t o r y , " A G hos t , " as A v a P r e a c he r C o l l i n s
p o i n t s out , t he E l v i s of t he s t o r y t a k e s on t he c o l o u r i n g of
c ommodi f i c a t i on ( i n t he s t r i c t l y ma t e r i a l s e n s e ) , t he
h u c k s t e r i s m, a nd t he duped mas s es whi c h E l v i s ha s a l s o come
t o r e pr e s e n t i n some s en s es . I t i s o n l y i n " L o s t i n S pa c e , "
t he f i l m' s f i n a l s e c t i o n , t h a t t he r a c i a l que s t i on s
s ur r oun di n g E l v i s ' s c u l t u r a l mea n i n g a r e f u l l y f or e g r oun de d.
We ca n s ee i n t he f i l m a p r o g r e s s i o n f r om s y mb ol o f t he
t o t a l i z i n g good of A me r i c a n c u l t u r e , t o commodi t y , t o
a mb i guous r a c i a l i c o n (and a r g ua b l y r a c i s t on e: c f . " F i g h t
t he P owe r " ) . P r e a c he r C o l l i n s c on c l ude s :
. . . t h e i mage of E l v i s i s , l i k e t he c h a r a c t e r s , i n
t r a n s i t , f o r e i g n , a n Ot her u n t i l a p p r o p r i a t e d ,
t a k e n i n a nd r e a r t i c u l a t e d b y t he c h a r a c t e r s
a c c o r d i n g t o t he v a r i a b l e c r i t e r i a t h a t ea ch
empl oy s , a nd t hos e r e a r t i c u l a t i o n s f u n c t i o n
v a r i a b l y f o r t he c ha r a c t e r s as we l l (101).
65
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t he g hos t whi c h a ppea r s t o L u i s a i n t he
A r c a de h o t e l i s , wi t h t he ut mos t P r e s l e y a n p o l i t e n e s s , as
con f us ed b y h i s a ppea r a n ce i n her company a s s he i s . L u i s a
a nd P r e s l e y ' s excha n ge i s a model o f mi s c ommun i c a t i on a nd
mi s un de r s t a n di n g :
P r e s l e y ( s t a r t l e d ) : Oh. Wher e am I ?
L u i s a ( e q u a l l y s t a r t l e d ) : Y ou! What a r e y ou
doi n g her e?
P : W e l l . . . I don ' r i g h t l y know m' s e l f .
L ( t o D eedee) : E xcus e me . . .
P : E xcus e me, ma ' a m.
L : No, I was s a y i n g t o h e r . . .
P : No r e a l l y , excus e me, ma ' a m. U h . . . 1 mus t a g ot
t he wr ong a ddr es s or s o me t h i n ' . I b e t t e r b e
g o i n ' . I g o t t a g o.
My s t e r y T r a i n ' s t h r e e - p a r t s - p l u s - a n - e p i l o g u e s t r u c t u r e
i s a n ot her f e a t ur e i t s ha r es wi t h S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e a nd
Down B y L a w. I n f a c t , My s t e r y T r a i n ev en r e t u r n s t o
S t r a n g e r ' s p r a c t i c e of f u r t h e r s e p a r a t i n g t he f i l ms '
s e c t i o n s b y means of i n d i v i d u a l t i t l e s f o r ea ch s e c t i o n .
B ut My s t e r y T r a i n ' s t h i r d s oc c ur s i mu l t a n e o u s l y , a f a c t
whi c h t he f i l m o n l y g r a d u a l l y r e v e a l s . One of t he " c l u e s "
J a r mus ch p l a n t s i n ea ch of My s t e r y T r a i n ' s t hr e e s e c t i o n s ,
t o t wi g t he a udi en ce t o t he s i mu l t a n e i t y of e v e n t s , i s t he
r e p o r t o f t he gun when J ohn n y a c c i d e n t a l l y s hoot s C h a r l i e .
T he r e a c t i o n s of t he v a r i o u s c ha r a c t e r s t o t h i s g un s hot a r e
t e l l i n g a nd a mus i n g . When Mi t s u k o a s ks J un "was t h a t a
gun ? " as t he y pa ck, he r e a c t s wi t h a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y
n on pl us s e d: " pr ob a b l y , t h i s i s A me r i c a . " I n t he f i l m' s
66
s econ d s e c t i o n , " A G h o s t , " when Deedee a s ks L u i s a t he same
q u e s t i o n t h a t Mi t s u k o a s ked J un , s he v e n t ur e s , t h o u g h t f u l l y ,
"may b e a . 3 8? "
T he g un , o f c our s e , i s f i r e d b y J o h n n y / E l v i s , who, a s
s e v e r a l commen t a t or s ha ve n ot e d, s ha r es mor e t ha n j u s t h i s
h a i r s t y l e wi t h t he k i n g of r oc k a nd r o l l ; he a l s o s ha r es
P r e s l e y ' s l e g e n da r y r e c k l e s s n e s s wi t h f i r e a r ms .
S t r a n g e l y , wh i l e J ohn n y i s coded t hr oug hout t he f i l m a s
d i s t i n c t l y a c c l i ma t i z e d t o Memphi s a nd h i s a dopt ed c u l t u r e ,
J a r mus ch does choos e t o r e v e a l some of t he ga ps i n J ohn n y ' s
A me r i c a n i z a t i o n . J ohn n y ha s ( n ot s u r p r i s i n g l y ) n ev er he a r d
of t he t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s , L o s t i n S pa ce, a pr ogr a m whi c h ha s
ca us ed W i l l R ob i n s on c o n s i d e r a b l e a n n oy a n ce ov e r t he y e a r s
b eca us e he s ha r es one o f i t s c h a r a c t e r s ' names . W i l l ' s
s moul de r i n g a g g r a v a t i on a t b e i n g r emi n ded o f t he o l d t . v .
show r e v e a l s t h a t he ha s en dur ed a l i f e t i me o f s uch j e e r i n g .
I ma gi n e g r owi n g up b l a c k a nd poor and b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y
b ugged b y y our peer s a b out y our a s s o c i a t i o n wi t h s uch a
v a cuous t e l e v i s i o n pr og r a m, a pr ogr a m whi c h ha s s o v e r y
l i t t l e t o do wi t h y our own e x p e r i e n c e s .
F i n a l l y , t he des k s t a f f a t t he A r c a de H o t e l demand some
a t t e n t i o n he r e . F i r s t , s een b e s i de t he i n g e n i ous s t r a t e g i c
c a s t i n g o f punk r oc k i d o l J oe S t r ummer , a nd i n l i g h t o f t he
p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p J a r mus ch s ha r es wi t h S p i k e L ee ( n ot t o
me n t i on t he a f or emen t i on ed s i mi l a r i t i e s b et ween My s t e r y
67
T r a i n a nd Do t he R i g h t T h i n g ) , t ha t he f i l l e d h i s b e l l h o p
v a ca n cy wi t h S pi k e L e e ' s b r ot he r C i n que was a c l e a r l y
p u r p o s e f u l d i r e c t o r i a l d e c i s i o n .
6
B ut ev en mor e c r u c i a l t o
t he t e n or o f t he f i l m i s t he r e s t r a i n e d g e n t i l i t y o f
S c r e a mi n ' J a y H a wk i n s ' per f or ma n ce as t he des k c l e r k . T he
s cen es ov e r t he c our s e of t he p l o t ' s one n i g h t whi c h oc c ur
( and seem a t f i r s t t o r e c ur ) a t t he f r o n t des k a r e among t he
i mpor t a n t i n g r e d i e n t s J a r mus ch us es t o b ot h e f f a c e , t he n
g r a d u a l l y r e v e a l t he s i mu l t a n e i t y of t he f i l m' s t hr e e
s e c t i o n s . A n d t he s e s cen es a l s o r e v e a l t h a t a s f a r a s t he s e
t wo men on t he g r a v e y a r d s h i f t t he o n l y t wo i n t he f i l m
who a r e a wa r e o f t he e v e n t s ' s i mu l t a n e i t y a r e c on c e r n e d,
t he s i mu l t a n e i t y of t he t hr e e s t o r y ' s ev en t s i s a
me a n i n g l e s s c o i n c i d e n c e .
L i k e t he p r e v i o u s f i l ms , all of My s t e r y T r a i n ' s
l o c a t i o n s a r e wa s t e l a n d i ma ges , wi t h p i l e s o f r u b b i s h
a dor n i n g e v e r y gr ub b y p a r k i n g l o t , b a c k - l a n e a nd a l l e y wa y .
One n ot a b l e e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s i s t he s p l e n d i d g r een f o r e s t
whi c h t he t r a i n c ut s t hr oug h j u s t o u t s i d e o f Memphi s on i t s
way i n t o , a nd on i t s j our n e y out of , t own . P a r t o f t he j ok e
of S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a di s e i s t h a t ev en F l o r i d a l o o k s g r i my -
- s o i ma g i n e wha t C l e v e l a n d l ook s l i k e ! s o t he f a c t t h a t
J a r mus ch chos e t o i n c l u d e j u s t o u t s i d e o f t own , t he f i r s t
p a s t o r a l , p l e a s a n t A me r i c a n i mage j u s t o u t s i d e o f Memphi s i s
t e l l i n g . D e s p i t e t he pr es en ce of t h i s p a s t o r a l g r een s pa ce,
6 8
a nd d e s p i t e t he f a c t t ha t My s t e r y T r a i n i s J a r mus c h' s f i r s t
f i l m s hot i n c o l o u r , i t ca n b e s een as h i s b l e a k e s t wor k t o
da t e . I n My s t e r y T r a i n J a r mus ch pr ods t he wa s t e l a n d o f h i s
c u l t u r e ev en mor e me n a c i n g l y t ha n he does i n t he t wo f i l ms
a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d . L i k e L ee i n Do t he R i g h t T h i n g . J a r mus ch
un c ov e r s a n a t mos pher e cha r g ed wi t h r a c i a l t e n s i o n , expos es
wha t may b e good, v a l u a b l e , b a d, a nd i n d i f f e r e n t a b out t h i s
mi l i e u x , a nd a l s o as L ee does , J a r mus ch o f f e r s no
s ug g e s t i on s , c on c r e t e or s u b t l e , a b out how b e s t t o r e s o l v e
t he t e n s i o n s a t t he r o o t of h i s s o c i e t y .
Not es t o C ha pt er F our
6 9
1. I t s houl d b e n ot ed a b out t h i s epi g r a m t h a t l i k e a l l o f
P u b l i c E n emy ' s mus i c , t hes e wor ds , n a ked on t he pa ge, wi t h
t h e i r de a r t h of s u b t l e t y a nd a p p a r e n t l y cl ums y r hy me s cheme,
ca n n ev er a ppr oa ch t he i n t e n s i t y , pot e n c y , a nd venom whi c h
t he y a dmi r a b l y communi ca t e t hr oug h t he s on g i t s e l f .
2. B y " L ee a nd J a r mus c h' s n ext f i l ms " I mean J a r mus c h' s
My s t e r y T r a i n ( 1989) , a nd L e e ' s Do t he R i g h t T h i n g ( 1989) .
B et ween Down B y L aw a nd My s t e r y T r a i n
f
J a r mus ch d i d ,
howev er , compl et e a s i x - mi n u t e s hor t , C of f e e a nd C i g a r e t t e s
(1986 ) wi t h R ob e r t o B e n i g n i . T he f i l m was a p p a r e n t l y
e x h i b i t e d i n L on don , as i t was r e v i e we d i n t he B r i t i s h F i l m
I n s t i t u t e ' s Mon t hl y F i l m B u l l e t i n . S ee J e n k i n s f o r a
s y n op s i s a nd s hor t r e v i e w.
3. F i r s t , i t mus t b e n ot ed t ha t wh i l e t he C l a s h d i d
a p p r o p r i a t e a s pe c t s of r egga e mus i c f o r t h e i r own punk
p r o j e c t ( j us t a s t he e a r l y whi t e r oc k a nd r o l l e r s s t o l e f r om
t he b l u e s ) , t he y wer e a l s o v o c a l a nd a r den t s uppor t e r s o f
b l a c k r egga e mu s i c i a n s . A s w e l l , l i k e P r e s l e y a nd h i s e a r l y
c o l l e a g u e s c o v e r i n g R . and B . t un e s , t he C l a s h a l s o r e c or de d
t h e i r own v e r s i o n s of ob s cur e r egga e s on gs ( J u n i o r Me r v i n ' s
" P o l i c e a nd T hi e v e s " (1977) f o r i n s t a n c e ) , b ut o n l y i n a n
e f f o r t t o g e t t h e i r own pr e domi n a n t l y wh i t e a udi e n c e t ur n e d
on t o r eg g a e mus i c , a nd b eca us e of t h e i r g en ui n e l o y e o f t he
s our c e mus i c , ( s ee en dn ot e numb er 4 f o r a f u r t h e r r ema r k on
t h i s p r a c t i c e . )
Na t u r a l l y , my o b s e r v a t i o n a b out t he d i s r e g a r d of a n d/ or
di s ma y ed i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n t o E l v i s a nd punk i s e q u a l l y
a p p l i c a b l e a c r os s r a c i a l l i n e s . My p o i n t , howev er , i s t h a t
n e i t h e r P r e s l e y n or punk r oc k ha ve ev er g a i n e d much s uppor t
f r om b l a c k f o l k s .
4. S ee G r e i l Ma r c us ' b ooks My s t e r y T r a i n : I mages o f
A me r i c a i n R ock a nd R o l l Mus i c (New Y o r k : D ut t on, , 1975)
a n d/ or D ead E l v i s : A C h r o n i c l e of C u l t u r a l Ob s e s s i on (New
Y o r k : D oub l eda y , 1991) f o r i n v a l u a b l e e x p l i c a t i o n s o f t he
r e l a t i o n s h i p s b et ween e a r l y r oc k a nd r o l l mus i c a nd t he
b l a c k mus i c f r om whi c h i t was d e r i v e d ( s t o l e n ? ) . A s Ma r cus
n ot e s , one r e s u l t o f t he l i t e r a l l y s e g r e g a t e d p op ul a r mus i c
70
ma r ket s i n t he e a r l y 1950s was t ha t doz en s o f s on gs r e c or de d
b y b l a c k a r t i s t s of t e n wi t h a degr ee of s uc c e s s wer e
l a t e r r e - r e c o r d e d f o r whi t e a udi en ces b y wh i t e a r t i s t s , t hus
f or mi n g t he ca n on of e a r l y r oc k and r o l l . F or t he p u r i s t
( and t he s e l f - a wa r e h i p s t e r ) l i k e J ohn n y , a nd no doub t l i k e
J a r mus ch h i ms e l f , t he e a r l i e r , b l a c k , v e r s i o n s of t he t he s e
f a mi l i a r s on gs a r e v a s t l y s u p e r i o r t o t he wh i t e c ov e r
v e r s i o n s .
5. Ma r c us , per ha ps u n k i n d l y , n ot es t h a t P e r k i n s a dopt ed
t h i s mon i ker as i f i n ka mi ka z e d e n i a l of t he c o mp e l l i n g
e v i de n c e t o t he c o n t r a r y ( 1975, 16 7) .
6 . S ee "T he D e c l a r a t i o n of I n depen den t s , " a c o n v e r s a t i o n
b et ween J a r mus ch and L e e , d u r i n g whi c h t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p i s
ma n i f e s t , a nd i n t he c our s e of whi c h L ee i n c l u d e s ( "no, I ' m
c o mp l e t e l y s e r i o u s , " he s a y s ) S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e wi t h
T he W i z a r d of Oz among h i s l i s t of f a v o u r i t e f i l ms ( J a r mus ch
2 6 ) . S ee a l s o t he un s i g n e d P r e mi e r e p i e c e ( a l s o t i t l e d "T he
D e c l a r a t i o n o f I n depen den t s " ) i n whi c h J a r mus ch a nd L ee
r e c oun t a n ecdot es a b out t h e i r t i me as c l a s s ma t e s a t N . Y ; U .
71
Chapter F i ve
A l l the World's a Stage: Ni ght on Earth
Why mov i es ? Why d o n ' t we j u s t go o u t s i d e a nd
wa t ch r e a l l i f e i n s t e a d?
J i m J a r mus ch ( qt d. i n S choemer C I ) ..
W h i l e s omewhat l e s s n a r r a t i v e l y e l a b o r a t e t ha n My s t e r y
T r a i n , Ni g h t on E a r t h i s J a r mus c h' s mos t i n t r i c a t e f i l m
y e t .
1
C omp r i s i n g f i v e c omp l e t e l y d i s t i n c t s t o r i e s s e t i n
f i v e d i f f e r e n t c i t i e s a r oun d t he wo r l d , t he f i l m' s s cope i s
s i mu l t a n e o u s l y v a s t , a n d, c o n f i r mi n g J a r mus c h' s de s e r v e d
r e p u t a t i o n a s s omet hi n g of a mi n i ma l i s t ( or ev en , a s J .
Hob er man ha s d e s c r i b e d hi m, " a mi n i a t u r i s t " ) , i t ca n a l s o b e
s een a s a n ot her mode s t l y c on t a i n e d wor k. Ni g h t on E a r t h
s ha r es many f e a t ur e s wi t h J a r mus c h' s p r e v i o u s f i l ms , a nd
expa nds out wa r d f r om some of t he c on c e pt s , t e c hn i que s a nd
t hemes he ha d a l r e a d y a dv a n ced i n t he s e e a r l i e r wor k s .
T o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s c h a p t e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n , I s h a l l b e g i n
wi t h t he f o l l o wi n g v e r y b r i e f summar y of t he f i v e e pi s ode s ,
whi c h a b ank of c l o c k s , i n d i c a t i n g t he l o c a t i o n ' s f i v e
d i f f e r e n t t i me - z on e s , r e v e a l as o c c u r r i n g s i mu l t a n e o u s l y .
A t 7: 07 p. m. i n L os A n g e l e s , C or ky ( Wi nona R y der ) a v e r y
y oun g t a x i d r i v e r p i c k s up V i c t o r i a S n e l l i n g (Gena
R owl a n ds ) , a H ol l y wood c a s t i n g a gen t , a t t he a i r p o r t . E n
R out e t o S n e l l i n g ' s home i n B e v e r l y H i l l s , wh i l e dus k
q u i c k l y f a l l s i n t o n i g h t , s he de c i de s t h a t C or k y woul d b e
72
p e r f e c t f o r t he ma j or r o l e whi c h s he i s c a s t i n g , b ut C or k y ,
c i t i n g he r d e s i r e and a b i l i t y t o b ecome a mecha n i c, r e f us e s
t he o f f e r . I n New Y o r k , a t 10: 07 p . m. , Y o- Y o ( G i a n c a r l o
E s p o s i t o ) , t r y i n g t o g e t home t o B r o o k l y n , h a i l s a ca b i n
Ma n ha t t a n . A f t e r q u i c k l y d i s c e r n i n g t h a t h i s d r i v e r , Ger man
f or mer c i r c u s c l own H el mut G r oken b er g er ( A r mi n Mu e l l e r -
S t a h l ) , ca n n ot d r i v e , Y o- Y o t a k e s ov e r , wher eupon he p i c k s
up h i s s i s t e r - i n - l a w A n g e l a ( R os i e P e r e z ) , a g a i n s t he r w i l l ,
t a k e s he r home, a r g ui n g a l l t he wa y , a nd s ur r e n de r s t he
d r i v e r ' s s e a t t o H el mut , who d r i v e s o f f i n t o t he n i g h t . A t
4: 07 a . m. i n P a r i s , a f t e r k i c k i n g some p a t r o n i z i n g wes t
A f r i c a n di p l oma t s out of h i s ca b , a d r i v e r , h i ms e l f f r om t he
I v o r y C oa s t ( I s s a c h De B a n k o l e ) , p i c k s up a b l i n d woman
( B e a t r i c e D a l l e ) , whom he a nnoy s wi t h i g n or a n t que s t i on s
a b out her c o n d i t i o n . A f t e r s he deca b s , we hea r t he t a x i
s mas h i n t o a n a n ot her c a r , o f f - s c r e e n . I n Rome, a t 4: 07
a . m. , G i n o , a g r e g a r i ous t a x i d r i v e r ( R ob er t o B e n i g n i ) p i c k s
up a n a i l i n g p r i e s t and pr oceeds t o , a g a i n s t t he p r i e s t ' s
wi s he s , c on f e s s some of h i s s i n f u l s e x u a l e n c oun t e r s . T he
p r i e s t d i e s i n t he t a x i , a nd G i n o ab andons hi m on a b en ch.
A t 5: 07 a . m. i n H e l s i n k i , Mi k a ( Ma t t i P e l l o n p a a ) , a t a x i
d r i v e r p i c k s up t hr e e v e r y dr un k men. On t he way t o t h e i r
hous es , t he y t e l l Mi k a of t he t r a g e d i e s t ha t ha v e b e f a l l e n
A k i , t h e i r pa s s ed out f r i e n d , wher eupon Mi k a t e l l s t hem h i s
own t a l e of woe. A r r i v i n g home, t he men a b a ndon A k i , who
73
s i t s i n t he snow i n f r o n t of h i s hous e as t he dawn r i s e s
i n t o mor n i n g .
T he p r i n c i p a l i s s ue s t o b e exa mi n ed i n t h i s c ha pt e r a r e
i s s u e s c e n t r a l t o t he t h e s i s as a whol e : wi t h a g l o b a l
s cope, a nd wi t h o n l y t wo of t he f i l m' s f i v e e pi s ode s
o c c u r r i n g i n A me r i c a n c i t i e s , Ni g h t on E a r t h i s a f i l m i n
t he model of t he a r t f i l m, and i n t y p i c a l l y J a r mus c hi a n
f a s h i o n , one t ha t n e c e s s a r i l y i l l u mi n a t e s a s pe c t o f A me r i c a n
c u l t u r e . F u l l y t h r e e - f i f t h s of Ni g h t on E a r t h i s n ot i n
E n g l i s h , a nd i s r e q u i s i t e l y s u b - t i t l e d . W h i l e J a r mus ch does
go t o g r e a t l e n g t h t o d i s t i n g u i s h nua nce b et ween ea ch
s t o r y ' s t a x i c a b , c h a r a c t e r s , and c i t y s c a p e s , a r e t he
e pi s ode s s t y l i s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t ? On t he s u r f a c e , t he
a ns wer i s n o; t he y a r e n ot . T he g r e a t a dv a n t a ge o f t he
e p i s o d i c / s i mu l t a n e o u s f or m i s t ha t i t a l l o ws a l l o f
J a r mus c h' s t e n de n c i e s ( c f . t h i s c h a p t e r ' s epi g r a m f o r wha t I
woul d s ug g es t i s a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e i n h i s l i f e ' s wor k) t o
p l a y out , unencumb er ed b y t he c on v e n t i on s of H ol l y wood f i l m-
ma ki n g . I n f a c t , as some c r i t i c s ha ve n ot e d, i n Ni g h t on
E a r t h , J a r mus ch may ev en b e s een as d e l i b e r a t e l y s i t u a t i n g
h i s wor k i n t he i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema .
W e l l known f o r b e g i n n i n g t he c r e a t i v e pr oc e s s wi t h
a c t o r s i n mi n d, J a r mus c h' s c a s t i n g i n Ni g h t on E a r t h i s on ce
a g a i n e v i d e n t l y i n t r i c a t e l y pl a n n e d f o r t he a s s o c i a t i o n s
ea ch a c t o r a r r i v e s wi t h .
2
J . Hob er man qui ppe d t h a t " t he r e
74
h a s n ' t b een a f i l m s i n c e G oda r d' s K i n g L e a r i n whi c h t he
p e r f or me r s ' mer e pr es en ce c a r r i e d s o much c r o s s - : r e f e r e n t i a l
b aggage ( " R oa ds i de" 6 ) . A s my empha s i s i n t he p r e v i o u s
c ha pt e r on a c t o r s ' a s s o c i a t i v e mea n i n gs i n My s t e r y T r a i n
i n d i c a t e s , I mi g ht di s a g r e e wi t h H ob er ma n ' s exa mpl e, b ut n ot
wi t h h i s p o i n t , whi c h i s i r r e f u t a b l y s oun d. W h i l e i n t he
ca s e o f Ni g h t on E a r t h , t he a s s o c i a t i v e " mea n i n gs " whi c h t he
a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e t o t he f i l m a r e as c l e a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t as
t he y a r e i n My s t e r y T r a i n , t he y a r e ev en c l o s e r t o t h i s
p r o j e c t ' s c e n t r a l t h e s i s , e v ok i n g as t he s e pe r f or me r s do t he
i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema s of C a s s a v et es ( R owl a n ds ) , L ee
( E s p o s i t o a nd P e r e z ) , F a s s b i n de r ( Mu e l l e r - S t a h l ) , B e n i e ux
( D a l l e ) , ( D en i s ) De B a n k ol e , J a r mus ch ( B e n i g n i ) , a nd
K a u r i s ma k i ( P e l l o n p a a ) . A s f o r t he K a u r i s ma k i c o n n e c t i o n ,
one c r i t i c ha s c o n c i s e l y ob s er v ed t h a t , " ( K a ur i s ma k i ) i s
v i e we d a l on g wi t h J i m J a r mus ch as a p r o l e t a r i a n
me t a p hy s i c i a n i n deep a r t i s t i c hock t o Wim Wen der s " ( F i s h e r
2 54 ) . A n d s i n c e P e l l o n p a a i s t o K a u r i s ma k i ' s f i l ms r a t h e r
a s De Ni r o i s t o S c o r s e s e ' s , J a r mus c h' s c a s t i n g her e i s on ce
a g a i n i r r e f u t a b l y p or t e n t ous . A s w e l l , t he a s s o c i a t i v e
c on n e c t i on s of ci n ema t og r a pher F r e d e r i c E l mes (who ha s a l s o
s hot famous f i l ms f o r D a v i d L y n c h a nd J ohn C a s s a v et es ) a r e
a s n e a r l y c o n s e q u e n t i a l as t he a c t u a l i ma ges whi c h E l mes
c r e a t e s a nd c a pt ur e s i n t h i s f i l m.
Mor e ov e r , t he pr es en ce of Wi n on a R y der (a H ol l y wood
7 5
s t a r ) i n Ni g h t on E a r t h
f
e s p e c i a l l y when s een i n t he l i g h t
of J a r mus c h' s p e r s i s t e n t r e s i s t a n c e t o t he ma i n s t r ea m
c omme r c i a l f i l m i n d u s t r y , i s a t l e a s t as s i g n i f i c a n t ( and
per ha ps s i mp l e - mi n de dl y s o, e s p e c i a l l y i n l i g h t o f t he f a c t
t h a t C or ky R y d e r ' s c h a r a c t e r t ur n s down t he cha n ce t o
b ecome a H ol l y wood s t a r ! ) as i s t he pr es en ce o f A k i
K a u r i s ma k i r e g u l a r P e l l o n p a a , or E s p o s i t o a nd P e r e z , whom J .
Hob er man c a l l s " de n i z e n s of p l a n e t S p i k e L e e "
( " I n d i v i d u a l i s t s 5 9 ) . D i f f e r e n t i de a s of a mb i t i o n , n ot t o
me n t i on t he l a c k o f i t , seem once a g a i n t o come i n t o p l a y
he r e . I n t he c our s e of t u r n i n g down t he c a s t i n g a g e n t ' s
o f f e r o f i n s t a n t mov i e s t a r dom, C or ky d e l i v e r s t he f o l l o wi n g
s peech: " l o o k l a d y , I l i k e t he mov i es a nd a l l , a n ' I s ee
y o u ' r e b e i n g s e r i o u s , b ut t h a t ' s n ot a r e a l l i f e f o r me,
y ' kn ow? A n d I know t h e r e ' s t on s o f g i r l s who wa nt t o b e i n
t he mov i es a n ' a l l . . . " S he a ckn owl edges t h a t s he i s
d i f f e r e n t f r om t he " t on s of g i r l s " who woul d k i l l t o b e
mov i e s t a r s , wi t h t h i s a dmi s s i on c l e a r l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
J a r mus c h' s own s t a n c e v i s - a - v i s H o l l y wo o d .
3
I n a d d i t i o n t o t he e v i de n t wi n k s of t he a r t hous e ey e
whi c h a ccompa n i es J a r mus c h' s c a s t i n g , t he t r a j e c t o r y of h i s
c a r e e r a s a n a r t f i l m d i r e c t o r ha s b r oug ht hi m b y Ni g h t on
E a r t h t o a p o s i t i o n wher e he may (and h i s a udi e n c e t a k e s
d e l i g h t t h a t he does ) a l l u d e t o h i s own p r e v i o u s wor k. Two
a r r e s t i n g exa mpl es of t h i s d e v i c e i n a c t i o n a r e f oun d i n
76
ot he r wi s e ext r a n eous n a r r a t i v e or v i s u a l ma t e r i a l . I n t he
New Y or k s t o r y , i t i s c e r t a i n l y e s s e n t i a l t ha t t he d r i v e r ' s
g i v e n name b e H el mut , b ut b y g i v i n g t he g e n t l e a nd a mi a b l e
d r i v e r t he s ur name G r oken b er g er , J a r mus ch a l l u d e s t o Ot t o
G r oke n b e r g e r , t he y oun g Ger man a s p i r i n g pr oduc e r who s a v ed
S t r a n g e r T ha n P a r a d i s e f r om o b l i v i o n wi t h h i s l a s t - mi n u t e
i n v e s t me n t .
4
I n ev en mor e e l l i p t i c a l f a s h i o n , J a r mus ch
t hr ows i n a f a s t i n s e r t of G i n o ' s ( B e n i g n i ) F i a t g e a r - s h i f t -
kn ob ( i t ' s a n e i g h t - b a l l ) , f o r no ot he r p o s s i b l e r e a s on b ut
t o a l l u d e t o t he mi s s i l e whi c h B e n i g n i ' s c h a r a c t e r B ob us ed
as a mur der weapon i n Down B y L a w.
T he f i l m' s s t r u c t u r e and o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e ( t ha t i s ,
t he f i v e s e pa r a t e s t o r i e s , f i v e s e t s o f c h a r a c t e r s , f i v e
d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s , wi t h no c on n e c t i on wha t ev er s a v e t he
p u r e l y f or ma l one) i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y we l l s u i t e d t o
J a r mus c h' s c i n e ma t i c p r e oc c up a t i on s . T he f or ma l mecha ni s m
of b a s i n g a n e n t i r e f i l m on t he n e c e s s a r i l y r a n dom- s eemi n g
c on n e c t i on s b et ween t a x i - d r i v e r s a nd t h e i r cus t omer s (a p a i r
who a r e n a t u r a l l y un a c qua i n t e d wi t h ea ch ot her ) i s
s upr emel y J a r mus c hi a n . I n f a c t , t he Roman t a x i d r i v e r makes
t h i s ca s e e x p l i c i t l y when he e x p l a i n s t o t he p r i e s t
( s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i n or de r t o c on v i n c e t he p r i e s t t o hea r h i s
c on f e s s i on ) t ha t he ha s b een d r i v i n g a t a x i i n Rome f o r
f i f t e e n y e a r s , a nd ha s n ev er p i c k e d up t he same pe r s on
t wi c e . J a r mus ch wa n t s h i s a udi en ce t o know t h i s ( s u r p r i s i n g
77
b ut c e r t a i n l y p l a u s i b l e ) f a c t hot o n l y b eca us e i t mi g ht
e x p e di t e t he d r i v e r ' s h i l a r i o u s c o n f e s s i o n , b ut a l s o b eca us e
i t s t a r k l y i l l u mi n a t e s t he uncommon r e l a t i o n s h i p b et ween a
t a x i d r i v e r a nd h i s or her cus t omer . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
whi c h f or ms t he c or e of t he f i l m, does r e v e a l i n t y p i c a l l y
J a r mus c hi a n f a s h i o n t he d i s t a n c e b et ween pe opl e i n ea ch of
t he f i v e e pi s ode s . C o n v e r s e l y , ea ch e p i s o d e ' s
d r i v e r / c u s t o me r r e l a t i o n s h i p a l s o exudes ( t o e x t r e me l y
v a r y i n g degr ees ) a wa r mt h, a nd degr ee of s e n s i t i v e
un de r s t a n di n g , whi c h ha s b een h i t h e r t o a b s en t f r om t he
oe uv r e , wi t h t he s t r i k i n g e x c e p t i o n of Ni c o l e t t a a nd B o b ' s
ma g i c a l con v er g en ce i n Down B y L a w. E v en My s t e r y T r a i n ' s
y oun g J a pa n es e l o v e r s a r e , b eca us e of J u n ' s o p p r e s s i v e l y
c o o l demea nour , r en der ed wi t h l e s s t e n de r n e s s b et ween t hem
t ha n a r e Y o - Y o , H el mut , a nd A n g e l a i n t h e i r f l e e t i n g ,
c o i n c i d e n t a l , a nd n ev er t o b e r e pe a t e d, en coun t er i n a New
Y or k C i t y t a x i c a b .
J a r mus ch ha s c l a i me d t ha t My s t e r y T r a i n ma r ked t he end
of a k i n d o f t r i l o g y i n h i s c a r e e r , wi t h Ni g h t on E a r t h as
t he b e g i n n i n g of a new pha s e of h i s c r e a t i v e en dea v our . T he
l a t t e r f i l m seems t o me, howev er , t o a c t u a l l y b e t he
p i n n a c l e o f t h i s s o r t of f i l m- ma k i n g , ma r k i n g t he end of
pr og r e s s t hr oug h a l l f our f i l ms t o t h i s end p o i n t .
5
F ur t he r mor e , t he f a c t of Ni g h t on E a r t h ' s j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f
t he t wo A me r i c a n s egment s wi t h t he t hr e e E ur opea n on es ,
78
a u t o ma t i c a l l y pr ov okes a degr ee of e x p l i c i t c ompa r i s on o f
A me r i c a n s o c i e t y ( a t l e a s t i n a s much as t a x i r i d e s ca n expos e
t h i s ) t o v a r i o u s n ua n ces of we s t e r n E ur opea n s o c i e t y .
P r e v i o u s l y , we ha v e s een J a r mus ch show h i s a udi e n c e a n
A me r i c a t he y mi g ht n ot ha ve s een b e f or e , b y l o o k i n g a t t he
c u l t u r e t hr oug h t he ey es o f f o r e i g n e r s . I n Ni g h t on E a r t h ,
a l l of t he c ha r a c t e r s a r e mor e or l e s s n a t u r a l i s e d ( i f n ot
n a t i v e ) c i t i z e n s of t h e i r e p i s o d e ' s l o c a t i o n , a nd y e t t he
e x i s t e n c e o f t he f i v e d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s a l l o ws t he f i l m t o
ha v e a r e v e l a t o r y a f f e c t on a l l s o r t s of s p e c t a t o r s , t hr oug h
t he modes t t r i c k of s i mpl e c ompa r i s on .
T he s i mu l t a n e i t y of t he f i v e e pi s ode s i s us ed
d i f f e r e n t l y i n Ni g h t on E a r t h t ha n i t i s i n l i n k i n g My s t e r y
T r a i n ' s t hr e e p a r t s . T he f i r s t i mpor t a n t d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t
t he f a c t t h a t t he ev en t s a r e o c c u r r i n g s i mu l t a n e o u s l y i s
s omewhat e f f a c e d i n My s t e r y T r a i n , o n l y t o b e g r a d u a l l y
r e v e a l e d , wh i l e t he Ni g h t on E a r t h ' s s i mu l t a n e i t y , s hor t o f
s p l i t t i n g t he fr ame i n t o f i f t h s a nd p r o j e c t i n g t he s t o r i e s
s i mu l t a n e o u s l y , i s made as p l a i n as i t r e a s on a b l y c o u l d b e.
T he n et e f f e c t of t he s e t wo t r i c k s on a udi en ces i s p a l p a b l y
d i f f e r e n t . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , i t i s o n l y t hr oug h r e t r o a c t i v e
s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t My s t e r y T r a i n ' s a udi en ce f u l l y a ppr ehen d
t he i mp l i c a t i o n s f o r wha t i t ha s wi t n e s s e d o f t he g r a d u a l l y
r e v e a l e d s i mu l t a n e i t y , wh i l e Ni g h t on E a r t h ' s un mi s t a k a b l e
s i mu l t a n e i t y p r o v i d e s o n l y o c c a s i o n a l s p e c t a t o r i a l a wa r en es s
79
o f t he e v e n t s ' p o i n t s of compa r i s on and c o n t r a s t a c r os s t he
t i me - z on e s .
One common f e a t ur e of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e wor ks o f t he
i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r t ci n ema ( whi ch, i n t h i s t h e s i s ' t e r ms , i s
c ompr i s e d of , t o r e i t e r a t e , a l l t he n a t i o n a l ci n ema s ) i s i t s
i n t e r n a t i o n a l s cope. T hus t he f r equen cy of i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c o - p r o d u c t i o n a nd wha t P e t e r L e v ha s i d e n t i f i e d a s t he
" E ur o- A me r i c a n c i n e ma , " t ha t i s , f i l ms s uch as P a r i s . T exa s
( Wender s , 1984) a nd t he n e a r l y a r c h e t y p i c a l exa mpl e,
G oda r d' s C ont empt (196 3) among, of c our s e , many , many
o t h e r s . One r e a s on f o r t he pr e s umpt i on of g r e a t e r
" s o p h i s t i c a t i o n " ( or s e l f - a s s ume d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n ) o f t he a r t
hous e cr owd, n a t u r a l l y , i s t he mor e l i t e r a l l y wo r l d l y n a t ur e
of t he a r t f i l m, ev en i f t he f i l m i n q u e s t i o n n ev er s t r a y s
o u t s i d e o f t he t i n i e s t of l o c a t i o n s . Ni g h t on E a r t h ' s
c o n c e p t i o n , t ha t i s , t he v e r y i de a t o make a f i l m wher eb y
s i mul t a n e ous t a x i j o u r n i e s a r oun d t he wo r l d pr ov oke
que s t i on s a b out t i me , c u l t u r e , t he human c o n d i t i o n , i s t o
un de r t a ke a n a r t f i l m. U n l i k e Down B y Law whi c h c o u l d
c o n c e i v a b l y b e r e- ma de i n t o a H ol l y wood a c t i o n p i c t u r e ,
Ni g h t on E a r t h i s a n a r t f i l m, a priori.
T he b ank of c l o c k s a nd t he s p i n n i n g g l ob e s whi c h
J a r mus ch b e g i n s ea ch of t he f i l m' s f i v e s e c t i o n s wi t h a r e
o s t e n t a t i o u s l y s t r a n g e b eca us e of t he ext r eme r a r i t y of
e x t r a - d i e g e t i c v i s u a l ma t e r i a l wi t h i n a f i l m. T ha t i s , wi t h
80
e x t r a - d i e g e t i c mus i c u t t e r l y c o n v e n t i o n a l , i n t he f i c t i o n
f e a t ur e f i l m, whet her i t i s t he s pawn of H o l l y wo o d , t he a r t
ci n ema , or s omet hi n g e l s e , i ma ges whi c h ha v e no b e a r i n g on
t he c h a r a c t e r s o f t he d i e g e s i s a r e e x t r e me l y r a r e . I n deed,
s uch i ma ges a r e v i r t u a l l y e n t i r e l y a b s en t f r om t he
c omme r c i a l ci n ema , o c c u r r i n g o n l y s l i g h t l y mor e f r e q u e n t l y
i n a r t f i l ms a n d/ or t he f u l l y a v a n t - g a r de c i n e ma . T hes e
c l o c k s a r e t he t o o l b y whi c h t he f i v e s t o r i e s s i mu l t a n e i t y
i s r e v e a l e d .
W h i l e t he c l o c k s i n f or m us a b out t he l i t e r a l
s i mu l t a n e i t y of t he e v e n t s , t he f i l m a l s o c on n e c t s t he
e pi s ode s i n many , much s u b t l e r wa y s , a d e v i c e whi c h l e n ds a
u n i v e r s a l q u a l i t y t o t he f i l m as a whol e , ov e r a nd a b ove
wha t ev er u n i v e r s a l i t y mi g ht b e e xpr e s s e d b y t he f i l m' s
l i t e r a l u n i v e r s a l i t y . Some o f t he de f t a nd f l e e t i n g l i n k s
b et ween t he e pi s ode s l i n k t he d i s p a r a t e p l a c e s (a s hot o f
t he Roman C ol os s eum r e mi n di n g us of t he G r e a t W es t er n F or um
whi c h we pa s s ed en r out e t o B e v e r l y H i l l s ) , wh i l e ot he r s
l i n k some o f t he c ha r a c t e r s a c r os s t he t i me z on es ( t he
d i s c o n s o l a t e H e l s i n k i s t o r i e s of ma r i t a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n a nd
pr eg n a n t t een s r e c a l l i n g C or ky a nd he r d e s i r e t o f i n d " j u s t
e x a c t l y t he r i g h t g u y " ) , wh i l e s t i l l ot he r s l i n k a l l t he
c h a r a c t e r s , a c r os s one n i g h t on e a r t h ( s moki n g a nd t he
e t i q u e t t e s ur r oun di n g i t , t he u l t i ma t e t houg ht f ul n e s s o f
ea ch e p i s o d e ' s t i p f o r t he d r i v e r ) , a nd f i n a l l y t he t ouc he s
81
t h a t b ond t he e pi s ode s t o ot he r s i g n i f i c a n t f i l ms ( t he wa f t s
of omi nous smoke r i s i n g f r om a s ewer as t he New Y or k s t o r y
opens a c o mi c a l v i s u a l homage t o S c o r s e s e ' s T a x i D r i v e r
( 1976 ) , wh i l e B e a t r i c e D a l l e ' s b l i n d n e s s ha r ken s b a ck t o he r
per f or ma n ce of s e l f - e y e - p o k i n g i n B e i n i e x ' s B e t t y B l u e
( 1986 ) .
T h i s f i l m a l l o ws t he s p e c t a t or (b e t he y P a r i s i a n , L os
A n g e l i n o , or n e i t he r ) t o t r a v e l , a nd t o s ee t he e v e r y da y a nd
t he b a n a l ( n ot hi n g mor e t ha n s l i c e - o f - l i f e t a x i en coun t er s )
o f f i v e v e r y d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s i n much t he same way t h a t
J a r mus ch ha s p r e v i o u s l y expos ed A me r i c a n c u l t u r e t hr oug h t he
ey es o f f o r e i g n e r s .
6
I n t he New Y or k s t o r y , we f i n d t he
f o l l o wi n g r e v e a l i n g excha n ge: " C heck i t out , H el mut , man,
t h i s i s B r o o k l y n ! What y ou t h i n k ? " When H el mut r e p l i e s ,
w i s t f u l l y , " i t ' s c r a z y , " a nd A n g e l a r e b ut s , " i t ' s a dump! "
Y o- Y o comes b a ck wi t h , " don ' t b e s a y i n ' t h a t A n g e l a , man,
i t ' s our n e i g hb our hood. " Y o - Y o ' s o b s e r v a t i o n dr a ws our
a t t e n t i o n t o t he f a c t t h a t wha t ev er we mi g ht make of a
p l a c e , t he r e i s c e r t a i n l y g oi n g t o b e someone who s ees t he
same p l a c e i n a c omp l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t l i g h t . E v e r y s t o r y ' s
l o c a t i o n i n t h i s f i l m i s f a mi l i a r t o t he c h a r a c t e r s ( wi t h
o n l y few s ma l l e x c e p t i o n s ) , a f a c t whi c h a l l o ws J a r mus ch t o
t r e a t h i s a udi e n c e as t o u r i s t s , t o i n v i t e us t o s ee t he
f o r e i g n t hr oug h our own ey es , i n e x a c t l y t he same way t h a t
he ha s s hown A me r i c a n s t h e i r own c u l t u r e t hr oug h t he ey es o f
82
f o r e i g n e r s , b e t he y t o u r i s t s or i mmi g r a n t s . T h i s k i n d o f
t o u r i s m, t he p l e a s ur e s i t s u p p l i e s , a nd t he c u l t u r a l
i n s i g h t s i t o f f e r s may b e one good a ns wer t o J a r mus c h' s ( n ot
s o un r ea s on a b l e) q u e s t i o n whi c h b e g i n s t h i s c ha p t e r .
J a r mus ch may b e i n t e r e s t e d i n s howi n g h i s a udi e n c e t he
b ea ut y , comedy , t r a g e dy , t he a r t of t he mundane, b ut a l s o
t h a t t he t e d i o u s and t he un e v e n t f ul a r e no l e s s s o b eca us e
t he y oc c ur i n f o r e i g n p l a c e s . H e l s i n k i o n l y l o o k s a s
f o r e i g n t o a n o n - F i n n i s h s p e c t a t or , j u s t as A n g e l a ' s
B r o o k l y n ca n b e " a dump" t o he r , d e f e n s i b l e , a nd ev en
b r a g g ed a b out b y Y o - Y o , and b e a u t i f u l a nd c r a z y t o a n a g i n g
Ger man f or mer c i r c u s c l own .
J a r mus ch ha s comment ed t ha t ,
t a k i n g a t a x i i s s omet hi n g i n s i g n i f i c a i i t i n y our
d a i l y l i f e ; i n a f i l m when someone t a k e s a t a x i ,
y ou s ee t hem g et i n , t he n t h e r e ' s a c u t , t he n y ou
s ee t hem g et out . S o i n a way t he c on t e n t o f t h i s
f i l m i s made up of t he t h i n g s t h a t woul d u s u a l l y
b e t a k e n out ( Keough 9)
T h i s c on t e n t , compr i s ed of e x a c t l y wha t woul d b e
r emoved f r om mor e c o n v e n t i o n a l f i l ms , i s e x a c t l y wha t
J a r mus c h' s f i l ms ha v e f or eg r oun ded s i n c e t he b e g i n n i n g
r ememb er A l o y i s i o u s ' r ema r ks on s t o r i e s ( whi ch I r e c oun t e d
i n t he Down B y Law cha pt er ) f r om 1980' s P er ma nent V a c a t i o n ?
S t y l i s t i c a l l y mi n i ma l b ut i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n r each, ,
n a r r a t i v e l y s pa r e , b ot h a mus i n g and me l a n c hol y , Ni g h t on
E a r t h e p i t omi s e s J a r mus c h' s wor k t o da t e .
83
Not es t o C ha pt er F i v e
1. A s I wr i t e , J a r mus c h' s l a t e s t f i l m, Dead Ma n , s t a r r i n g
J ohn n y D epp, i s p o i s e d f o r an aut umn r e l e a s e f o l l o wi n g i t s
s o- s o r e c e p t i o n a t t he 1995 C annes F i l m F e s t i v a l . I know
l i t t l e e l s e a b out t he f i l m a t pr e s e n t ot he r t ha n i t , l i k e
My s t e r y T r a i n a nd Ni g h t on E a r t h , was pr oduced wi t h c a p i t a l
f r om J a pa n es e i n v e s t o r s , t ha t i n a d d i t i o n t o Depp i t a l s o
f e a t ur e s G a b r i e l B y r n e , J ohn H u r t , and A l f r e d Mo l i n a , t h a t
i t i s a we s t e r n , a nd t ha t i t s s c or e was compos ed b y o d d b a l l
r o c k s t a r Ne i l Y oun g . I g l e a n e d t hes e f a c t s f r om "C a nnes
' 9 5 : O f f i c i a l Web S i t e of t he I n t e r n a t i o n a l F e s t i v a l "
U . R . L . : ht t p : / / www. mhm. f r / c a n n e s / e n g / i n de x . ht ml
2. J a r mus ch ha s c l a i me d i n s e v e r a l i n t e r v i e ws t h a t t he
i d e a f o r h i s f i l ms a l wa y s b e g i n s wi t h hi m i ma g i n i n g
c h a r a c t e r s f o r s p e c i f i c a c t o r s . T y p i c a l among t he s e c l a i ms
i s t he f o l l o wi n g : " I d o n ' t wr i t e a s t o r y f i r s t . I s t a r t
wi t h a c t o r s t h a t a r e pe opl e t h a t I know who I ' d l i k e t o wor k
wi t h . S o I s t a r t a nd I c o l l e c t l i t t l e d e t a i l s a b out a
c h a r a c t e r t h a t I woul d l i k e t o c r e a t e wi t h t he a c t o r i n my
h e a d . . . " ( qt d. i n C l a r k 3 1) .
3. B y now, t he b a s i s of my c l a i m s houl d b e p e r f e c t l y
c l e a r , b ut i n ca s e i t i s n ot , I woul d d i r e c t t he r e a de r t o
S a n t e or S e i de n b e r g , whi c h a r e j u s t t wo o f t he many
i n t e r v i e ws i n whi c h J a r mus ch ha s c l a i me d t h a t he i s ( or a t
l e a s t was a t one t i me) r e g u l a r l y de l ug e d wi t h e x t r e me l y f a t
o f f e r s t o d i r e c t ot he r wr i t e r s ' s c r i p t s f o r H ol l y wood
s t u d i o s . F or exa mpl e, he c ompl a i n e d t o S e i de n b e r g i n 1985
t h a t " I ' v e b een o f f e r e d some r e a l ga r b a ge s c r i p t s f o r a l o t
of money , b ut I d o n ' t ha v e any d e s i r e t o do t ha t " ( 24) .
4. A c c o r d i n g t o a f r on t - pa g e f e a t ur e on J a r mus c h' s
u n c o n v e n t i o n a l b us i n e s s p r a c t i c e s , " H ea ds t r on g H el mer S ee
A r t i n t he D e a l , " V a r i e t y r e p o r t s t ha t J a r mus ch, i n i t i a l l y
s c e p t i c a l of G r ok e n b e r g e r ' s o f f e r of h a l f - o wn e r s h i p o f t he
n e g a t i v e a nd compl et e a r t i s t i c c o n t r o l , " t r u s t e d
G r oken b er g er i n t u i t i v e l y " upon t h e i r f i r s t me e t i n g ( 47 ) .
5. T h i s s ug g e s t i on i s n ot b a s ed s o l e l y on t he kn owl edge
t h a t J a r mus c h' s n ext f i l m i s a we s t e r n wi t h a s t i l l - l a r g e r
b udget a nd a f u l l - f l e d g e d mov i e s t a r , a l t houg h t h i s
kn owl edg e c e r t a i n l y c on f i r ms my b e l i e f .
84
6. My s ug g e s t i on s of t he p o t e n t i a l o r i g i n s of s p e c t a t o r s
a r e a r b i t r a r y , b ut i t s houl d per ha ps b e n ot ed t h a t P a r i s i s
one c i t y wher e J a r mus c h' s f i l ms ha ve b een e x c e p t i o n a l l y
we l l - r e c e i v e d , s o t h a t he mi g ht a n t i c i p a t e a s u b s t a n t i a l
P a r i s i a n a udi e n c e f o r Ni g h t on E a r t h i s l e s s s t r a n g e t ha n i t
mi g ht b e f o r , s a y , H a l H a r t l e y , a n ot her A me r i c a n i n depen den t
o f a p p r ox i ma t e l y J a r mus c h' s i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a t u r e . Down B y
L aw s o l d mor e f i r s t - r u n a dmi s s i on s i n P a r i s a l on e t ha n i n
t he e n t i r e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( T r a v e r s 35)
85
Chapter Si x
Co ncl usi o n: Ji m Jarmusch and the American Nati o nal Cinema
P e opl e s a y my f i l ms a r e o p t i mi s t i c , b ut I ha v e a
v e r y deep pe s s i mi s m t ha t may b e comes f r om b e i n g
A me r i c a n . A me r i c a i s a b out o b j e c t i f y i n g
e v e r y t h i n g a nd ma ki n g i t ma r k e t a b l e , a b out g r e e d
a nd p r o f i t . I r e a c t a g a i n s t t h a t b y ma ki n g
f i l ms a b out d i s p l a c e d or ma r g i n a l c h a r a c t e r s a nd
t he s e e mi n g l y i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l l i t t l e t h i n g s t he y
do.
Jim Jarmusch ( qt d. i n S a n t e 207)
I n t he p r e c e di n g c ha pt e r s I ha ve a t t empt ed, t hr oug h my
a n a l y s i s o f J a r mus c h' s f our ma j or wor ks t o da t e , t o
empha s i z e t he t he ma t i c a nd s t y l i s t i c f e a t ur e s of t he s e f i l ms
whi c h l e d me t o a t t empt t o f i n d t he c a t e g or y A me r i c a n
Na t i o n a l C i nema i n whi c h h i s f i l ms p r o p e r l y b e l o n g . I n t he
q u o t a t i o n a b ov e; wh i l e d i v u l g i n g h i s deep a n t i p a t h y t owa r d
wha t he b e l i e v e s ha s b een t he r e s u l t of A me r i c a n c a p i t a l i s m,
J a r mus ch a l s o expos es , per ha ps n a i v e l y , h i s f a i t h i n t he
r e s pl e n de n c e o f t he ev er y da y , of t he b a n a l .
R e t u r n i n g r e p e a t e dl y t o c on t e mpl a t i on s of A me r i c a n
c u l t u r e as f i l t e r e d t hr oug h t he f r e s h , a s - y e t un j a ded, ey es
o f f o r e i g n n ew- comer s , J a r mus c h' s d e s i r e t o expos e t h a t
whi c h ha s b een l on g i n v i s i b l e t o t he n a t i v e s s houl d b e s een
as wh o l l y u n l i k e i n deed a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t he e n t e r p r i s e
of H ol l y wood ( and ot he r n a t i o n a l c omme r c i a l c i n e ma s ) . T hes e
86
c on s t a n t r e t u r n s t o t he f o r e i g n e r s - e y e - v i e w of A me r i c a a r e
c e r t a i n l y s hr ewd i n a s much a s h i s n on - A me r i c a n c h a r a c t e r s s ee
t h i n g s t h a t A mer i ca n s do n ot s ee, t y p i c a l l y s pea k E n g l i s h
p o o r l y or n ot a t a l l , and h o l d b e l i e f s , p r e c o n c e p t i o n s , a nd
wo r l d - v i e ws whi c h A me r i c a n s , a t l e a s t t hos e r e pr e s e n t e d b y
t he H ol l y wood ci n ema , t y p i c a l l y do n ot .
A r t f i l m p r o t a g o n i s t s , B o r d we l l i n f or ms us , a l mos t
a l wa y s l a c k t he we l l - d e f i n e d g oa l s a nd e v e r - p r e s e n t
d e a d l i n e s t h a t d r i v e t he c h a r a c t e r s , a nd f or m t he e n t i r e
raison d'etre, o f c l a s s i c a l f i l m n a r r a t i o n ( Na r r a t i o n 2 0 7 ) .
J a r mus c h' s f i l ms t a k e t h i s p r i n c i p l e as a s t a r t i n g po
i n t a nd s t r e t c h f r om g o a l - l e s s c ha r a c t e r s i n t he n a r r a t i v e
s en s e, t o c h a r a c t e r s who a r e l i t e r a l l y g o a l b e r e f t . Mi n o r
e x c e p t i o n s n a t u r a l l y oc c ur , b ut b y and l a r g e , J a r mus c h' s
p r o t a g o n i s t s do n ot seem t o know, much l e s s c a r e , wher e t he y
a r e g o i n g .
J a r mus ch i s a t pr e s e n t a mi n or a r t i s t , a nd per ha ps
s h a l l r e ma i n on e. T he r e c o g n i t i o n of h i s a ccompl i s hmen t s i n
academe i s , howev er , s uch t ha t he does wa r r a n t me n t i on i n a n
e x t r e me l y wi d e l y - u s e d i n t r o d u c t o r y f i l m s t u d i e s t e x t , A
S hor t H i s t o r y of t he Mov i e s ( 5t h e d . ) , wher e B r uc e K a wi n
does u s e f u l l y i mpa r t t o n eophy t e f i l m s t ude n t s t ha t among
p r a c t i s i n g A me r i c a n f i l m- ma k e r s , J a r mus ch i s t he a n t i -
S p i e l b e r g :
I f ( J a r mus ch' s ) f i l ms ha v e, v i a t h e i r r oc k i d o l s ,
a t ouc h of t he my t h i c , no one c o u l d mi s t a k e t hem
f o r " r e t u r n t o my t hs " ma t e r i a l ; t he l a v i s h ,
c o n s e r v a t i v e f a n t a s i e s t ur n e d out b y H ol l y wood i n
t he l a t e 1970s a nd 1980s a r e J a r mus c h' s p o l a r
o p p o s i t e s . I n t h i s p e r i o d , t he n a r r a t i v e f i l m-
ma ker s mos t u n l i k e ea ch ot he r a r e J a r mus ch a nd
S p i e l b e r g , who mi g ht b e c on s i de r e d a ma x i ma l i s t
(527) .
P a r a l l e l i n g K a wi n ' s s e n t i me n t s , J . Hob er man wr ot e i n t he
pa ges of t he V i l l a g e V o i c e ;
W h i l e S p i e l b e r g and company pr oduce h y p e r b o l i c
s i mu l a t i o n s of H ol l y wood B - mov i e s , J a r mus ch
r e i n v e n t e d t he B s ' n o - f r i l l s a e s t h e t i c . H i s
mi n i ma l i s t v a u d e v i l l e s ( compl et e wi t h d i a l e c t
humor ) a r e i r r e d u c i b l y , c o n f i d e n t l y A me r i c a n .
( "Noh E x i t " 87)
I n l i g h t of t he s e t wo pr omi n en t v i e ws , t he r e does n ot seem
much r e a s on f o r a t t e mpt i n g t o a ppr ehen d J a r mus c h' s f i l ms as
a n y t h i n g ot he r t ha n among t he b e s t A me r i c a n exa mpl es o f t he
a r t f i l m; as exempl a r y model s , v e r y n ea r t he p i n n a c l e , o f
t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l ci n ema . Ob v i o u s l y of a d i f f e r e n t k i n d
t ha n t he H ol l y wood ma i n s t r ea m, whi c h S p i e l b e r g ' s wor k b e s t
e x e mp l i f i e s , and s t e a d f a s t l y con cer n ed wi t h que s t i on s of
n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y a nd t he n a t ur e of A me r i c a n s o c i e t y a nd
c u l t u r e , J a r mus c h' s f i l ms a r e mor e " n a t i o n a l " i n c h a r a c t e r
t ha n H ol l y wood f i l ms a r e , i n t he same way t h a t B o r d we l l
s ug g es t s t h a t t he d e v i c e of i n t e n t i o n a l a mb i g ui t y r e n de r s
t he a r t f i l m mor e " r e a l i s t i c " t ha n t he c l a s s i c a l H ol l y wood
f i l m ( " A r t " 6 0 ) .
P a s s i on a t e a b out t he A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l ci n ema , J a r mus ch
88
has remarked, "some people see making a successful
independent fi lm as thei r ti cket to Hollywood, and. . . there's
nothing wrong with that. . . , " but at the same time has voiced
his stance on the existence of the American national cinema,
and the need for some American film-makers to resi st the
temptations of the mainstream:
there i s not a single language to filmmaking.
There has to be place for serious films, serious
comedies, i n the American cinema. Otherwise we
can al l pack i t i n and give our legacy away
(Jarmusch qtd. i n Klady 47).
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