Developing Fraction Number Sense Through Linear Measurement

DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions
AnElectronicResourceGuideforLessonStudy
MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup SchoolofEducation MillsCollege 5000MacArthurBoulevard Oakland,CA94613 www.lessonresearch.net 5104303350
Last updated February, 2010
The Mills College Lesson Study Group (MCLSG) is funded by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education (Grant No. R305A070237) to develop and test lesson study resources in collaboration with lesson study groups across the United States. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in these materials are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Education.
DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
TableofContents IntroductiontothisResourceGuide ................................................................................................. 4 Section1:MathematicsTaskstoSolveandDiscuss .......................................................... 8 StudentResponsesforMathematicalTasksIncludedinSection1.....................13 DailyMeetingReflectionForm(s) ..............................................(separatedownload) Section2:CurriculumInquiry:DifferentModelsofFractions ...................................16 DevelopingaNumberSenseforFractions(DVD) ........................(sentseparately) VideoObservationGuide.......................................................................................................25 SummaryofVideoExcerpts .................................................................................................26 Section3:ChoosingaFocusforYourLessonStudyWork .............................................30 PathA:IntroduceFractionsUsingLinearMeasurementContext .......................35 FlowofJapaneseLesson ........................................................................................39 LessonPlanstoAccompanyDVD ..................................(separatedownload) ElementarySchoolTeachingGuidefortheJapaneseCourseofStudy (Grades16)............................................................................(separatedownload) JapaneseTeachingManuals:TranslatedUnits3B(separatedownload) JapaneseTeachingManuals:TranslatedUnits4B .(separatedownload) PathB:InvestigateAnAspectofYourStudentsFractionNumberSense.....40 Investigation1:UnderstandingthatFractionsAreAccumulationsof UnitFractions ..............................................................................................................42 Investigation2:UnderstandingtheRelationshipBetweentheWhole AndaFractionalPart................................................................................................43 Investigation3:UnderstandingtheRelativeSizeofFractions ..............45 Investigation4:UnderstandingFractionsontheNumberLine ............48 Investigation5:FractionsModelsasaFoundationforUnderstanding Calculation,IncludingMultiplicationandDivisionofFractions............57 AdditionalReadings ..................................................................................................59 FiveInterpretationsofFractions .................................................................59 InitialTreatmentofFractionsinJapaneseTextbooksbyTad Watanabe..........................................................................(separatedownload) AppendixA:DivisionofFractionsWordProblems.....................................61 Section4:Planning,Conducting,andDiscussingtheResearchLesson.................64 TeachingLearningPlanfortheResearchLesson(Template)..............................68 ProtocolforLessonObservationandDiscussion .......................................................72
LessonObservationLog........................................................................................................73 PowerPointPresentationTemplate .................................................................................76 EndofCycleReflectionForm..............................................................................................81
Section5:LessonStudyRefresher:OverviewandSuggestionsforGetting Started .........................................................................................................................................................82 SettingNormsinYourLessonStudyGroup..................................................................93 ChoosingaResearchTheme(MainAim)forLessonStudy....................................94 ListofFiguresandTables Figure1.LessonStudyCycle......................................................................................................6 Figure2.SampleScheduleforLessonStudyCycle......................................................................6 Table1.WhatsHardAboutFractionNumberSense?.............................................................11 3 Figure3.ModelsoftheFraction ..................................................................................................17 4 Table2.WhatsHardAboutFractionNumberSense?(Revisited)....................................22 Table3.WhatsHardAboutFractionNumberSense?(RevisitedII)................................32 Table4.FractionsUnitsinJapaneseElementaryCurriculum..38 Table5.HowStudentsExplainedChoiceofFractionNamesonNumberLine..56 Figure4.Twodifferentmodelsoffractions:linearmeasurement(ribbonlength) andcirclearea(pizza).........57 Table6.FractionInterpretationsandExamples..59 Figure5.SampleAgendaforFirstLessonStudyMeeting......................................................84 Figure6.SampleBeginningandEndingAgendaItemsforall LessonStudyMeetings.........................................................86 ListofElectronicResources(providedonCDsentseparately) ChoosingResearchTheme.doc POWERPOINTTemplate.ppt DailyReflection_Online.doc ProtocolforLessonObs/Disc.doc Dr.Tslessonplan.doc SettingNorms.doc EndofCycleReflection.doc TeachingLearningPlanTemplate.doc LessonObservationLog.doc VideoObservationGuide.doc StudentWorkTemplateInvest4G.doc
IntroductionToThisResourceGuide
Theressomethingweirdaboutfractions.Ifthenumerator,whichis thetop,isthesame,thebiggerthedenominatorthesmallerthe fraction. Jordan,grade5
LikeJordan,manystudentsfeelthattheressomethingweirdabout fractions.Thisguideexploressomeofthechallengesintheteachingandlearningof fractions,andprovidesresourcesforlessonstudygroupsinterestedinthistopic.As wellexploreinSection1,U.S.nationaltestssuggestthatfractionsareatopicof considerabledifficultyforstudents.Althoughmanyexcellentresourcesonfractions alreadyexist,thisresourceguidefocusesonanapproachtofractionsthathasbeen somewhatneglected:useofalinearmeasurementcontexttobuildunderstandingof fractions. Theresourcesincludemathematicaltasks,studentwork,curriculum samples,lessonvideos,andresearcharticles,eachaccompaniedbydiscussion questions.Theresourcesfocusondevelopmentofnumbersenseforfractions,an ideadescribedinmoredetailinSection1. Theresourceguideisdividedintofivesections,alignedcloselywiththecycle oflessonstudyshownonpage6.Section1exploresfractiontasksandrelated studentwork,inordertoilluminatesomeofthechallengesindevelopingfraction numbersense. Section2exploreshowalinearmeasurementcontextforfractionsfor example,usingfractionstomeasurelong,skinnyobjectslikeribbon,pipe,orroads maybeusefulinbuildingstudentunderstandingoffractions.Linearmeasurement contextsforfractionsarenottypicallyemphasizedinU.S.textbooks,butmayhelp studentsdevelopsomeimportantinsightsaboutfractionsasnumbersinsights thateludemanyU.S.students,accordingtonationaltestresults.Aswewillseein Section2,linearmeasurementcontextinthiscasedoesnotmeanusingmarked rulers.Rather,itmeansmeasuringthelengthofalong,narrowobjectbyseeing howmanytimesasmallerunitfits. Section3providesfurtherresources,suchasmathematicaltasks,lesson videosandcurriculummaterials,tosupportyourgroupasyoupursuetheteaching andanalysisofaresearchlessononfractions. InSection3,groupschoosebetweentwodifferentpaths(PathsA&B).If yourstudentshavenotyethadathoroughintroductiontofractions,youmaybe mostinterestedinPathA,whichfocusesonlinearmeasurementasacontextfor introducingfractions.PathAallowsyoutoexamine(andperhapsreshape)your
currentintroductionoffractions.Ifyourstudentshavealreadystudiedfractionsin somedepth,youmaywanttochoosePathB,whichfocusesonexploringthe strengthsandshortcomingsofyourstudentscurrentunderstandingoffractions. UsingthetasksinPathB,youcaninvestigateyourstudentsunderstandingof fractionsandidentifyanareathatneedsstrengtheningasthefocusforyourlesson studywork.PathBalsoprovidesresourcesoncrossculturaldifferencesinthe teachingoffractionsandonfivedifferentinterpretationsoffractions. Section4providesmaterialstosupportconductinganddiscussingthe researchlesson. Actionstepsaredenotedwitha throughoutthisdocument,tohelpyou identifytheactivitiesthatwesuggestyoudoindividuallyand/orasagroup. Whenwerefertolessonstudywithinthisresourceguide,wearethinkingof thecycleofactivitiesshowninFigure1.Asthefigureshows,lessonstudyusually beginswithcurriculumstudy.Thisguideprovidestasksandmaterialstosupport thelessonstudycycle,withaparticularfocusonthefirsttwophases(curriculum studyandplanning).Ourpriorresearchsuggestedthatreadilyavailablematerials couldenhanceagroupslessonstudyexperience. Ifsomemembersofyourgrouparenewtolessonstudy,werecommendthat youaddameetingatthebeginningofyourworktofamiliarizeyourselveswith lessonstudy,beforebeginningtoworkwiththeresourceguide.Wehaveprovided somematerialsonlessonstudyinSection5,includinganoverviewoflessonstudy,a sampleagendaforthefirstmeeting,andsuggestedprocessesforsettingnorms (groundrules),conductingefficientmeetingsandconsideringlongtermgoals.The videoHowManySeats?,providedtoyourgroupseparatelyfromthisresource guide(alongwithsuggestionsforuse),providesaquickintroductiontotheentire lessonstudyprocess.Ourwebsite,www.lessonresearch.net,alsohaslinksto additionalresourcesandinformation.
Figure1.LessonStudyCycle Asyouthinkabouthowtoscheduleyourlessonstudyworktogetherusing theresourceguide,youmightconsidertheroughtimelineinFigure2.Itincludesa blankcolumnthatmaybehelpfulforschedulingandnotingyourmeetingdates. Figure2.SampleScheduleforLessonStudyCycle

TimeAllocation 1hour Meeting Date Activities Developorrevisitnorms;organizegrouproles;planfor studentpretests(downloadableseparately);developor revisitmainaimoflessonstudyifdesired;lookoverthe resourceguide Introductiontothelessonstudyprocess Curriculumstudyanddevelopmentoftheteaching learningplan,usingSections14ofthisguide Teachtheresearchlesson Conductthepostlessondiscussion(usuallythesameday astheresearchlesson) [Reviseandreteachthelessoninanotherclassroom(s)as timepermits,thenconductpostlessondiscussion. Optional,buthighlyvaluedbymanygroups] Reflectonwhatwaslearnedfromtheentirelessonstudy cycle,completeanddiscussendofcyclereflectionform. Organizestudentposttests
1hour [optional] 68meetings(or moreifneeded) 1classperiod 1meeting
[1classperiod& 1meeting] 1meeting 1meeting
AsshowninthesamplescheduleinFigure2,neartheendofyourwork,we recommendthatyoudevotesometimetosummarizinganddiscussingwhatwas learnedfromthewholelessonstudycycle.Tohelpyoukeeptrackofyourreactions andexperiencesalongtheway,wehavemadeavailableasaseparatedownload reflectionformsthatwesuggestteammemberscompleteindividuallyattheendofeach lessonstudymeeting.Thesemeetingreflectionformsmayalsobeusefulforsharing ideaswithinyourgroup.Afterteammembershavehadthechancetofilloutindividual reflectionformsneartheendofeachmeeting,keyideascanbesharedwiththegroup, recordedbyanotetaker,andreadatthebeginningofthenextmeetingtohelpyour groupquicklydivebackintothework. Attheendofthelessonstudycycle,youmaywanttosummarizeinwritingtwo orthreewaysthelessonstudyworkhasaffectedyourpractice(usinganendofcycle reflectionforminSection4).Youmayalsowanttopresentyourlearningfromthe lessonstudycycletoschoolordistrictcolleagues.Section4providesaPowerPoint templatethatmaybeusefulforthatpurpose.Youmaywanttolookoverthetemplate now(p.76),asitprovidessomeideasaboutthematerialstocollectalongthewayto helpcaptureyourgroupsworktogethersuchasphotosofyourgroup,ofeachphase ofthelessonstudywork,andofyournorms,copiesofstudentwork,compellingquotes fromstudentsandfromteammembers,andsoforth.ThePowerPointtemplateisalso providedelectronically,ontheCDsenttoyouseparately. Duringthislessonstudycycle,youmaywanttothinkaboutdocumentingyour workinsimilarwaysthatwedocumentedtheworkofotherlessonstudyteamswho usedthetoolkitaspartofthestudy.Forinstance,eachtimeyourgroupmeets,youmay wantto: 1. Videotapethemeeting. 2. Keepanyartifactsfromthemeeting,suchasstudentwork(e.g.,copiesor photographs)andlessonplandrafts.Also,keepanydocumentsyouusedthat arenotinthisguide,suchascurriculummaterialsandstandards(acopyof therelevantpagesorareferenceifthematerialisavailableonline). 3. Filloutdownloadablemeetingreflection. 4. Keeptrackofthetimedevotedtoeachlessonstudymeetingandnoteiton yourmeetingreflectionform. 5. Savethevideodatacard(theelectronicrecordofyourmeeting),meeting artifacts,andreflectionformsasarecordofyourworktogether. Ifyouhavenotalreadydoneso,youmayneedtodesignateagroup representativetokeeptrackofcollectingthesematerialsforyourgroup.Ifyouhave questionsaboutthematerials,donthesitatetocontactStudyCoordinatorMelissa Crockett(mcrockett@mills.edu;telephone510.430.2197) Wehopeyoufindthisresourceguideusefulforyourwork!Letsgo!
Section1:MathematicsTaskstoSolveandDiscuss Whatisdifficultforstudentsaboutfractions?Wecangainsomeinsightsby examiningthreetasksandrelatedstudentresponses.Twoofthesetaskscomefrom theNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP). Werecommendthatmembersofyourlessonstudyteamindividuallysolveeach taskandnotehowyousolveditbeforediscussingitwiththegroup.Wealso recommendthatyoubeginyourdiscussionbysharingyoursolutionsandyourideas abouthowstudentsmightapproachtheproblem. 1Problem 1 12 7 Estimatetheanswerto + .Youwillnothavetimetosolvethe 13 8 problemusingpaperandpencil. Notesonyoursolutionmethod: DiscussionQuestions: Howdidyousolvetheproblem,andhowmightstudentssolvetheproblem? Whatinsightsintofractionsmakequickworkofsolvingthisproblem? Studentresponsestothistaskareprovidedattheendofthissection(p.13). Discusswhystudentschoseeachoftheresponsesshown. Whydosomanystudentsfindthisproblemdifficult?
1Post,T.R.(1981,May).Fractions:ResultsandimplicationsfromNationalAssessment.TheArithmeticTeacher,
28(9),2631. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
2Problem
Findtwofractionsbetween
1 and1andwritethemhere: 2
Notesonyoursolutionmethod:
DiscussionQuestions: Howdidyousolvetheproblem,andhowmightstudentssolvetheproblem? Whatunderstandingsandmisunderstandingsaboutfractionsmightthis problemreveal? Whatdothestudentresponses(attheendofthissection,p.1314)suggest thateachstudentunderstandsanddoesnotunderstandaboutfractions? Doyounoticeanydifferencesintheresponsesofstudentswhousedthe basaltextbookandthestudentswhoparticipatedintheMeasureUp curriculum?

2ProblemandstudentworkfromWorkSessionpresentedbyBarbaraDoughertyandBarbaraFillingim,NCTM
AnnualMeetingResearchPresession,April21,2009,WashingtonD.C. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
3Problem 3
3 1 Jimhas ofayardofstringwhichhewishestodivideintopieces,each 4 8 ofayardlong.Howmanypieceswillhehave? A)3 B)4 C)6 D)8 Notesonyoursolutionmethod: DiscussionQuestions: Explainwhat70%ofresponding4thgradestudentsmighthavebeen thinkingwhentheyansweredtheabovequestionincorrectlyonanational assessment.(27%of4thstudentsansweredcorrectly;3%didnot respond).(Noadditionaldetailedstudentworkwasavailableforthis problem.)
TheNationsReportCard(2003).SampleQuestionsfromtheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress. NationalCenterforEducationStatistics.Washington,D.C.:InstituteofEducationSciences.RetrievedonJanuary 12,2009fromhttp://www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/itmrls/startsearch.asp. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
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Nowthatyouhavesolvedthreedifferentfractiontasksanddiscussedstudent solutions,wesuggestthatyou: BrieflysummarizeasagroupyourinsightsintothequestionWhatis difficultforstudentsaboutfractions? Table1belowandonthenextpagelistssixdifferentaspectsoffraction numbersense,withexamplesofstudentdifficultyorunderstandingofeach. Theentriesinthistablearenotmeanttorepresentanorderedtrajectoryof fractionsunderstandings. ReadthroughTable1individuallyandfocusontheconnectionbetween thetwocolumns(thetypeofknowledgeandtheexamplesofstudentdifficulty orunderstanding).Identifyanythat: Arepuzzlingorparticularlyinterestingtoyou. Helpyouthinkaboutanyofthestudentworkyouexamined. Discusstheseasagroup.
TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge AFractionisaNumber Afractionrepresentsanamount,notjust pieces(suchas2of3piecesofapizza)ora situation(suchas2of3shirtsarered). ExampleofStudentDifficultyorUnderstanding 2 Whenaskedtoputthefraction onanumberline,a 3 studentsaidyoucantputitonanumberline,because itstwopiecesoutofthreepieces,itsnotanumber. 2 4 [Or isnotanumber,itstwonumbers.] 3 Difficultyseeinghowtodivideawholeintoequal parts. 1 2 3 4 5 Difficultyseeingthat isequalto , , , 2 4 6 8 10 andsoon. 1 1 2 Studentsadd + andget ,withoutrealizing 8 3 5 theyareaddingtwodifferentthings(thirdsand fifths)sortoflikeaddingapplesandhammers.
Table1:WhatsHardAboutFractionNumberSense?
PartitioningFractions Awholecanbedividedintosmallerand smallerequalparts. Thesamefractionalquantitycanbe representedbydifferentfractions. TheMeaningoftheDenominator
1 1 Differentunits(suchas and )are 3 5 differentsizes.
4Kerslake,D.(1986).Fractions:Childrensstrategiesanderrors.AreportofthestrategiesanderrorsinConcepts
inSecondaryMathematicsandScienceProject.Windsor,England:NFERNelson.Behr,M.J.&Post,T.R.(1992). Teachingrationalnumbersanddecimalconcepts.InT.R.Post(Ed.),TeachingmathematicsingradesK8, researchbasedmethods(pp.201248).Boston:AllynandBacon.
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TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge TheMeaningoftheDenominator(cont.) Themoreunitsawholeispartitioned into, thesmallereachoneis.
1 fitsexactlyntimesintothewhole. n
KnowingWhatistheWhole Constructingthewholewhengivena fractionalpart. Keepingtrackofthewhole. .
ExampleofStudentDifficultyorUnderstanding 1 1 Studentsmaythink isbiggerthan because5 5 4 isbiggerthan4. 1 fitsinthewhole3times, 1 Difficultyseeingthat 3 4 3 fitsinthewhole4times.Hastroubleseeingthat 3 4 , etc.equal1. 4 Difficultymakingthewholewhenyougivethema fractionalpart,e.g.:Thispaperis 2 ;showmethe 3 whole. Seesthatthemagnitudeofafractiondependson themagnitudeofthewhole(e.g.,halfofasmall cookieisnotthesameashalfofalargecookie) Confusionaboutwhetherthetwodrawingsbelow togetherrepresent 3 ofapieor 3 ofapie. 8 16
FractionSize Understandsthatfractionsizeis determinedbythe(multiplicative) relationshipbetweennumeratorand denominatornotjustbythenumerator, notjustbythedenominator,andnotby thedifferencebetweennumeratorand denominator. Seesnonunitfractionasanaccumulation ofunitfractions.[Aunitfractionhasa numeratorof1;anonunitfractionhasa numeratorotherthan1.] FractionsCanRepresentQuantities GreaterThanOne Maybedifficultforstudentswhohavea strongimageofafractionasapieceof something.
4 3 Maythink isbiggerthan because4isbigger 9 4 than3(comparingnumerators),or 4 isbigger 9 3 than because9isbiggerthan4(comparing ! ! 4 5 because denominators),or 3 isthesamesizeas ! 5 7 thedifferencebetweenthetopandthebottomin bothfractionsis2. Seesthatequivalentfractionshavethesame ! ! multiplicativerelationshipbetweennumerator anddenominator.In 2 , 4 , 3 ,etc.denominatoris 4 8 6 twotimesnumerator. 9 Sees 5 ismadeupof5 1 sor5times 1 ,that is 8 8 8 8 ! !! 1 madeupof9eighthsor9times ,etc. 8 6 ! ,becausetheresonly ! Youcanthave 5 ina 5 5 whole. !
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StudentResponsesforMathematicalTasksIncludedinSection1
Problem1:Estimatetheanswerto
problemusingpaperandpencil. Student Responses 1 2 19 21 Idontknow
12 7 + .Youwillnothavetimetosolvethe 13 8
Percent responding, Age13 7 24 28 27 14
1 Problem2:Findtwofractionsbetween and1andwritethemhere: 2 Onthenextpagearesixexamplesofstudentworkonthisproblem.Threearefrom studentswholearnedfractionsinameasurementcontext(theMeasureUp curriculum)andthreearefromstudentswhousedabasaltextbook.
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Context1:BasalText5
1 1 Find2fractionsbetween and1.Explainhowyouknowtheyarebetween and1. 2 2 Student1 1 1 because 4 is bigger than 1 4 5 because 5 is bigger than 1 Student2 3 7 1 are between and 1. Both are missing one part. 4 8 2 Student3 2 4 2 is more than 1 3 5 3 is more than 2 4 is more than 1 5 is more than 2 Context2:MeasureUpCurriculum(MeasurementContext) 1 Findtwofractionsbetween and1. 2 Student1 2 3 If there is a lot of parts, there are smaller pieces. So 3 4 you have to use a lot of them to get close to 1. So 2 out of 3 parts is close to 1 and so is 3 out of 4 parts. Student2 5 7 1 If you have 8 parts, then 4 parts are so 5 parts and 7 8 8 2 1 parts are more then (sic) . But there (sic) not 1 because 2 you need all the parts. Student3 5 6 What I did was think of the number of parts and then 9 10 what is haf (sic). Then I added one to it. 5StudentworkfromWorkSessionpresentedbyBarbaraDoughertyandBarbaraFillingim,NCTMAnnual MeetingResearchPresession,April21,2009,WashingtonD.C.,reproducedbypermissionoffirstauthor.The
nextpageprovidesmoreinformationontheMeasureUpcurriculum. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
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BackgroundonMeasureUpCurriculum MeasureUpisacurriculumforfirstandsecondgradersdevelopedby researchersattheCurriculumResearch&DevelopmentGroup(CRDG)atthe UniversityofHawaiiEducationLaboratorySchool.Thecurriculumisbasedon Russianmathematicsinstructionthatattemptstolinkmathconceptstoreal worldsituations,andcreateacontextofunderstandingwithanemphasison criticalthinkingandproblemsolving.Thecurriculumstreatmentoffractions emphasizesuseofunitsoflength,area,andvolumetoexplorebasic mathematicalideassuchasequivalence.Forexample,studentsmightcompare twolengthsbyusingathirdlength.Studentsusingthiscurriculumbecome veryattunedtoasking,Whatistheunit?sincedifferentunits(suchasa hexagonandsixtriangles)mightbeusedtocreateequivalence.
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Section2:CurriculumInquiry:DifferentModelsofFractions
Yourgroupcanbegintoexplorethelinearmeasurementmodelwithahandson activity.IntheMysteryStripactivitypacketmailedtoyourgroupmembersalong withothertoolkitmaterialsareameterlengthstripofpapertapeandamystery lengthstripofpapertape(coloredblue). Individuallytrytosolvethefollowingproblemandthendiscussyoursolutions asagroupbeforecontinuingwithSection2. Withoutusingstandardmeasuringdevices,expressthelengthofthemystery piece(afractionalpartofameter)inmeters.Afteryoudothework individually,shareyourideasabouthowstudentsmightsolvetheproblem andwhattheymightfindchallenging.Whatunderstandingsoffractions wouldhelpstudentssolvetheproblem?
6 6 Researcher:Whichfractionissmaller? 4 5 6 Chris: .Because4takeslongertogetto6than5does.6 4
LikeChris,manystudentsreasonaboutfractionsinwaysthatworkincertain situationsbutnotinothers.Chrismayhaveanimageofafractionasaquantityless thanoneandasanumberofpiecesinawholewithsomemissing.Hisreasoning 4 5 wouldbehelpfulifhewerecomparingthesizeof and ,butleadshimtothe 6 6 wrongconclusionintheexampleabove. Studentsimagesandunderstandingsoffractionsareshapedbytheir encounterswithmathematicstextbooksandmaterialsandbyreallifeexperiences. Whatimagesoffractionsdoyourstudentstypicallydrawwhenaskedtomakesense ofafractionproblem?Theillustrationonthenextpageshowsthreecommonways torepresentfractions:anareamodel,alinearmodel,andadiscrete(orset)model. 3 Thefraction isshownshadedineachoftheeightmodels. 4
6AdaptedfromCramer,K.&Wyberg,T.(2007).Whengettingtherightanswerisnotalwaysenough:
Connectinghowstudentsorderfractionsandestimatesumsanddifferences.Pp.205220W.G.Martin&M.E. Strutchens(Eds.)Thelearningofmathematics.69thYearbook.Reston,VA:NCTM,p.215. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
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3 Figure3.Modelsofthefraction 4
AsTadWatanabesarticleInitialTreatmentofFractionsinJapaneseTextbooks (downloadableseparately)notes,eachofthesemodelshasdifferentstrengthsand shortcomingsforbuildingstudentunderstanding,andthereisnotonesinglebest 3 model.Ultimately,studentswillneedtounderstandthat representsseveralvery 4 3 differentsituations,suchas ofameter,6outof8squarescoloredona 4 checkerboard,and3girlsinagroupof4children.Theresourcesinthisguidefocus onthelinearmeasurementcontextforfractionsbecauseitisoftenneglectedinU.S. textbooks,althoughitiscommoninothercountriesandinresearchbased programs.Aswewillsee,thelinearmeasurementcontextmaybeparticularly usefulfordevelopingcertainaspectsoffractionnumbersenseshowninTable1. ConsiderthefollowingtwoproblemsadaptedfromtheJapanesecurriculum, andshareyourideasaboutthediscussionquestionsthatfollow. Ingrade2,Japanesestudentsinvestigatehowmanyliters(l)ofwaterfitin variouscontainers.(Assumethattheshadingrepresentswater.) 5 l 4 l Howmanylitersofwater arethere? 3 l 2 l 1 l
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Then,ingrade3,Japanesestudentsencounterthefollowingrelatedproblem.7 (Assumethatthe1litercontainerisdividedintoequalparts.) 1 liter Howmuchwaterisshownbyeachinterval?Howmuchwaterisinthecontainer? 1 Howmany litersareinthecontainer? 5 DiscussionQuestions: Whatarethesimilaritiesbetweenthetwoproblemsshownabove? Whatknowledgeaboutwholenumbersmightstudentsbringtothefraction problem? Wethinkitisusefultoexamineacurriculumthatusesameasurementcontextto buildstudentsunderstandingoffractions.TheJapaneseelementarytextbook seriesMathematicsforElementarySchool,providesarelativelyconciseand readableexample,allowingustotracehowunderstandingoffractionsmight developfromgrade1measurementwherestudentsnoticethattheycanmeasure theirdeskswithdifferentunits,suchaseraserlengthsandpencillengthstograde 6multiplicationanddivisionoffractions.Sentseparately,weprovideonecomplete textbooksetforyourgroupwhichincludethemajorunitsinthe3Band4B textbookstointroduceandbuildbasicunderstandingoffractions. ExaminationofCurriculumMaterials ReadFractions,whichisUnit16oftheGrade3textbook(3B,pages5764). Itmaybeusefultoknowthat8periodsof45minutesareallocatedforthis unit,roughlyoneperiodpertextbookpage. Individuallyrecord,inTable2(foundonp.22ofthisresourceguide),your ideasabouthowthistextbookunitmighthelpstudentsdevelopeachtypeof fractionnumbersenseshown.(Table2isanexpandedversionoftheearlier tableonfractionnumbersense,withspacetorecordyourthoughtsonthe curriculummaterials.)Iftimeislimited,youmaywanttoassignteam memberstodifferentrowsofTable2,andthensharefindings.
7Hironaka,H.&Sugiyama,Y.(2006).Mathematics16.[EnglishtranslationofShinteiAtarashiiSansu.]Tokyo:
TokyoShoseki.Adaptedfrom3Btextbook,p.6264. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
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Discuss:Howdoesthe3BFractionsunithelptobuild(ornot)eachtypeof understandinginTable2?Forexample,howdoesthetextbook presentationhelpstudents: Seenonunitfractions(fractionswithanumeratorotherthan 1)asaccumulationsofunitfractions(fractionswithnumerator of1)? Seetheconnectionbetweenwholenumbersandfractions? Connectarea,linearmeasurement,andnumberlinemodels?
Discuss:Howdotheimagesandunderstandingsoffractionsthatstudents mightdevelopfromthe3Btextbookcomparewithwhatstudentsmight developfromyourowncurriculumsintroductionoffractions?
Ifsomegroupmembersreadfasterthanothers,orifyoulikethisactivityand wanttodomoreofit,youcananalyzethe4BFractionsunit(pp.3851)inthesame fashion. ExaminationofVideoMaterials Tofurtherfleshouttheideasinthetextbook,youmaywanttoturntovideo excerptsweprovidedseparatelyonaDVD.OnthisDVDarethefirstthreelessonsof the3Bfractionsunit,taughtbyanexperiencedJapaneseteacher,Dr.Akihiko Takahashi,tograde35studentsinCalifornia.Manyteachershavecommentedthat thevideoprovidesinsightsthatarehardtogainjustfromreadingthetextbook.We suggestthat,asagrouporonyourownbeforeyournextmeeting,youtakethetime to: Imaginehowyouwouldteachthebeginningofthe3Bfractionunit(p.57 64). ReadtheSummaryofVideoExcerpts(p.26ofthisresourceguide). Divideupamongteammembersthefollowingdiscussionquestionsrelated totheFractions1lesson,sothateachteammemberfocusesononequestion. NoteyourfocusquestionontheVideoObservationGuide(p.25)andwatchthe Day1lesson,takingnotesontheVideoObservationGuide. UseyournotesfromtheVideoObservationGuidetodiscussthefollowing questions.(TheSummaryofVideoExcerptsmayalsobeusefulforjoggingyour memoryofthelesson.)
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DiscussionQuestions(FractionsLesson1) Howdoestheinstructorusethe1meterreferencestrip?Whydoesheuse twoofthe1meterreferencestripstoshow2meters? Whydoestheinstructorhavestudentspredictthelengthofpiecesbefore investigating?
Whatelementsofinstructionmighthelpstudentsbuildastrongmental 1 imageoftheconnectionbetweentheunit(s)andthewhole:that isaunit 3 1 thatgoesintothewhole3times, isaunitthatgoesin4times,etc.? 4 Thisveteraninstructormadetwochangesfromthestrategiesrecommended bytheteachersmanual:Hegavestudentsstripsrepresentingjustthe 1 fractionalpartover1meter(suchas m),ratherthanthewholelength(such 3 1 as 1 m),andhedidnotpredrawlinesonthe1meterreferencestripto 3 1 1 show m, m,etc).Whydoyouthinkhemadethesechoices? 3 2 Ifyourgrouphastimetowatchthevideofromthesecondandthirdlessons(17min. 40sec.and23min.respectively),wesuggestthatyouuseadditionalcopiesofthe videoobservationguideanddiscussthefollowingquestions.(Ifyourgroupistight ontime,youmaywishtowatchthevideoonyourownanddiscussitasagroup,or towatchthevideolaterinyourlessonstudywork.) DiscussionQuestions(FractionsLesson2) Theinstructortakesconsiderabletimetowriteontheboardthedifferent 1 waysofexpressing meter?Doyouthinkthisisagoodinvestmentof 4 time? 2 2 Whydoyouthinktheinstructorchose mand maslengthsforthe 5 3 mysterystrips? Theinstructorchoosesparticularstudentmisunderstandingsasafocusfor 2 2 wholeclassdiscussion(forexample, mversus masdescriptionsofthe 3 5 3 mysterystripandtwodifferentlengthsboththoughttobe m.)What 4 kindsofunderstandingdoyouthinkhewastryingtobuild?
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DiscussionQuestions(FractionsLesson3) Howdostudentsconnectlinearmeasurementactivitiestothenumberline? Whymightitbeusefultointroducefractionsinthecontextofastandard measurementunit(meters)insteadofusingfractionbarsorothernon standardunits? Howdotheselessonsbuildanunderstandingof: o Therelationshipbetweenunitsize,numberofunits,andthewhole unit(meter) o Anonunitfractionasanaccumulationofunitfractions o Fractionsize
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Table2:WhatsHardAboutFractionNumberSense?(Revisited)
TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge AFractionisaNumber Afractionrepresentsanamount,notjust pieces(suchas2of3piecesofapizza)ora situation(suchas2of3shirtsarered).
ExampleofStudentDifficultyor Understanding
TasksandExperiencesThatBuildThis Understanding (NotesfromReviewofJapaneseCurriculum)
PartitioningFractions Awholecanbedividedintosmallerand smallerequalparts. Thesamefractionalquantitycanbe representedbydifferentfractions. TheMeaningoftheDenominator
2 Whenaskedtoputthefraction onanumber 3 line,astudentsaidyoucantputitona numberline,becauseitstwopiecesoutof 2 isnota threepieces,itsnotanumber.[Or 3 number,itstwonumbers.]8 Difficultyseeinghowtodivideawholeinto equalparts. 1 2 3 Difficultyseeingthat isequalto , , 2 4 6 4 , 5 andsoon. 8 10
Studentsadd
1 1 Differentunits(suchas and )are 3 5 differentsizes. Themoreunitsawholeispartitioned into,thesmallereachoneis.
realizingtheyareaddingtwodifferent things(thirdsandfifths)sortoflikeadding applesandhammers. 1 1 Studentsmaythink isbiggerthan 5 4 because5isbiggerthan4. 1 Difficultyseeingthat fitsinthewhole3 3 1 times, fitsinthewhole4times.Has 4 3 , 4 etc.equal1. troubleseeingthat 3 4
1 1 2 ,without + andget 3 5 8
8Kerslake,D.(1986).Fractions:Childrensstrategiesanderrors.AreportofthestrategiesanderrorsinConceptsinSecondaryMathematicsandScienceProject.Windsor,
England:NFERNelson.Behr,M.J.&Post,T.R.(1992).Teachingrationalnumbersanddecimalconcepts.InT.R.Post(Ed.),TeachingmathematicsingradesK8,research basedmethods(pp.201248).Boston:AllynandBacon. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
22
TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge KnowingWhatistheWhole Constructingthewholewhengivena fractionalpart. Keepingtrackofthewhole. .
Table2(continued)
ExampleofStudentDifficultyor Understanding Difficultymakingthewholewhenyougive themafractionalpartlike:Thispaperis 2 ;showmethewhole. 3 Seesthatthemagnitudeofafraction dependsonthemagnitudeofthewhole (e.g.,halfofasmallcookieisnotthesame ashalfofalargecookie) Confusionaboutwhetherthetwo drawingsbelowtogetherrepresent 3 ofa 8 3 pieor ofapie. 16 TasksandExperiencesThatBuildThis Understanding (NotesfromReviewofJapaneseCurriculum)

FractionSize Understandsthatfractionsizeis determinedbythe(multiplicative) relationshipbetweennumeratorand denominatornotjustbythe numerator,notjustbythedenominator, andnotbythedifferencebetween numeratoranddenominator. !
Maythink 4 isbiggerthan 3 because4is 9 4 biggerthan3(comparingnumerators),or 4 isbiggerthan 3 because9isbiggerthan 9 4 ! ! 4(comparingdenominators),or 3 isthe 5
! !
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Table2(continued)
TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge FractionSize(cont.) Seesnonunitfractionasan accumulationofunitfractions.[Aunit fractionhasanumeratorof1;anonunit fractionhasanumeratorotherthan1.] ! FractionsCanRepresentQuantities GreaterThanOne Maybedifficultforstudentswhohavea strongimageofafractionasapieceof something. ExampleofStudentDifficultyor Understanding samesizeas 5 becausethedifference 7 betweenthetopandthebottominboth fractionsis2. Seesthatequivalentfractionshavethe ! samemultiplicativerelationshipbetween numeratoranddenominator.In 2 , 4 , 3 , 4 8 6 etc.denominatoristwotimesnumerator. Sees 5 ismadeupof5eighthsor5times 8 ! !! 1 ,that 9 ismadeupof9eighthsor9 8 8 1 times ,etc. 8 Youcanthave 6 ,becausetheresonly 5 ! 5 5 inawhole. TasksandExperiencesThatBuildThis Understanding (NotesfromReviewofJapaneseCurriculum)
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VideoClipTitle___________________________________________________ QuestionIamfocusingmyobservationofthevideoclipon: WhatInoticedaboutthisquestioninthevideo: AdditionalthingsInoticed: Aboutstudentthinking Aboutteachersactionsandteachingmaterials Aboutmathematicalcontent
VideoObservationGuide:IntroductiontoFractionsinaLinearMeasurement Context
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SummaryofVideoExcerpts:IntroductiontoFractionsinaLinearMeasurementContext
Day1 (notincluded) FRACTIONS LESSON1 Day2 Video:trt14 min.11sec. [WarmuplessonsoDr. Takahashigetstoknowthe students;notincluded] HowCanWeExpress FractionalParts?(1) BasedonMathematicsfor elementaryschool3B (HironakaH.etal.,2006)pp. 5758. Goal:Studentswillbecome awareoffractionsineveryday lifeandwillunderstandthat fractionsareusedtoexpress anamountobtainedasa resultofequalpartitioning andareusedtoexpress quantitieslessthan1(only unitfractions). [Displayingthedates Howmanynumbercardsdoweneedtodisplayallthedates (1through31)onthewallinyourclassroom?] Expressingunitfractions Studentsareaskedwhatnumbersonaroadsignrepresent.NorthShoreTR3(what doesthe3mean?)andLakeFront (whatdoes
distinguisheswholenumbersfromfractionalparts. Dr.T.showsthestudentsa2metertapestripthatrepresentsthelengtharounda treetrunkandasksstudentstoexpressthislengthinmeters.Hethenshowsatapestrip thatisabitlongerthan1meter.Heasks:Howcanweexpressthebitlonger(the fractionalpartleftoverfrommeasuringwiththemeter)usingthe1metertapestripasa reference? Studentsaregivena1meterpapertapestripandastripofgreencardthesame lengthasthefractionalpart.Studentsdiscoverthegreenstripfitsinto1meterexactly 3timesandistherefore meter.Dr.Thandsoutasecond,yellowpieceofcard(a differentfractionallength)andasksstudenttoexpressitslengthusingthe1metertape stripasareference.Studentsdiscoveritfitsexactly2timesandistherefore
1 4
1 mean?).Theclassdiscussion 4
1 3
Studentsareaskedtopredictthelengthofathird,redcardpiece,andtheydiscoverit fitsintothe1meterexactly5times,andistherefore meter.Throughoutthelesson Dr.Tencouragesstudentstomeasurecarefullyusingthecardpiecesandtousemeters toexpressthelengthofthefractionalpart(onethirdwhat?andonefifthwhat?)
1 meter. 2
1 5
26
FRACTIONS LESSON2 Day3 Video:trt17 min.45sec.
HowCanWeExpress FractionalParts?(2) BasedonMathematicsfor elementaryschool3B (HironakaH.etal.,2006) pp.5859. Goal:Studentswill understandthatafraction canbeconsideredasa collectionofunitfractions.
Dr.Tshowsexamplesofstudentjournalsfromthepriorday.Hehighlightsthe differentwaysstudentsexpressedonethirdmeter: ofameter,onethirdofameter, onethirdmeter, m, meter.Inresponsetoaquestiononestudentwroteinher journalhowmany wouldittaketomake7 m?,Dr.Thasmadea7mstripoftapeand asksstudentstothinkabouttheanswer. Studentsareagainaskedtoexpressthelengthofamysterytapestripusing1meteras areference.Eachgroupreceivesthemysterylengthtapestrip( m)anda1metertape strip.Onegroupofstudentsusesthechart(summaryofthelesson)fromtheprevious
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 5
2 5
1 2 5 5 Anothergroupbecomesconfusedwhenthemysterystripgoesinto1metertwoanda 2 2 2 halftimesandcallsitboth mand m.Classdiscussionexploreswhy mdoesnotgo 5 3 5 into1manevennumberoftimes.

daytodiscoverthatthe mstripistwicethe(red) mstripandtherefore m. Asecondmysterylengthtapestrip( m)isinvestigated;onceagain,groupsuse
2 5
2 3
severalmethods,includingmeasuringwiththe mstripandfoldingthemysterystrip sothatitfitsanevennumberoftimes.
1 3
FRACTIONS LESSON1 Day4 Video:trt 23min. FractionSize Mathematicsforelementary school3B(HironakaH.etal., 2006)pp.60.
Thelessonagainbeginswithreviewofselectedstudentjournalstorevisittheprior dayslearning.Thewhiteboarddisplayandasheetinsidethestudentsmathjournals (seebelow)showthesizeofthevariousfractionalpartsinvestigatedduringdays2and3 inrelationtoeachotherandtothe2meterstrip.
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Day4(cont.)
Goal:Studentswillknow fractionnotation. Studentswillbecomeaware thatafractioncanbeputon anumberline.
Studentsinvestigateanothermysterypiece(Howcanweexpressthelengthofthe fractionalpart,thebluecardpiece,usingthe1metertapestripasareference?) Studentsdiscoveritis
exactly4timesandfoldingthe1metertapestripintofourequalparts. Studentsareaskedtomakea
1 mbydifferentmethodsincludingiteratingthecardpiece 4 3 mtapestripfromatapestripofunclearlength 4
(slightlylessthanameter,withatornend).Studentsusedifferentmethodstocreate
3 m(foldingthemysterystripinfourths,orusingknownlengthstomeasure),resulting 4 indifferentlengthstrips.Throughdiscussion,thestudentsrealizethatonegroupfound 3 3 mwhereastheothergroupfound oftheoriginalmysterytape. 4 4

28
Day4(cont.)
Fractionnotationisformallyintroducedusingasignfromtheclassroom: 3numerator 4denominator Groupscreateamysteryfractionstripoftheirchoice(usingthecolorcardsgreen, yellow,redandblue)keepingthelengthsecretsothatothergroupscanguessit.
29
Section3:ChoosingaFocusforYourLessonStudyWork Researcher: Is 3 < 8 a true statement? First Grade Student: If you have three really big units and 8 really small ones, 3 could be greater than 8. But if youre working on a number line, then you know that 3 is less than 8 because all the units are the same.9 Beforeyouchoosethefocusforyourlessonstudywork,itmakessenseto summarizetheideasexploredinSections1and2regardingfractionnumbersense andtheimpactofalinearmeasurementcontext.Table3onpage32isyetanother expansionofTable1,thistimewithacolumnattherightthatfocusesonthe possibleimpactofthelinearmeasurementcontextoneachaspectoffraction understanding. ReadoverTable3,anddiscusswithyourteameachoftheideasintheright columnabouttheimpactofthelinearmeasurementcontext.Focusonany ideasyoufindespeciallycompelling,puzzling,orproblematic,sincethese mightprovideagoodplacetobeginthinkingabouttherestofyourlesson studywork. Atthispoint,wecanimaginedifferentdirectionsyourlessonstudygroupmight wanttotake.Webrieflyintroducetheremainingresourcesandsuggesttwo differentpathsthatmightbeofinteresttoyourgroup.Afterfollowingoneofthese paths,allgroupscanusethefinalsectionofthisresourceguide(Section4,page64), whichpertainstotheresearchlesson. PathA:IntroduceFractionsUsingALinearMeasurementContext Perhapsthestudentswhowilltakepartintheresearchlessonhavenotyethad anindepthintroductiontofractions.Ifso,yourgroupmightwanttointroduce fractionsusingalinearmeasurementcontext.Ifyouhavesomecurriculum flexibility,youcouldusethe3BtextbookunitFractionsasareplacementunit,and studyonelessonwithinitasaresearchlesson.Oryoucouldusethe3Bunitto supplementorreshapeyourowntextbookunit,orasavantagepointtoconsiderthe keyunderstandingsyouwanttobuildusingyourownintroductoryfractionunit. Thisguideincludesseveralusefulresources(thataredownloadableseparately)for studyofthe3Btextbookunit:
9Dougherty,B.J.&Zilliox,J.(2003).Voyagingfromtheorytopracticeinteachingandlearning:Aviewfrom
Hawaii.InN.Pateman,B.J.Dougherty,&J.Zilliox(Eds.),Proceedingsofthe2003jointmeetingofPMEand PMENA(pp.1731).Honolulu,HI:CurriculumResearch&DevelopmentGroup,UniversityofHawaii.pp.1920. ForadditionalinformationontheMeasureUpcurriculum,seeSlovin,H.&Dougherty,B.J.(2004).Childrens conceptualunderstandingofcounting.InM.JohnsenHoines&A.B.Fugelstad,Proceedingsofthe2004 psychologyofmathematicseducation,volume4(pp.42094216).Bergen,Norway:BergenUniversityCollege.
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OnlyPathAincludeslessonplans.IfyouchoosePathB,youstillmayfindit usefultocheckoutthelessonplansinPathAorotherlessonplansusedinlesson study(whichcanbefoundinmanyplaces,includingwww.lessonresearch.net). Closelyexamining,adaptingandreteachinglessonsdevelopedbyothersisan activitythatmanylessonstudygroupsfindvaluable.Itisarelativelyeasywayto diveintothelessonstudyprocessandtobuildontheknowledgeofgroupsthathave gonebeforeyou.(SeeSection5formoreinformationonlessonplans.) PathB:InvestigateAnAspectofYourStudentsFractionNumberSense Ifyourstudentshavealreadyhadasubstantialintroductiontofractions(aswill probablybetrueformanyupperelementarygradestudents),youmaywantto focusyourlessonstudyworkononeaspectoffractionnumbersensefromTable3 thatisparticularlyinterestingtoyouorchallengingforyourstudents.Inthiscase, severaldifferentresourcesmaybeofinterest. DiagnosticTasks.Youmaywanttostartbylearningmoreaboutyour studentsthinking.YoucanusethetasksfromSection1andthe additionaltasksprovidedinthePathBsectionofthisresourceguideto bringbackdatafromyourstudentsfordiscussionwithyourlessonstudy group.Suchdiscussionislikelytorevealanaspectofstudent understandingyouwanttoexplorefurtherinyourresearchlesson. The4BFractionsUnit(pp.3851inthe4Bbook)furtherdevelopsthe areasoffractionnumbersensedescribedinTable3.Ifyouhavenot alreadydoneso,youmaywishtoreadthe4BFractionsunit,notethe strategiesusedtobuildeachaspectoffractionunderstanding,and discussthemasyoudiscussedthe3BFractionsunit.Istherean instructionaltaskfrom3Bor4Byouwanttotryinyourresearchlesson? AdditionalresourcematerialinPathBmayhelpyoufurtherbuildand consolidateyourownthinkingaboutfractions,whichmightbeuseful beforedecidingwheretofocusyourresearchlesson.Thesematerials include: o Table6:FractionsInterpretationsandExamples(p.59) o ThearticleInitialTreatmentofFractionsinJapanesetextbooks, byTadWatanabe(downloadableseparately)
Lessonplansforthefirstthreelessonsoftheunit,aswellasthevideo, textbooks,andvideosummaryintroducedinSection2; ThetrajectoryforfractionsintheJapaneseElementaryTeachingGuide, soyoucanseehowthe3BFractionsunitfitsinwiththematerialstudied inpriorandsubsequentgrades(p.38). Translatedexcerptsoftheteachersmanualforthe3B&4Bfractions units. AsheetFlowofJapaneseLessonthatdescribestheorganizationofa typicalJapaneselesson(p.39).
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Table3:WhatsHardAboutFractionNumberSense?(RevistedII)
ExampleofStudentDifficultyorUnderstanding HowMightLinearMeasurementContext Help? Linearmeasurementmayleadstudents tothinkabouthowmuchorhowlong (bringinginimagesofrelativesize)notjust howmanypieces(whichmayfocuson counting). Studentsmaybeaskedtopartitiona wholeforthemselves,helpingthemunderstand thewholeinawayotherthanjustcounting pieces. Anumberline(orruler)maymakeiteasytosee thatthesamepointcanbedescribedbydifferent fractions.
TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge AFractionisaNumber Afractionrepresentsanamount,notjust pieces(suchas2of3piecesofapizza)or asituation(suchas2of3shirtsarered).
2 Whenaskedtoputthefraction onanumberline, 3 astudentsaidyoucantputitonanumberline, becauseitstwopiecesoutofthreepieces,itsnota 2 number.[Or isnotanumber,itstwo 3 10 numbers.] Difficultyseeinghowtodivideawholeinto equalparts. 1 2 3 4 5 Difficultyseeingthat isequalto , , , 2 4 6 8 10 andsoon. 2 Studentsadd 1 + 1 andget ,withoutrealizing 8 3 5 theyareaddingtwodifferentthings(thirdsand fifths)sortoflikeaddingapplesandhammers. 1 1 Studentsmaythink isbiggerthan 5 4 because5isbiggerthan4. 1 fitsinthewhole3times, 1 Difficultyseeingthat 3 4 3 fitsinthewhole4times.Hastroubleseeingthat 3 4 , etc.equal1. 4
PartitioningFractions Awholecanbedividedintosmaller andsmallerequalparts. Thesamefractionalquantitycanbe representedbydifferentfractions. TheMeaningoftheDenominator
1 1 Differentunits(suchas and )are 3 5 differentsizes. Themoreunitsawholeispartitioned into,thesmallereachoneis.
Comparedtofractionalpartsofarea (whichcanberearrangedinmanyways),length mayprovideaclearimageofwhatis 1 m, 1 m, 3 2 10 m,etc. 11 Linearmeasurementmayhelpprovidea strongimagethattheunitthatfitsin3timesis longerthantheonethatfitsin4times,that 1 is 6 1 halfthelengthof ,etc. 3
10Kerslake,D.(1986).Fractions:Childrensstrategiesanderrors.AreportofthestrategiesanderrorsinConceptsinSecondaryMathematicsandScienceProject.Windsor,
England:NFERNelson.Behr,M.J.&Post,T.R.(1992).Teachingrationalnumbersanddecimalconcepts.InT.R.Post(Ed.),TeachingmathematicsingradesK8,research basedmethods(pp.201248).Boston:AllynandBacon.
32
TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge KnowingWhatistheWhole Constructingthewholewhengivena fractionalpart. Keepingtrackofthewhole. .
Table3(continued) ExampleofStudentDifficultyorUnderstanding
HowMightLinearMeasurementContext Help? Difficultymakingthewholewhenyougivethem Usingastandardmeasurementunitmay afractionalpartlike:Thispaperis 2;showme beclearer,morefamiliar,andmorestablethan anadhocunit(suchaspiepieces),makingit 3 easiertokeeptrackofthewhole. thewhole. Seesthatthemagnitudeofafractiondepends onthemagnitudeofthewhole(e.g.,halfofa smallcookieisnotthesameashalfofalarge cookie) Confusionaboutwhetherthetwodrawings belowtogetherrepresent 3 ofapieor 3 ofa 8 16 pie.
Lengthmeasurementmaytransferto thenumberlinemoreeasilythansomeother models,sothatstudentsseetherelativesizeof fractions.Afamiliarstandardmeasurementunit (ameter,foot,etc.)maymakeitrelativelyeasy tosee 1 asalengththatgoesin3times, 1 asa 3 4 lengththatgoesin4times,etc..
FractionSize Understandsthatfractionsizeis determinedbythe(multiplicative) relationshipbetweennumeratorand denominatornotjustbythe numerator,notjustbythe denominator,andnotbythe differencebetweennumeratorand denominator.
Maythink 4 isbiggerthan 3 because4is 9 4 biggerthan3(comparingnumerators),or 4 is 9 3 biggerthan because9isbiggerthan4 ! ! 4 (comparingdenominators),or 3! isthesame 5 5 becausethedifferencebetweenthe sizeas ! 7 ! topandthebottominbothfractionsis2. !
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TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge Fractionsize(cont.) Seesnonunitfractionasan accumulationofunitfractions.[Aunit fractionhasanumeratorof1;anon unitfractionhasanumeratorother ! than1.] FractionsCanRepresentQuantities GreaterThanOne Maybedifficultforstudentswhohavea strongimageofafractionasapieceof something.
HowMightLinearMeasurementContext Help? Whenstudentsthinkaboutaturtlewho Seesthatequivalentfractionshavethesame travelsinastraightline 1 mileadayfor4days, multiplicativerelationshipbetween 5 2 4 3 numeratoranddenominator.In , , , theymayeasilydevelopanimageof 4 asfour 4 8 6 5 etc.denominatoristwotimesnumerator. 1 fifths as ! ,repeatedfourtimes.Incontrast, 5 Sees 5 ismadeupof5eighthsor5times 1 , f 8 8 4 ofarectangleorcirclemaynotprovidethe ! !! ! 9 1 that ismadeupof9eighthsor9times , 5 8 8 1 sincethe samestrongimageofrepetitionof ! etc. 5 ! areacanbesplitinmanydifferentways. ! ! Youcanthave 6 ,becausetheresonly 5 in Whenstudentsmeasureanobjectthatislonger ! than1foot(meter,etc.),itmayberelatively 5 5 easytovisualizesomethingasawholeplusan awhole. additionalfractionalpartandunderstandthe meaningoffractionsgreaterthan1.
Table3(continued) ExampleofStudentDifficultyor Understanding
34
Thispathfocusesonhowtointroduceandbuildunderstandingoffractions usingalinearmeasurementcontext.TheactivitiesbuildontheactivitiesinSection 2tofurtherexamineJapanesecurriculumresources.WeselecttheJapanese curriculumbecauseithasbeenhonedoverseveraldecadesbyclassroomteachers, universitybasedmathematicians,andmathematicseducatorsworkingtogetherin lessonstudy.Theactivitiesinthissectionwillpositionyourteamtousethe Japaneseunitasareplacementunitforintroducingfractions,ortoreshapeyour owntextbookunittoincludedesiredelementsofthelinearmeasurementcontext. ATrajectoryforDevelopingUnderstandingofFractions:Examinationof theJapaneseCurriculum InSection2,wesuggestedthatyouexploreanddiscusstheunitthat introducesfractionsintheJapanesecurriculum(3B).Additionally,wesuggestthat you: Readthegrade4fractionsunit(4B,pp.3851)ifyouhavenotyettakena closelookatit,againusingTable2(p.22)torecordyourindividual thoughtsaboutit,addingthemtoyourthoughtsabout3B. LookoverthetranslatedsegmentsoftheJapaneseteachersmanualfor additionalinsightintothe3Band4Btextbookunits.Twoexcerptsofthe teachersmanual(whichcanbedownloadedfromourwebsite)are providedforeachunit.Thefirstistheinstructionsection,whichdescribes theunitgoals,majorpointsoftheunit,andteachingplan(includingkey questionsforinstruction).Thesecondexcerptistheresearchsection, whichprovidescommentaryonselectedmathematicalandinstructional points. DiscussanynewthoughtsgroupmembershavewrittenonTable2andany newinsightsaboutthefollowingquestions(whichyoumayhavediscussed inSection2): WhatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentheJapanese curriculumandyourcurriculum(andstandards)withrespecttothebig ideasaboutfractions,andwhenandhowtheyareintroduced?How mightstudentsimagesandunderstandingsoffractionsbeshapedby eachcurriculum? Howdoesthetextbookhelpstudentsmakeconnectionsbetweenfraction sizeandthenumberline?Whymightconnectingfractionstothenumber linebeusefultostudents? 35
PathA:IntroduceFractionsUsingALinearMeasurementContext
Howdoesthetextbookhelpstudentsconnectlinearmeasurement,area, andnumberlinemodelsoffractions?
RevisitthelessonstaughtbyDr.Takahashi,startingwiththethreewritten lessonplans,whichcanbedownloadedseparatelyfromourwebsite. Discusssimilaritiesanddifferencesfromlessonplansforintroductionof fractionsthatarefamiliartoyou.
TheDVDsenttoyouaspartofthetoolkitincludesbriefeditedversions(14to23 minutes)ofeachofthethreelessonstaughtbyDr.Takahashitointroducefractions inalinearmeasurementcontext.Yourgroupmayormaynothavewatchedand discussedallthreelessonspreviously. Ifnot,thenwatchlessons13ofthefractionslessonsontheDVD,following thesuggestions(pp.1921,25)forusingthevideoobservationguideand discussionquestions. TounderstandtheoveralltrajectoryoffractionslearningintheJapanese curriculum,asagroupexaminetworesources: Table4(p.38)listsalltheunitsexplicitlydevotedtofractionsin grades16oftheJapaneseelementarycurriculum,showingthe numberof(45minute)periodsdevotedtoeachunit. ExcerptsfromtheElementarySchoolTeachingGuidefortheJapanese CourseofStudy,availableasaseparatedownload,explainthekey teachingpointsinfractions. Ifyourgroupisplanningtointroducestudentstofractionsusingalinear measurementcontext,youmayalsowanttolookattheGrade1measurementunit WhichOneisLonger?(JapaneseGrade1textbook,pages5758),whichhelps studentsdevelopabasicunderstandingoflengthandmeasurementthrough comparison. Twoissuesthatyourgroupmightwanttodiscussaboutthisunitare: Whatunderstandingsmightstudentsdevelopfromusingtwo differentobjects(suchasapencilandaneraser)tomeasurethe lengthoftheirdesk?Howmightsuchunderstandingsupportlater understandingoffractions? Whyaretheobjectsonthegrid(Grade1textbook,page58)arranged astheyare?Whymightthegriditselfbeuseful?Whatknowledge fromthistaskmightsupportstudentslaterunderstandingof fractionsandnumberlines?
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Thegrade2unitsLength1&2(Grade2,pages2533and4750)buildonthegrade 1studyofmeasurementandmayalsobeusefulforyourgrouptoexamineifyou havetime.Onceagain,itmaybeusefultodiscusswhatstudentslearnfrom measuringthesameobjectwithunitsofdifferentsizes,andhowthislearningmight supportlaterunderstandingoffractions. Ifyourgroupisreadytothinkaboutthespecificsofyourresearchlesson,youcan skiptoSection4,whichfocusesonresearchlessonplanning,discussion,and analysis.Ifyouwanttoexaminemoreresourcesonfractions,youcanlookthrough PathBtofindanyitemsofinteresttoyourgroup.Oryoumaywanttotakesome timenowtoreviewthemajortakeawaypointsofyourworksofar,beforemoving ontotheplanningoftheresearchlesson.
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Table4:FractionsUnitsinJapaneseElementaryCurriculum(Hironaka&Sugiyama,2006)
Grade level
Unit name Fractions
# of periods
Fractions
11
Instructional contents Meaning of fractions and how to express them [fractions, denominator, numerator, 1/10's place] Simple addition and subtraction of fractions Concepts and structures of proper fractions, mixed numbers and improper fractions [proper fraction, mixed number, improper fraction] How to show fractions on a number line, comparison of the size of fractions Converting mixed numbers to improper fractions and vice-versa Relationship of equivalent fractions Addition and subtraction calculation of proper fractions with like denominators Addition and subtraction calculation of mixed numbers with like denominators Meaning of simplifying a fraction and finding a common denominator and how to find them [simplifying a fraction, finding a common denominator] Addition and subtraction calculation of fractions with different denominators The quotient of the division of whole numbers can be expressed as a fraction Interrelationships between fractions, decimal numbers, and whole numbers Meaning of a fraction multiplied by a whole number and its method of calculation Meaning of a fraction divided by a whole number and its method of calculation Meaning of multiplying by a fraction and its method of calculation A product becomes smaller than multiplicand when the multiplicand is multiplied by a proper fraction (<1). Meaning of decimal calculation involving the second relationship of ratio (A = B x p). If B is the base quantity, A is the quantity to be compared, and p is the value of ratio. The quantity to be compared can be found by the base quantity multiplied by how many times as much as decimal number.) In the case of fraction calculation, a calculation operation similar to whole numbers can be done Meaning of dividing by a fraction and its method of calculation A quotient becomes larger than dividend when the dividend is divided by a proper fraction (<1). Meaning of decimal calculation involving the first relationship of ratio (p = A B) and the third relationship of ratio (B= A p). Meaning of reciprocals and how to find them [reciprocals] How to carry out mixed calculations of fractions and decimal numbers Decision making on use of calculation operations, multiplication or division, involving fractions * ( ) Periods teachers can adjust by considering the students' state of learning Number of available periods in the month
Addition and Subtraction of fractions Fractions and Decimal numbers Multiplication and Division of Fractions Multiplication of Fractions
12
11
Division of Fractions
13
*What Calculations Are We Going to Do?
(1)
[ ]
Indicates Important Content Mathematical terms and symbols learned in the unit
38

LessonPhase Introduction(verybrief)
FlowofJapaneseLesson
Purposes Studentsbecomeinterestedinthetopic, connectthelessontopriorlearningand/or dailylifeexperiences Studentsunderstandtheproblem,become interestedinit Studentsbringtheirownknowledgetobear, exerteffort,understandthroughgrappling withachallengingproblem Severalstudentspresentsolutionsor approachesontheblackboardandexplain them.Solutions(sometimesincluding incorrectapproaches)areselectedbythe teachertoillustratedifferentwaysof thinkingaboutaproblem.Presentationis sequencedbyteacher,oftenbeginningwith mostwidelyaccessiblesolution. Classmembersrespondtosolutions (supportedbyteacherquestionssuchas HowmanysolveditthiswayandDoyou agreewiththismethod?).Studentscontrast solutions,supportedbyteacherquestions suchasWhatisdifferentaboutKyokosand Marikossolutions?Whatarethegood pointsanddifficultiesofeachofsolution method? Studentsmayapplywhattheyhavelearned toanewproblem;thecycleofindividual workandpresentation/discussionmaybe repeated.
ProblemPosing(verybrief) IndividualWorkonProblem(1030min)
PresentationofStudentsSolutions,Class Discussion(1030min)
[ApplicationProblem]
Summary/ConsolidationofKnowledge (brief)
Teacherand/orstudentssummarizewhat hasbeenlearned;blackboard,class discussion,andmathjournalsmaybeused, oftenendingwithajournalwritingprompt likeWhatIlearnedtoday. MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2006,basedonStigler,Fernandez&Yoshida,1996; Takahashi,2002;TIMSS1999VideoStudyReleasedTapes.
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PathB:InvestigateAnAspectofYourStudentsFractionNumberSense
Ifyourstudentshavealreadystudiedfractions,youmaywantinvestigate strengthsandshortcomingsintheircurrentunderstandingoffractions,inorderto identifyanaspectoffractionunderstandingtoworkonwithyourstudents.This Path(B)providesfivebriefinvestigationsofstudentsfractionunderstandingfor youtoconsider.Yourgroupmaywanttochooseoneofthesefiveareasof investigationasthefocusforyourremainingworkduringthislessonstudycycle. Thebeststrategytoidentifyaninvestigationofinterestisprobablytoskimover allfiveinvestigationsinPathBandchooseonethatinterestsyourgroupandis relevanttoyourstudents.Thefiveinvestigationsfocusonunderstandingof: (1) Nonunitfractionsasanaccumulationofunitfractions; (2) Therelationshipbetweenfractionalpartandwhole; (3) Magnitudeoffractions; (4) Fractionsonthenumberline; (5) Fractionsinalinearmeasurementcontextasafoundationforlaterfraction calculations,includingmultiplicationanddivisionoffractions, Thefirsttwoinvestigationsareshorterthanthelastthreebecausetheyfocuson morebasicunderstandings.Theinvestigationsdonotcovereveryconceivablekind ofdifficultystudentsmayhavewithfractions,butratherfocusonareasthatmay particularlybenefitfromuseofalinearmeasurementcontext.(Thefive investigationsarecloselyrelatedtotheideasinTable3butdonotmapdirectlyonto theTable3categories.) Whicheverinvestigationyouchooseasyourfocus,thefollowingprocessmaybe useful: (1) Lookoverthefiveinvestigationsandchooseonethatlooksinterestingas apotentialfocusforyourgroupswork. (2)Individuallysolvethetaskswithinthatinvestigationinyourlessonstudy group,andshareyoursolutionstrategiesandyourideasabouthow studentswouldapproachthetasks. (3)Chooseoneormoretaskswithintheinvestigationtotrywithyour students,andhavegroupmembersbringstudentworkbacktothelesson studygroupfordiscussion. (4)Discusswhatthetasksrevealaboutstudentunderstanding,andusethis informationtodesignyourresearchlesson.
40
(5)Tofurtherhelpyoudesignyourresearchlesson,referbacktoTable2
andyournotesontheJapanesecurriculummaterials.Usethesematerials tosparkyourgroupsdiscussionaboutthetasksandexperiencesthat buildstudentunderstanding.TheJapanesecurriculum(seePathA)also providesarelativelyconcisesourceofideasabouthowtobuildeachtype offractionunderstanding. AdditionalReading&DiscussionMaterials Therearetwoadditionalresourcesyourgroupmembersmay(ormaynot) wishtoreadanddiscuss.OneisthetablefollowingInvestigation5(p.59)that describesfivemajorinterpretationsoffractions,accompaniedbyamathematical taskanddiscussionquestions.ThesecondisthearticlebyTadWatanabethat youcandownloadfromourwebsitethataddressestheinitialtreatmentof fractionsinJapaneseandU.S.textbooks.Ifyouprefertostartbyreadingabit more(ratherthanbychoosinganinvestigationofstudentthinking),youmay wanttobeginbylookingattheseadditionalmaterials.Ifyouarenotfamiliar withthedifferentinterpretationsoffractions(partwhole,measure,operator, quotient,ratio),thetableonfractioninterpretationsmayprovideauseful frameworktoanalyzestudentthinkingaboutfractions.
41
Investigation1.UnderstandingthatFractionsAreAccumulations ofUnitFractions
TaskA.HaveyourstudentsdothetaskinSection2(p.18)in whichtheyidentifyhowmany litersarein liters.Orhavethem identifyhowmany metersarein meters,orin 2 meters.

Canyourstudentsdotheseproblems?Whatunderstandingsand misunderstandingsdotheirresponsesdemonstrate? Problemslikethoseabovemayhelpyouinvestigatewhetheryourstudentssee nonunitfractionsasaccumulationsofunitfractions.Thisunderstandingis fundamentaltograspingthecompositionoffractions,andtounderstanding increasinglymoreadvancedusesoffractionslikemixednumbers,improper fractions,additionandsubtractionoflikedenominatorfractions,anddivisionand multiplicationoffractions.(Theconnectiontomultiplicationanddivisionof fractionsisfurtherexploredinthepizzaandribbonprobleminInvestigation5of thisPath.) TheDVDsentseparatelyincludessomeshortvideoclipsthathighlight fractionsasaccumulationsofunitfractions.Youmaywanttoexaminethe clipstitledRepeatingtheUnittoMaketheWhole(trt:2min.40sec.)and FindtheLengthofaMysteryPiece(trt:4min.30sec.)(undertheFraction Clipsmenu)toobservestudentsusingrepetitionofunitfractionstomake largerfractions.Afterobservingthesevideoclips,considerthefollowing questions: 2 1 Whyisitimportantforstudentstosee as2of ? 5 5 1 Studentsstrugglewiththeideathatapiecethatgoesin3timesis ,a 3 1 piecethatgoesin2timesis ,etc.Whatkindsofexperienceshelp 2 studentsdevelopastrongimageofthisconnection? Ifyourstudentsdonothaveastrongunderstandingoftheseideas,youmayfind itusefultofocusyourlessonstudyworkontaskslikethosefoundonthevideo (fromthe3BFractionsunit).Youcanfindfurtherresourcesontheselessons, includingdetailedlessonplansandtranslatedexcerptsfromtheteachersmanual, availableonourwebsite. 1 5 9 5 1 5 3 5
3 5
42
Investigation2.UnderstandingtheRelationshipBetweenthe WholeAndaFractionalPart
TaskB.Givestudentsapieceofribbonandsay,thisis ofthe wholeribbonslength.Withoutusingaruler,showmethelength ofthewholeribbon.

Willstudentsbeabletoconstructthewhole?Bywhatprocesswilltheydoit? Thistaskcangiveinsightintoastudentsgraspofafractionassomanypartsof anequallypartitionedwhole.Itiseasiertodothiswhengivenaunitfraction(such 1 as ),sincestudentssimplyhavetoimaginesomething3timesaslong.Anonunit 3 2 fraction(like )requiresstudentstothinkabouttwodifferentsteps:first 3 2 1 partitioningthepiece( )tofindtheunitfraction( ),andthenmultiplying(or 3 3 addingthecorrectnumberofrepetitionsoftheunitfraction). Ifyoudiscoverthisisanareaofdifficultyforyourstudents,thelessonsincluded ontheDVDprovideoneexampleofhowtohelpstudentsunderstandthewhole relativetoagivenpart.Inlesson1,studentsidentifythelengthofseveralmystery 1 1 stripsthatareunitfractions( m, metc.)byseeinghowmanytimestheyfitintoa 3 5 2 meter.Inlesson2,studentsareconfrontedwithmysterypiecesoflength mand 3 2 m.(ThisactivityisliketheactivityyourgroupdidatthebeginningofSection2.) 5 Visitorrevisitthesevideoclips,withthespecificpurposeofobservinghow studentsfigureoutthelengthsofmysterystripsbycomparingthemtoa meterlengthtapestrip.
2 3
TaskC.Givestudentsapieceofribbon(orlong,thinpieceof paper)andsay,thisribbonis3timesaslongasanotherribbon. Withoutusingaruler,showmethelengthoftheotherribbon.

Thisitemalsorevealshoweasilystudentsseethemultiplicativerelationship betweenaunitfraction(fractionwithanumeratorofone)andthewhole. Understandingthismultiplicativerelationshipisafoundationforunderstanding equivalentfractionsandfractionsize.
43
TheWhatstheWholevideoclipincludedontheDVD(foundundertheFractions Clipsmenubutton)mayalsobeofinterest.Thisbriefclip(trt:4min.17sec.)shows aproblemthatoccurredduringthethirdlesson,whenstudentsattemptedtocreate 3 atapestripoflength m.Theinstructordeliberatelygavestudentsatornstripof 4 1 paperslightlylessthanameterinlength,aswellasreferencestripsof1meter, 4 3 meter,etc..Somegroupsusedthereferencestripstocreatestripsof m,whileone 4 groupfoldedthetornstripintoquartersandcreatedastripthatwasnotexactly 3 m. 4 IfyouhaventyetdiscussedthisinSection2,discusswhatkindoflearning youthinktheinstructorwastryingtoprovokebygivingthetornstripthat wasnotonemeterinlength,andwhy? AvideoclipfromasecondgradeclassroominOakland,California(Making0ne Fourth,trt4min.37sec.)showsagroupofstudentstryingtodivideameterlength stripofpaperintoexactfourths.Theybeginbyvisuallyestimatingfourthsand drawinglines,butdiscoverthatthefourthsegmentislongerthantheothers.They persistentlyeraseandredrawlines,endingupwiththreeequalpiecesandafourth piecethatisslightlylonger.Whentheteachersuggeststhatgroupstryfolding,they foldalongtheirestimatedlines,ratherthanfoldingthewholeintofourths. Afterobservingthevideoclip,youmaywanttodiscussthefollowing questions: Thesestudentsdemonstrateconsiderableknowledgeoffractions(e.g., 1 thattheyneedtomakefourequalparts,thatanyoneofthesewillbe , 4 howthepiecescorrespondtothenumeratoranddenominatorofthe fraction.)Yetthestudentsdonotthinktostartfromthewholeinmaking 1 .Why?Whatkindsoftaskshelpstudentsmovebackandfortheasily 4 betweenthefractionalpartandthewhole? Previously,thesestudentshavebeengivenfractionalunits(suchas labeledfractionbars)ratherthanhavingtocreatefractionalunits.What mightbeadvantagesanddisadvantagesforstudentsofeachkindof experience?
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Investigation3.UnderstandingtheMagnitudeofFractions
Askingstudentstocomparethesizeoftwo(ormore)fractionscanprovide insightsintohowtheythinkaboutthemeaningofthenumeratoranddenominator andtherelationshipbetweenthem.
TaskD.Circlethefractionineachofthefollowingpairsthatis greater.Ifthetwofractionsareequal,circleboth.11
a. b.
4 5 4 7
4 9 5 7
5 5 c. 3 8 7 5 d. 12 12 9 4 e. 8 3 Afterhavingstudentscompletetheseproblems,youmaywanttoexamine theirworkanddiscussthefollowingquestionsasagroup: Differentpairsoffractionscanrevealdifferentaspectsofstudent thinking.Forexample,paira.abovemayilluminatestudentthinking aboutdenominatorsize.Whataspectsofstudentthinkingarerevealed bytheotherpairs?Howdidyourstudentsseemtocomparethepairs? Whatknowledgedoyouhopestudentswouldusetocomparethepairs above,evenbeforetheyhavelearnedaprocedureforcomparingfraction size?12 Studentsmayalsousereasoningthatwillsometimesproducethecorrect answer,butnotreliablyservethemwell,suchasthegrade5studentquotedearlier 6 6 whoconcludedthat islargerthan becausethedifferencebetween6and5is 5 4 smallerthanthedifferencebetween6and4.Manyresearchersarguethatan importantaspectoffractionnumbersenseisdevelopmentofsoundinformal strategiesforjudgingfractionsizethatwillsupportlaterunderstandingofrulesor algorithms(suchasfindingthecommondenominator,crossmultiplication,and conversiontodecimals).
11VandeWalle,J.A.(2007).Elementaryandmiddleschoolmathematics:Teachingdevelopmentally(Sixthed.,
adaptationofp.304).Boston,MA:PearsonEducation,Inc. 12VandeWalle,J.A.(2007).Elementaryandmiddleschoolmathematics:Teachingdevelopmentally(Sixthed., adaptationofp.305).Boston,MA:PearsonEducation,Inc. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
45
TaskE.Quicklyshowtwofractionsontheoverheadprojector(for nomorethanabout10seconds)andaskstudentstoestimatea sumordifference.Forexample,youmightaskstudentstoestimate thefollowingtothenearesthalf:

9 7 1 1 1 9 + 2 6 2 3 10 8 4 3 2 10
YoumayrecallfromtheproblemsatthebeginningofSection1that13yearolds 12 7 founditverydifficulttoestimate + .ProblemslikeTaskE13mayhelpdiagnose 13 8 (andbuild)studentunderstandingoffractionsize.Youcanstartwithasimpletask sothatstudentsgetusedtotheprocess:Forexample,youcanshowasinglefraction andaskstudentstojudgewhetheritisclosertozeroorone.Whenstudentsare comfortable,youcanpresentasumoftwoproperfractionsandaskstudentsto judgewhethertheanswerismoreorlessthanone,doingseveralsuchproblemsina rowandhavingstudentsrecordtheiranswersandthendiscusshowtheymade theirestimates.Thenyoucanmoveontomorepreciseestimates(forexample, estimatingtothenearesthalf)andtomixednumbersaswellasproperfractions. AfterusingeitherTaskDorEtolearnaboutyourstudentsthinking,youmay wishtozeroinonaparticularaspectofstudentunderstandingyouwouldliketo buildaspartofyourresearchlesson.Forexample: 1. Havestudentsdevelopedastrongimageofrelativedenominatorsize(for 1 example,wouldtheyreadilypredictthatapiecesmallerthan hasa 4 1 1 denominatoroflargernumericalvalue,like or )?Thisunderstandingis 5 6 closelyrelatedtotheunderstandingthatthedenominatorshowsexactlyhow 1 manytimestheunitfractionfitsintothewhole(forexample, fitsexactly3 3 times).Lessonsthatengagestudentsinpredictingandtheninvestigatingthe sizeofunitfractionsofaconstantwholearelikelytobuildastrongimageof denominatorsize. Ifyourinvestigationsuggeststhatyourstudentsdonothaveastrong understandingofdenominatorsize,twovideoclipsmaybeofinterest: UnderstandingDenominatorSize(trt:1min.44sec.)andFormalFraction Notation(trt:1min.24sec.)fromDr.TakahashislessonsareontheDVDunder theFractionsClipsheading. 13VandeWalle,J.A.(2007).Elementaryandmiddleschoolmathematics:Teachingdevelopmentally(Sixthed., adaptationofFirstEstimatesp.306308).Boston,MA:PearsonEducation,Inc.
46
Afterobserving(orrecalling)thesevideoclips,youmaywanttodiscussthe
followingquestions:Onestudentsaysthatthedenominatorshowshow manytimesthepiecegoesintothemeter.Howisthissimilartoordifferent fromhowyourstudentstypicallydescribethedenominator?Howmightthe studentsunderstandingbeuseful?
TheclipThinkingAboutDenominatorSize(trt:46sec.)fromaclassroomin Oakland,California,showsasecondgraderwhohasjustfoundthelengthof 1 1 1 threemysterypieces( , , of1meter)andwhoisspontaneouslyrecalling 2 3 5 theseproblemsandorderingtheunitfractionsbysizewhileworkingonanew taskfiguringouthowtodivideameterintofourths. Youmaywishtoreviewthisvideoanddiscussthefollowingquestion: Studentswerenotaskedtoordertheunitfractionsbysize,yetthisstudent spontaneouslyfocusedontheconnectionbetweenthedenominators numericalvalueandsize.Whataspectsofinvestigatingthesizeofmystery stripsmadeupofsimpleunitfractions(thesametaskusedbyDr.T.in Lesson1)orofpreviousfractionsinstructionmighthaveledthestudentto focusonthisissue? 2. Doyourstudentsreadilygraspthatthenumeratorshowshowmanyunit 5 1 fractionsareaccumulated(forexample, is5 s)andthattheirknowledgeof 7 7 wholenumberoperationscanbebroughttobearonfractions,iftheythinkabout 6 themascollectionsofunitfractions?Forexample, istwiceasmanyfourthsas 4 3 ,justas6metersistwiceasmanymetersas3meters.Thinkingaboutaunit 4 1 1 1 fraction( , , ,etc)asaunitassomethingthatcanbeoperatedonaswe 4 3 16 wouldoperateonotherunits(suchaswholenumbermeasurementslikemeters orcups)willhelpstudentsgraspthenumeratorashowmanyofaparticularunit akeyunderstandinginjudgingfractionsize. Oncestudentsunderstandthemeaningofthenumeratoranddenominatorandthe 1 relationshipbetweenthem,theycanusebenchmarknumbers(suchas and1), 2 equivalence,andthenumberlinetoreasonaboutfractionsize.Investigation4 addressesthenumberline.
47
Investigation4.UnderstandingFractionsontheNumberLine
Somemathematiciansarguethatbeingabletoplacefractionsonanumberline isacrucialunderstandingforstudents.14Thenumberlinemayallowstudentsto furtherdeveloptheirunderstandingoffractionsize,toseethattheintervalbetween twofractionscanbefurtherpartitioned,andtoseethatthesamepointonthe 2 4 8 numberlinerepresentsaninfinitenumberofequivalentfractions,suchas , , , 4 8 16 etc. Forstudentstomeaningfullyputfractionsonanumberline,however,theyneed tounderstandtheconventionsofanumberline.Theyneedtounderstand,for example,thatthenumberlinerepresentsnumbersusingthedistancefromzero,not usingacountofhashmarks.Thisinvestigationincludessomeintroductorytasks designedtohelpstudentslearntorepresentfractionsonanumberline,andsome morechallengingtasksthatuseunconventionalorunlabelednumberlinestoassess studentsfractionunderstanding.Onethingtokeepinmindwhenusinganyof thesetasksisthatstudentdifficultiesmaybeduetoproblemsunderstandingthe conventionsofthenumberline,problemsunderstandingfractions,orsome combinationofthetwo. Lesson3ontheDVDshowsDr.T.sapproachtohelpingstudentsconnect fractionsofametertoanumberlinerepresentation,alsoshownintheSummaryof VideoExcerpts(onp.26ofthisresourceguide).TheJapanesetextbookhelps studentsconnectthefractionstheyarestudyingtoincreasinglymoreabstract numberlinerepresentationsingrade3(3B,pages6061)andgrade4(4B,pages 4044). YourgroupmayfinditusefultoanalyzethesesectionsoftheJapanese curriculumanddiscusshowtheymayhelpstudents: Learntoexpressfractionsonthenumberline; Connectthenumberlinetoareaandlinearmeasurementmodelsoffractions. Youmayalsofindataskinthesecurriculumsectionsthatyouwouldliketouseto investigateyourstudentsunderstanding.
14Wu,H.(2002).Chapter2:Fractions(Draft).Unpublishedmanuscript.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCalifornia.
RetrievedonJune8,2008fromhttp://math.berkeley.edu/~wu/EMI2a.pdf;NationalMathematicsAdvisory Panel(2008).Foundationsforsuccess:ThefinalreportoftheNationalMathematicsAdvisoryPanel.Washington, DC:U.S.DepartmentofEducation. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
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TaskF.Havestudentsdescribehowtherabbithopsfrom0to1 (andthen2,3)onthenumberlinebelow.Pointtowhere4would beonthenumberlineandaskwhatnumbertherabbithashopped to.Pointtovariousspotsonthenumberlineandaskstudentswhat numberasecondanimal(aturtlewhomoveslessthan1unit)has movedto.

.
Thistaskmayhelpstudentsnoticethatmagnitudeisrepresentedonthenumber linebydistancefromzero.15GeoffreySaxeandcolleaguesusethistasktobuild studentunderstandingthattherabbitstartsatzero,hopsto1andsoon;student understandingoftherabbitsmovementonthenumberlinecanbecheckedbythe secondpartofthetask,bypointingtowhere4wouldbeandaskingstudentswhat numbertherabbithashoppedto.Introducingaturtle(whomovesadistanceless than1wholeunit)intothetaskabovehelpsbuildunderstandingoffraction representationonthesamenumberline.
TaskG.Twoversionsofanumberlinetask(anabstractnumber lineandaracecourse)areshownhere(andprovidedona templateattheendofthisinvestigationsection,onp.54).Give yourstudentsthenumberlineortheracecourseandthenask themtoplacetheadditionalnumbersonthecorrespondingempty numberline.(Youmaywanttohavehalfyourstudentstryone versionandhalftrytheother.)

Lookingatthetwoversions,doyouthinkthenumberlineorracecourse situationwouldelicitmoreaccurateplacementofnumbersbystudents?Whydo youmakethatprediction?Howaccuratelydoyourstudentsusedistancetoreflect numbersize?
15AdaptedfromtasksusedbyGeoffreySaxeandcolleaguesinseveralresearchstudies.SeeespeciallySaxe,G.B.,
Shaugnessy,M.M.,ShannonA.,LangerOsuna,J.M.,Chinn,R.&Gearhart,M.(2007).Learningaboutfractionsas pointsonanumberline.InW.G.Martin,M.E.Strutchens&P.C.Elliott(Eds).TheLearningofMathematics:Sixty ninthyearbook(pp.221237).Reston,VA:TheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
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Researchersfoundthatfifthgradestudentsrandomlyassignedtothenumber lineorracecoursepictureweresignificantlymoreaccuratewhenassignedtothe racecoursecondition.16Howwouldyouexplainthis?
TaskH.Haveyourstudentsidentifythenumbershownbythe circleonthenumberlinebelow.17
Whatnumber(s)didtheythinkthecirclerepresented?Whatprocess(es)did theyusetofindthefraction?Weretheyabletoidentifytheequivalentfractions(i.e., 1 2 didstudentsseethatthemarkedpointis aswellas )? 3 6 Afterstudentsunderstandhowtoshowwholenumbersonanumberline,they maybeabletoseethattheintervalsbetweenwholenumberscanbepartitioned, andtonotice,forexample,thatiftherearethreeequalintervalsbetweenzeroand one,eachisonethird.Saxeandcolleaguesnoticedthatstudentswhowere successfulinidentifyingthefractionshownbythecircleonthenumberlineabove generallyusedatwostepprocessintheirthinking,asonnextpage.
16Saxe,G.B.,Shaughnessy,M.M.,Gearhart,M.,Haldar,L.,Earnest,D.,&Sitbkhan,Y.(2009).Integersonthe
numberline:Students'understandingoflinearunit.NCTMResearchPresession.Washington,D.C. 17Saxe,G.B.,Shaugnessy,M.M.,ShannonA.,LangerOsuna,J.M.,Chinn,R.&Gearhart,M.(2007).Learningabout fractionsaspointsonanumberline.InW.G.Martin,M.E.Strutchens&P.C.Elliott(Eds).TheLearningof Mathematics:Sixtyninthyearbook(pp.221237).Reston,VA:TheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics. (Seeespeciallypage232). DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
50
Thestudentscountedthenumberofequalintervalsbetweenzeroandoneandused thistodeterminethedenominator;theythencountedthenumberoftheseintervals fromzerotothecircleinordertofindthenumerator.Thearrowsillustratethis countingprocess,whichwasusedbymanystudentswhowereabletodothetask successfully.Modelingthisstrategytootherstudentsenabledsomeimprovement instudentsabilitytoidentifyfractionsonthenumberline. Studentsmayinitiallyfindithardtodistinguishbetweenafractionalandwhole unitsonanumberline,becausebotharelinesegments.18Forexample,onanumber 1 line and1arebothlinesegments,butinapizzatheylookquitedifferent(around 4 pizzaandasection).Helpingstudentsconnecttheirfamiliarrepresentationsof fractionstothenumberlineisthusakeytaskforinstruction. Ifyourstudentsseemtohaveagoodgraspofthenumberlineandoffractions, therearestillmanychallengingtasksyoucantry.Forexample,manystudentsdo notunderstandhowtoplacefractionsonanumberlinewhenthewhole changes.19 7 TaskI.Havestudentsshow onanumberlinelabeled0to2 8 ratherthan0to1. Didstudentsplacethefractioncorrectlyonthenumberline?Ifnot,whatkinds ofunderstandingsandmisunderstandingsdidtheydemonstrate?
18Davydov,V.V.&Tsetkovich,Z.(1991).Ontheobjectiveoriginoftheconceptoffractions.FocusonLearning ProblemsinMathematics,13(1),1383. 19Larson,C.N.(1980).Locatingproperfractionsonnumberlines:Effectoflengthandequivalence.School ScienceandMathematics,80(5),423428.

51
TaskJ.Havestudentsfigureoutwhatthispoint( ,below)is calledonthenumberline.
Havethemcirclethecorrectanswerbelowand explainhowtheyfiguredouttheanswer:
2 2 1 2 2 6 7 4 4
Unconventionalnumberlinesliketheoneabove(fromwhichsomehash marksaremissing)alsochallengestudents,sincetheymustimagineordrawequal intervals.Onlyabout40%ofthestudentsinasixthgradeclasscouldinitiallysolve theproblemabovecorrectly.20 Itmaybeinterestingtodiscussthefollowingquestionsbeforelookingatthe studentresponsestothisproblem(whichareprovidedinTable5attheend ofthisinvestigation,p.56). Whatdostudentsneedtoknowtosolvethiskindofproblem? Whymightstudentshavechoseneachoftheresponses?
20Saxe,G.B.,Shaugnessy,M.M.,ShannonA.,LangerOsuna,J.M.,Chinn,R.&Gearhart,M.(2007).Learningabout
fractionsaspointsonanumberline.InW.G.Martin,M.E.Strutchens&P.C.Elliott(Eds).TheLearningof Mathematics:Sixtyninthyearbook(pp.221237).Reston,VA:TheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics. (Seeespeciallypage232). DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
52
TaskK.Plot1,2,4,6,and7onthenumberlinebelowinsucha waythateachnumberfallsonatickmark.
Plot , , onthenumberlinebelowinsuchawaythateach numberfallsonatickmark.

2 3 5 3 4 6
Theunmarkednumberlinesaboverequirestudentstofindaunitthat accommodatesallthenumbers(wholenumbersorfractions)ontheline:21 Discusswhatthistaskmightrevealaboutstudentsunderstandingof fractions.
21Beckmann,S.(2005).Mathematicsforelementaryteachers.Boston:PearsonEducation,Inc.(Seeespecially page79).
53
Student W or k T em pl ate for Inves ti gati on 4/T as k G
Number Line
This number line has 0, 1, 2, and 3 marked. Other numbers can go on the number line too.
Number Line
Your job is to put these three numbers on the number line. Try to be as exact as possible. How did you figure it out? 13
10
9
54
Race Course
The turtle, the snail and the spider like to race and they measure the distances that they have run in units of wugs. This is one wug [distance from 0 to 1].
0 1 2
Race Course
Your job is to show the distance that each animal ran. Try to be as exact as possible. How did you figure it out? 13
11
9
55
Table5:HowStudentsExplainedChoiceofFractionNamesonNumberLine (Saxeetal.,2007)[SeeInvestigation4/TaskJ]
56
Investigation5.FractionsModelsasaFoundationfor UnderstandingCalculation,IncludingMultiplicationandDivision ofFractions

Howmighttwodifferentmodelsoffractionslinearmeasurementandcircle areasupport(orfailtosupport)studentsunderstandingoffractionmultiplication anddivision?Theinvestigationinthissectionallowsyourgrouptoexplorethis question. Figure4.Twodifferentmodelsoffractions:linearmeasurement(ribbon length)andcirclearea(pizza).

1m
2m
[Ribbon] [Pizza] RibbonandPizza:CreatingWordProblems: Workindividuallyonthefollowingproblemandthendiscussyoursolutionsasa group. (1)UsingtheribbonpictureinFigure4,makeupawordproblemtogowith eachofthefollowingmathematicalexpressions.Forexample,fortheproblem 1 1 1 + = ?,youmightwrite,Imadeabraceletwith meterofribbon,andthen 5 5 5
DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition. MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
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1 anotherbraceletwith meterofribbon.HowmuchribbondidIusealtogether? 5 2 Answer: meter. 5 1 1 1 1 x6= 1 6= 1 = 5 5 5 5 2 1 1 3 x3= 1 3= 1 5 5 5 5 (2)Sharewiththegrouptheproblemsyoucameupwithanddiscusswhether yourwordproblemsaccuratelyfitthemathematicalexpressionsabove.Evenfor adults,itisnotoriouslydifficulttodevelopwordproblemsformultiplicationand divisionoffractions.AppendixA(p.61)providesfurtherinformationthatmayhelp youevaluateyoursolutions. (3)Next,tryusingthepizzapicture,ratherthantheribbonpicture,todevelop wordproblemsforseveralofthemathematicalexpressionsabove. (4)Discussthefollowingquestions: Doyounoticeanydifferencesinhowyouthinkaboutmultiplicationand divisionoffractionsusingthepizzapicturevs.theribbonpicture? Whatdoyoufindeasierabouteachmodel? Howmightthepizzapicturevs.theribbonpictureshapestudentsimages ofmultiplicationanddivisionoffractions?Forexample,howwould multiplicationanddivisionbereflectedinlengthorotherattributesof eachmodel?
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PathBAdditionalReadings
Thispartincludesorreferencestwoadditionalresourcesforgroupsthatmay wanttothinkandreadfurtheraboutfractions.Theseinclude: 1. Adiscussionoffivemajorinterpretationsoffractions,includedhere; 2. Anarticlethatsummarizesresearchonstudentunderstandingoffractionsand comparesdifferentcountriesintroductionoffractions(Initialtreatmentof fractionsinJapanesetextbooksbyTadWatanabe),downloadableseparately. 1.FiveInterpretationsofFractions Beforeyoureadanddiscussthefivedifferentinterpretationsoffractions,we suggestyoudothefollowingtask.22
Makeupastoryprobleminvolving 3 . Whengroupmembersarefinished,shareyourstoryproblemsanddiscuss thefollowingquestions:

4
Whatmodelsorpicturesoffractionsdidyoueachuseorimagine?(E.g.,did membersofyourgroupuseallthemodelsshowninFigure3,p.17). Whatinterpretationsoffractionswereyouthinkingof?Tohelpthinkabout this,Table6presentsfiveinterpretationsofthefraction .

3 4 3 4
Ifyourstudentswereaskedtomakeupastoryprobleminvolving ,what interpretationsofthefractionwouldtheylikelycomeupwith,andwhat modelsorpictureswouldtheylikelyuse?
Table6:FractionInterpretationsandExamples23 FractionInterpretation Example

3of4equallydividedparts,suchas3slicesofapizzathat hasbeendividedinto4parts;or3of4equalpizzas. Ameasuredquantity,suchas 3 ofamileor 3 ofacup. Arulethattellshowtooperate:divideby4andmultiplyby 3(ormultiplyby3anddivideby4).Take 3 oftheprice. 3dividedby4.Eachpersonssharewhen3pizzasare dividedamong4people. 3:4TheratioofA:B.Thereare3meatpizzasforevery4 veggiepizzas.
4 4 4
1.Partwhole 2.Measure 3.Operator 4.Quotient 5.Ratio
22Marshall,S.P.(1993).Assessmentofrationalnumberunderstanding:Aschemabasedapproach.InT.P.
Carpenter,E.Fennema&T.A.Romberg(Eds.),RationalNumbers:AnIntegrationofResearch.Hillsdale,NJ: LawrenceErlbaumAssociates. 23Lamon,S.(2005).Teachingfractionsandratiosforunderstanding:Essentialcontentknowledgeand instructionalstrategiesforteaching.(SecondEd.)Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.(Seeespeciallypage226);Japanese MinistryofEducation,CultureandSports(2004).ElementaryschoolteachingguidefortheJapanesecourseof study:Arithmetic(grades16).A.Takahashi,T.Watanabe&M.Yoshida(Translators.)Madison,NJ:Global EducationResources,Inc.(Originalworkpublishedin1989). DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
59
Onereasonstudentsfindfractionssodifficultisthatfractionsareusedinseveral differentways,asTable6shows.Eventually,secondarystudentswillneedto understandallthemeaningsoffractionsshowninTable6.Howandwhenyour curriculumintroduceseachinterpretationoffractionsneedscarefulconsideration inordertohelpstudentsmakesenseofeachmeaning.Whenstudentsdevelopa strongunderstandingoffractionasnumbertheycanseethatthesamenumber( ) describesallfivesituationslistedinTable6andalleightpicturesshowninFigure3. Discussthefollowingquestions: Howandwhenarethevariousinterpretationsoffractionsintroducedin yourcurriculum? Whichonesdoyourstudentsusecomfortablyandhowdoyouknow? DoyouagreewiththeideasinTable3abouttheusefulnessof(linear) measurementinbuildingeachtypeoffractionunderstandingshownin Table6?Whyorwhynot? 2.InitialTreatmentofFractionsinJapaneseTextbooks,byTadWatanabe Thisarticle,availablefordownloadfromourwebsitewhenyoudownloaded thisresourceguide,summarizesresearchonstudentchallengesinunderstanding fractionsandanalyzesfeaturesofcurriculumthatmaybuildstudentunderstanding, withmanyexamplesfromJapaneseandU.S.curricula.Readinganddiscussingit mayprovideawayforyourgroupmemberstosolidifythinkingaboutfractionsthat emergedduringprioractivitiesusingthisresourceguide. Afterreadingthearticle,consideranddiscussthefollowingquestions: WhatelementsofWatanabesargumentdoyoufindpersuasive? Whataretheimplicationsforyourteachingoffractions?
3 4
60
Researchershavefoundthatmanypeoplewhocorrectlysolvethefollowingdivision offractionsproblemcannotcomeupwithanappropriatewordproblemtogowith it:24 3 1 1 4 2 Forexample,peoplecorrectlysolvetheproblembyinvertingandmultiplying, 3 1 7 2 14 1 = 3 . performingacalculationsuchas 1 x 2 = 3 or x = 4 2 4 1 4 2 However,whendevelopingwordproblems,manypeoplemistakenlywritea 1 problemthatdividesby2ratherthanby . 2 1 3 Exampleofdividingby :Aribbonthatis1 yardslongiscutinto 2 4 1 1 1 yardlengths.Howmany yardlengthscanbemade?(Answer:3 2 2 2 1 yardlengths.) 2 1 1 1 1 2 yard 2 yard 2 yard two 2 yard one three halfof
1 4
AppendixA.DivisionofFractionsWordProblems
1 4
1 4 1 4
1 4
1 4 1 4 3 1 yards 4
24Kennedy,M.M.,Ball,D.L.,&McDiarmid,G.W.(1993).Astudypackageforexaminingandtrackingchangesin
teachersknowledge(TechnicalSeries931).EastLansing,MI:NationalCenterforResearchonTeacherLearning, MichiganStateUniversity.
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Exampleofdividingby2(oftencalleddividinginhalfbutnotethatit 3 1 meansdividingintotwopieces,notdividingby ):Aribbonthatis 1 4 2 7 yardslongiscutinhalf.Howlongiseachpiece?(Answer: yard) 8 Firstpiece

Secondpiece
1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8
3 1 yards 4
Theexamplesaboveillustrateacommondifficultythatpeoplehavewhen 1 dividingbyfractions.Thefirstexampleillustratesdividingby ,whilethesecond 2 exampleillustratesdividinginhalf,i.e.,dividingintotwopieces,whichisthesame asdividingby2. Dividingbyfractionsisconceptuallysimilartodividingbywholenumbers, althoughmanypeoplehaveahardtimeconnectingtheirunderstandingofwhole numberdivisiontodivisionoffractions.Divisionproblemsareoftendividedinto twobasictypes. Forminggroupsofacertainsize(e.g.,takingaclassof18studentsand forminggroupsof6students).Howmanygroupsofthatsizecanbeformed? Thistypeofdivisionisoftencalledmeasurementorquotitivedivision, becauseyouhaveameasure(orquota)forhowmanyareineachgroup.The firstexampleaboveismeasurementdivision,becausethemeasurementof 1 eachgroupis yard. 2 Formingacertainnumberofgroups(e.g.,takingaclassof18studentsand forming3groups).Whatisthesizeofeachgroup?Thistypeofdivisionis oftencalledfairsharingorpartitivedivision,becausethenumberofparts (groups)isknownandwearedividingthewholeamongthem.Thesecond 3 problemabove(dividingthe 1 yardslongribbonintotwoequalpieces)is 4 fairsharingorpartitive,becauseweknowhowmanygroups(2)andare dividingthewholeequallyinto2groups. Forfractions,itmaybeeasiertothinkofwordproblemsusingthefirsttypeof divisionabove(measurementorquotitivedivision),becauseitiseasiertoimagine 1 1 1 groupsizeof cupor meterthantoimaginedividingsomethinginto ofa 2 2 2
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group.However,evenwithmeasurementdivision,peoplemayencounterdifficulty whenthequotientisnotawholenumber,becauseitiseasytolosetrackofwhat unitthequotientrepresents.Forexample,theanswertothefirstproblemaboveis 1 1 3 pieces,not 3 yards. 2 2 Ifyourgroupisinterestedinfurtherreadingonmultiplicationanddivisionof fractions,anarticlebyDeborahSchifterhasanexcellentdiscussion,using illustrationsfromstudentresponsestoactualclassroomtasks.25 Inaddition,the6thgradeJapaneseelementarytextbooksprovidedalsohave usefulinformationontheJapaneseapproachtomultiplicationanddivisionof fractions.
25Schifter,D.(1998)Learningmathematicsforteaching:Fromateachersseminartotheclassroom.Journalof MathematicsTeacherEducation1:1,5587.
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Ivelearnedthatwealwaystrytopacktoomuchintoasinglelesson! JaneGorman,educatoranddirectorofLessonStudy CommunitiesinSecondaryMathematics,Education DevelopmentCenter
Section4:Planning,Conducting,andDiscussingtheResearchLesson
A.DevelopaLessonRationaleandPlanfortheResearchLesson Theopeningquotepointsoutthechallengeofhominginonjusttheright contentfortheresearchlesson.Yourteamneednotplanaresearchlessonfrom scratch.Adaptinganexistinglessonisagreatwaytoadvancetheprofessionby buildingontheworkofothers.Beforeyoudiveintoplanning,nowisagoodtimeto thinkcarefullyaboutthepurposeofyourresearchlesson.Forexample,yourgroup maywanttousetheresearchlessonto: Reshapeyourintroductiontofractionsbasedonthecurriculumandvideo materialsyoustudied,andstudyonelessonwithinyourintroductoryunitas theresearchlesson; Followuponsomethingyoulearnedaboutstudentunderstandingfroman investigationinPathB; Testataskthatyouthinkmaybeusefulfordiagnosingstudentthinkingor forsupportingthedevelopmentofstudentthinking. Takesometimenowtoclarifywhatyouwanttolearnfromtheresearchlesson, andtocaptureyourideasinabriefwrittenlessonrationale.Discussingoneor moreofthefollowingquestionsshouldhelpyouwriteyourrationale. Whyisyourgroupinterestedinthisfocusforthelesson?Whythisparticular focusfortheresearchlessonratherthananother? Whataspectofstudentlearningdoyouhopetobuildbytryingthislesson? Whatdoyouhopetolearnaboutstudents? Whatdoyouhopetolearnabouttheinstructionalstrategiesandtasksthat supportstudentlearning?
Writeyourrationaleonthelessonplantemplate(TeachingLearningPlanfor
theResearchLesson),providedattheendofthissectionofthetoolkit(p.68,orin theelectronicfileontheCDmailedtoyou). Forreference,thesamplelessonplanfoundinSection3,PartAprovidesan exampleofalessonrationale(inparte,InstructionoftheLesson).Dontworry aboutwritingaperfectlessonrationale;thepointistoconsolidateyourthoughts beforeyoubegindetailedplanningofthelesson,whichcomesnext.Youcanrevise yourlessonrationalelaterasneeded.
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DeveloptherestoftheTeachingLearningPlan,continuingtousethetemplate
provided. ATeachingLearningplanforlessonstudydiffersfromanordinarylesson planbecauseitisdesignedtostimulate,capture,andshareyourgroupslearning,as wellastoguidethelessoninreferencetoyourlessongoals.InSection5,wediscuss someelementsoftheTeachingLearningPlanTemplatethatmayneedcomment.As youplan,youmayalsowanttorefertotheFlowofJapaneselesson(foundinPathA, p.39)foradditionalinformationonJapaneselessonstructure. B.TeachingandObservingtheResearchLesson
Alessonislikeaswiftlyflowingriver;whenyou'reteachingyoumustmake judgmentsinstantly.Whenyoudoaresearchlesson,yourcolleagueswritedown yourwordsandthestudents'words.Yourrealprofileasateacherisrevealedto youforthefirsttime. AJapaneseteacher
Bythedayoftheresearchlesson,yourgroupwillhavedevelopedateaching learningplanthatcapturesyourbestcollectivethinkingaboutthesubjectmatter andhowstudentslearnit.Nowitstimeforthemostinterestingpartofany researcheffortseeinghowyourideasfareinpractice.Thedatacollectedbythe observerswillenableyoutoslowdowntheswiftlyflowingriverofinstructionin ordertostudyit.Yourgroupshoulddecideinadvancewhatdataaretobecollected andassignparticularindividualstoeachdatacollectiontaskduringtheir observationofthelesson.Documenttheresearchlessoninasmanywaysasyou canconvenientlymanageforexample,audiotape,videotape,stillphotography, studentwork,andnarrativeobservationnotes. Aprotocolformakingobservationsduringyourresearchlessonsisincluded attheendofthissection(ProtocolforLessonObservationandDiscussion,p.72). Theseguidelinesdeservecarefulreviewbyeachmemberofyourteamandeach observeroftheresearchlesson,sincethetypeofobservationanddiscussion expectedduringlessonstudyisusuallyadeparturefromthefamiliar.Asample LessonObservationLog(p.73)isprovidedasastartingpointforyourgroupto designadatacollectionformthatcapturesyourparticularquestions.Theroleofthe observersduringlessonstudyistocollectdata.AsUSresearchershavenoted,the observersaresupposedtofunctionasanextrasetofeyes,notanextrasetof hands.26Whenobservershelpstudents,itsdifficulttodrawinferencesabouthow wellthelessonworkedbecauseitchangestheteachingformatfromoneteacherto several.Itsimportanttoletstudentsknowinadvancethattheextrateachersinthe roomwillbestudyingthelesson,nothelpingthestudents.Thatway,students wontthinktheyveencounteredaroomfulofexceptionallyunhelpfuladults! 26Fernandez,Chokshi,S.,Cannon,J.,&Yoshida,M.(2001).LearningaboutlessonstudyintheUnitedStates.In E.Beauchamp(Ed.),NewandoldvoicesonJapaneseeducation.Armonk,N.Y.:M.E.Sharpe. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. 65 Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.
Inadditiontodevelopingyourteachinglearningplanandplanningyourdata collection,youmayalsodecidetovideotapetheresearchlesson.Ifyoudo,youwill needtothinkaboutobtainingparentandstudentconsentforvideotapingthe researchlesson.Pleasecheckwithyourschoolordistrictaboutconsentrequired forvideotapingstudentsand/oradultsintheclassroom. Giventhemanylogisticsinvolvedinconductingaresearchlesson,youmay wanttodivvyupthelogisticaltasksamonggroupmembers,designatingdifferent membersto: Obtainneededmaterialsforthelesson(e.g.,chartpaper,masking tape) Copytheteachinglearningplanforanyoutsideobservers Takenotesatthepostlessondiscussion Facilitatethepostlessondiscussion Distribute,collect,andcheckreturnedstudent/teacherconsentforms Sincetheteacheractuallyteachingthelessonalreadyshouldersconsiderable responsibility,othergroupmembersmaywanttotakeresponsibilityforthe supporttasks.Ifyourresearchlessonistobeobservedbypeoplebeyondyour immediateplanninggroup,asksomeoneoutsideyourplanninggrouptofacilitate thepostlessondiscussion. Whilewegenerallythinkofthisguideasasetofsuggestions(notasa blueprint),thepostlessondiscussionoftheresearchlessonisoneplacewherewe suggestcloseadherencetothediscussionprotocolincludedattheendofthis section(p.72).Infact,itmakessensetohaveapostedorprintedagendaforthe postlessondiscussion(withtimes),sothateveryparticipantisawareofthe protocol. Ifyourgroupisabletorevisethelessonandhaveanotherteammember teachitinanotherclassroom,youarelikelytolearnagreatdealfromseeingthe impactofchangesinthelesson.(OnecopyofthevideoHowManySeats?,sentto yourgroupalongwiththisguide,providesastrikingexampleofthemajorimpactof somerelativelysmallchangesinthelesson.). C.ReflectionandReportingontheLessonStudyCycle Afterteachingandobservingtheresearchlessonandconductingapost lessondiscussion,wesuggestthatyoutakeanadditionalmeetingtoconsiderwhat youhavelearnedfromthislessonstudycycle.Werecommendreservingonewhole meetingforthisreflectionprocess,atleastanhourandahalf,ifpossible.As mentionedinthefirstpagesofthisguide,youmaywanttothinkaboutthispartof thecycleasifyouwerepreparingapresentationtoschoolordistrictcolleagues aboutwhatyourgrouplearnedandtheimpactyouexpectfromthiswork. Takesometimetolookbackoveryournotesandmeetingreflectionformsfrom thelessonstudycycle,aswellasanyothernotesandmaterials(suchasthelesson
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plan,curriculummaterials,groupnotes,andstudentwork).Thenwriteindividually inresponsetothepromptontheendofcyclereflectionformfoundattheendof thissection. Describeinsomedetailtwoorthreethingsyoulearnedfromthislessonstudycycle thatyouwanttoremember,andthatyouthinkwillaffectyourfuturepractice. Thesemightbethingsaboutfractionsormathematics,aboutteaching,about studentlearning,oraboutworkingwithcolleagues.(Ifyoudontfeelyou learnedanythingfromthiscycleoflessonstudy,pleasedescribethechanges neededtomakethislessonstudycyclemoreproductiveforyou.) Afterindividuallymakingnoteofwhatyoulearnedfromthelessonstudycycle, setasideadditionaltimewithyourgrouptodiscussandconsolidateyourgroup learning. Asanextstep,youmightwanttothinkabouthowyoucoulddescribethelesson studyprocessandyourlearningtoschoolordistrictcolleagues.Attheendofthis section(p.76),weprovideasamplePowerPointpresentationtemplate(printout) tohelpyouorganizeyourideas.TheelectronicversionofthetemplateisontheCD senttoyourgroup.
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Teaching-Learning Plan for the Research Lesson (4 pages)

TeamMembers: Instructor: Date: GradeLevel: 1.TitleofLesson: 2.Goals(MainAim,BroadSubjectMatterGoals,LessonGoals) 3.LessonRationale:Whywechosetofocusonthistopicandgoals.(For example,whatisdifficultaboutlearning/teachingthistopic?Whatdowe noticeaboutstudentscurrentlyasmathematicallearners?)Whywedesigned thelessonasshownbelow. 4.Howdoesstudentsunderstandingofthistopicdevelop?Forexample,how doesthislessonfitwithinaunit?Howdoesitfitwithinstudentsexperiences inpriorandsubsequentgrades?
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5.RelationshipofthelessontotheCalifornia(orOtherState)Mathematics Standards 6.LessonDesign: AnticipatedStudent StudentLearning PointstoNotice ReponsesandTeacher Activities (Evaluation) Support
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StudentLearning Activities
AnticipatedStudent ReponsesandTeacher Support
PointstoNotice (Evaluation)
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7.Datacollectionpointsduringthelessonobservation. Ourteamwillcollectdataon: Outsideobserversareaskedtocollectdataon:
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Protocol for Lesson Observation and Discussion OBSERVATION OF RESEARCH LESSON 1. Do not help students or otherwise interfere with the natural flow of the lesson (for example, block students view). 2. Collect data requested by the lesson planning team, or focus on the points to notice laid out in their instructional plan. DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH LESSON 1. The Instructors Reflections The instructor describes the aims for todays lesson, comments on what went well and on any difficulties, and reflects on what was learned in planning and conducting todays lesson. (5 minutes or less.) 2. Background Information from the Lesson Study Group Members The lesson study team members explain their goals for students (both lesson goals and longterm goals) and why they designed the lesson (and unit) as they did. They describe what they learned and any changes made to the lesson design over time. 3. Presentation and Discussion of Data from the Research Lesson Lesson study team members (followed by observers, if any) present data from their observations. The data may include student work, a record of questions by the teacher and/or students, narrative records of all activities by particular children or small groups, record of the blackboard, etc., that have been agreed upon in advance. What do the data suggest about the students progress on the lesson goals and goals for long-term development? 4. General Discussion A brief free discussion period, facilitated by a moderator, may be provided. The focus is on student learning and development, and on how specific elements of lesson design promoted these. The moderator may designate particular themes for discussion, so that there is ordered discussion of key issues, rather than a free for all. Comments of a sensitive nature may be conveyed privately at a later time. 5. Outside Commentator (optional) An invited outside commentator may discuss the lessons relation to key subject matter issues. 6. Thanks The instructor, planners, and attendees are thanked for their work to improve instruction.
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[Note:Multiplecopiesofthissheetmayhelpyoukeeparunningrecordofthelessonasitunfolds overtime,aswellastonote(duringtheobservationorlater)significanteventstowhichyouwantto return.]
LessonObservationLog(3pages)
Titleoflesson: Goalsofthelesson: Observationobjectives:
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Time
Observation
Significance
Time
Observation
Significance
Conclusions:
Further questions raised:
Form based on an example from San Mateo-Foster City School District Lesson Study Group, 2007
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PowerPointPresentationTemplate(5pages)
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78
79
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Describeinsomedetailtwoorthreethingsyoulearnedfromthislessonstudycycle thatyouwanttoremember,andthatyouthinkwillaffectyourfuturepractice. Thesemightbethingsaboutfractionsormathematics,aboutteaching,about studentlearning,oraboutworkingwithcolleagues.(Ifyoudontfeelyoulearned anythingfromthiscycleoflessonstudy,pleasenotethatandidentifychangesthat mighthavemadethelessonstudyworkmoreproductiveforyou.)
IndividualID:_________________________________________ EndofCycleReflection
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Section5:LessonStudyRefresher OverviewandSuggestionsforGettingStarted
Improvingsomethingascomplexandculturallyembeddedasteachingrequiresthe effortsofalltheplayers,includingstudents,parents,andpoliticians.Butteachers mustbetheprimarydrivingforcebehindchange.Theyarethebestpositionedto understandtheproblemsthatstudentsfaceandtogeneratepossiblesolutions. JamesStiglerandJamesHiebert,TheTeachingGap27
WhatisLessonStudy? Inlessonstudy,ateamof46teacherscollaborateto(1)identifyandstudy anaspectofstudentlearningtheywanttoimprove;(2)planorrefinearesearch lessonthatbringstolifetheirideasaboutteachingthetopic;(3)conductand carefullyobservetheresearchlesson,collectingdataonstudentthinkingduringthe researchlesson;and(4)shareandreflectonthedataandtheirimplicationsfor teachingandlearning.Manygroupsthenrevisethelessonandteachitinanother classroom,onceagaincollectingdatathatenablethemtodeepentheir understandingofthetopicanditsteachingandlearning.Thebasiccycleoflesson studyactivitiesisshowninFigure1. Lessonstudyasksthatteacherstakepartinactivitiesthatareunfamiliarto manyU.S.teachers,suchascollaborativeplanningofalesson.Tosupportthe challengingworkoflessonstudy,itisworthinvestingsometimeupfrontin developingnormsandproductiveroutinesforyourgroupswork.Theprocesswe suggestforgettingstartedismodeledoneffectivegroupswehaveobservedinthe SanMateoFosterCitySchoolDistrict,California. Meeting1(orMeetings12forgroupsnewtolessonstudy) Figure5(p.84)providesasampleagendaforthefirstlessonstudymeeting. Agreeingonroles(suchasnotetaker,facilitator,etc.)androtatingtheseeach meetingwillhelpgroupmemberssharetheworkload.Toworkwelltogether,itwill alsobeusefulforyourgrouptodevelopnorms(groundrules)foryourwork together.Aprocessforsettinggroupnormsisprovidedattheendofthissection(p. 93)andontheCDofelectronicresources.Figure6includesagendaitemsthatyou maywanttothinkaboutforeachofyourlessonstudymeetings,includingwaysto getthemeetingstartedandfinishedeachtime. 27Stigler,J.W.&Hiebert,J.(1999).Theteachinggap.NewYork:FreePress,p.135.
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Someconcreteexamplesofnorms(fromteachersinFresnoandBerkeley, California)mayprovideausefulstarttothinkaboutthekindsofnormsthatwillbe usefulforyourgroup. Listenthoughtfully,withanopenmind Sharetheair Give100%! Stayontask Bepunctual Haveapositiveoutlooktowardselfandothers Bestudentfocusedalways Showrespectforeachothersideasyetchallenge!
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Figure5:SampleAgendaforFirstMeeting(First12MeetingsforGroupsNew toLessonStudy) Time Experienced AgendaItem[RemembertoStartVideoCamerabefore (Minutes) ornew StartingMeeting] lessonstudy groups? 5 Allgroups ChooseRoles Userolesthathaveworkedforyouinthepast,orrolessuch as:Facilitator;2Notetakers(1electronic,1forwritingin publicview);Timekeeper Rotateroleseachmeeting,andaddrolesasneeded(e.g., researchertotrackdownmaterials,lessonplanrecorderto updateandcirculateresearchlessonplan,convenertosend outremindersandarrangeroomandrefreshments). 1520 Allgroups DevelopGroupNorms Developnorms(groundrules)andidentifyanormtomonitor attodaysmeeting SeeSettingGroupNormsattheendofthissectionfor suggestedprocess. 4570 Newto BecomeFamiliarWithLessonStudy lessonstudy 10 Newto ExamineYourIdeasAboutProfessionalDevelopment lessonstudy Inyourview,whatarethecharacteristicsofeffective professionaldevelopment?Writelistsindividuallyandthen sharewiththegroup. 2040 Newto BuildSharedUnderstandingofLessonStudy lessonstudy ObserveHowManySeats?videoaboutlessonstudy.If meetingtimeislimited,youcandothisaheadoftimein preparationforthemeeting. Discuss:Whatarethekeycharacteristicsoflessonstudy? 10 Newto RevisitIdeasaboutEffectiveProfessionalDevelopment lessonstudy Howdocharacteristicsoflessonstudyfit/notfitwithideas abouteffectiveprofessionaldevelopmentgeneratedbythis group? 510 Newto SurfaceConcernsAboutLessonStudy lessonstudy 1020 Allgroups ConsiderYourLongTermGoalsandMainAim SeeChoosingaResearchTheme(MainAim)forLesson Studyattheendofthissection. variable Allgroups BegintoFocusYourLessonStudyTopic (astime permits)
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Figure5(cont.) Time Experienced AgendaItem[RemembertoStartVideoCamerabefore (Minutes) ornew StartingMeeting] lessonstudy groups? 10 Allgroups MeetingReviewandReflection Individuallyfilloutmeetingreflectionform(download). Shareoutideasasdesiredandsummarize. Summarizedecisions,anyassignments,buildtentative agendafornextmeeting Reflectonnorm(s)selectedtomonitortoday:Didwe upholdnorm(s)?Whatdoweneedtododifferentlynext meeting?
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Figure6:SampleBeginningandEndingAgendaItemsforAllLessonStudy Meetings Time AgendaItem[RemembertoStartVideoCamerabeforeStarting (Minutes) Meeting] BeginningofMeeting: ChooseRoles 15 Chooseroles(suchaselectronicandpublicnotetakers,facilitator, timekeeper,etc.);systematicrotation(bybirthdayorsomeothermeans) developsthecapacityofallgroupmembers ChooseaNorm(s)tomonitorthismeeting Chooseoneormorenormstomonitorthismeeting;groupmemberswill payattentiontowhethertheselectednormisbeingupheld,andshare theirideasattheendofthemeeting ReviewNotesFromLastMeetingandTodaysAgenda Refreshyourmemoryaboutthelastmeeting,andmakeanyneeded adjustmentstotodaysagenda,beforelaunchingintoyourworkfortoday Variable [substanceofmeeting] 1015 EndofMeeting MeetingReflectionForm IndividuallyfillouttheMeetingReflectionForm,shareoutideasas desired,notetakerkeepsrecord MeetingReview Summarizetodaysdecisions,anyassignments Buildtentativeagendafornextmeeting NormReflection Reflectonnorm(s)selectedtomonitortoday:Didweupholdnorm(s)? Whatdoweneedtododifferentlynextmeeting? GatherMaterials Haveonegroupmembercollectmeetingartifactsfordocumentation purposes
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ConsiderYourLongtermGoalsforStudentsandAgreeonaMainAimof LessonStudy Lessonstudyoftenbeginsbyconsideringyourlongtermgoalsforstudents forexample,thequalitiesyouhopetheywillhaveasadults.Thesheet,Choosinga ResearchTheme(MainAim)forLessonStudyattheendofthissection(p.94) outlinesaprocessforthinkingaboutyourlongtermgoalsandusingthemto developaresearchthemeormainaimforlessonstudy.Evenifyoudonthave timefortheactivitydescribedinFigure6,youmightwanttoquicklyconsiderthe twobasicquestions: Ideally,whatqualitieswillstudentshavewhentheygraduatefromour school? Whataretheactualqualitiesofourstudentsnow? Byreflectingonthegapbetweentheidealandtheactual,youcanquickly remindyourselfofthelongtermgoalsofimportancetoyou.Theresearchthemeor mainaimoflessonstudyisabroadgoal,positivelystated,thatiscompellingto teachersfromallgradelevelsandmanypointsofview,suchastobuildstudents desiretolearn,responsibilityaslearners,orhabitsofsupportingoneanothers learning.Developingaresearchthemeormainaimforlessonstudywork remindsusthatourlongtermgoalsareachievedthroughtheaccumulationof individuallessons.Giventheshorttimetoworkonthislessonstudycycle,wedonot recommendthatyouspendtimewritinglongtermgoals.However,youmaywant tokeeptheideaofsettingamainaiminthebackofyourmindforfuturelesson studyworkespeciallyworkthatinvolvesyourwholeschoolasawaytobringto lifeyourmissionstatement. Tomaximizethefeelingofworkingtogetheronourlesson,manyU.S. lessonstudygroupsdeferthedecisionofwhowillteachtheresearchlessonuntil justbeforetheresearchlessonistaught.Ideally,youwanttospendmostofyour timestudyingthetopic,asdiscussednext,(notchoosingitorfocusingonthe minutiaeofthelessondesign).Asyoustudythetopic,aninterestingfocusforyour researchlessonislikelytoemerge. StudytheTopic Donotthinkthatyouneedtowritealessonfromscratch.Lessonstudyis mostproductivewheneducatorsbuildonthebestexistinglessonsandresearch, ratherthanreinventingthewheel.Thepointofthelessonstudycycleisnotsimply toproducealesson,buttostudythetopicandstudentthinkingrelatedtothattopic insomedepth.Thisguidehasavarietyofmaterialsdesignedtosupportsuchstudy, includingmathematicaltasks,studentresponses,andacurriculumlikelytocontrast withyourowncurriculum. ConsideranOutsideSpecialist Anotherelementthatmaygreatlyenhanceyourlessonstudyisinclusionof anoutsidespecialist,suchasateacherorresearcherwhoisknowledgeableabout thesubjectmatterunderstudy,howtoteachit,orboth.Itisoftenmosteffectiveto
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involveanoutsidespecialistearlyon,sothatthespecialisthasachancetohelp shapethelesson,tosuggestcurricularresources,andeventuallytoserveasa commentatoronyourresearchlesson.Inlessonstudy,theroleoftheoutside specialististoraisequestions,addnewperspectives,andbeacoresearcher,notto tellotherswhattodo. DeveloptheTeachingLearningPlan ATeachingLearningplanforlessonstudydiffersfromanordinarylesson planbecauseitisdesignedtostimulate,capture,andshareyourgroupslearning,as wellastoguidethelesson.HerewediscusssomeelementsoftheTeaching LearningPlanTemplatethatmayneedcomment. Goals Typically,threedifferentlevelsofgoalsarefoundinateachinglearningplan. First,youcannoteyourResearchTheme(orMainAim)ifyoudevelopedone,or perhapssomephrasesfromyourmissionstatementthatwillremindyouofthe longtermgoalsforyourstudentsthatyouwanttorememberduringthiswork. Specificgoalsforthislessonandmoregeneralgoalsforstudentlearningofthe subjectareaalsogoundergoals.Someexamplesofeachlevelofgoalforstudents follow. ResearchThemeorMainAim Takeinitiativetolearnandtosupportthelearningofclassmates Arecurious,persistentlearners Enjoychallenges GoalfortheSubjectArea Uselogicalreasoningtomakeconjectures Enjoylookingatproblemsfromseveralperspectives Usejournalstoreflectonandrevisetheirideas Usepriorknowledgetosolvechallengingproblems GoalfortheLesson Noticethattheareaofanunfamiliarfigurecanbefoundby transformingitintoafamiliarfigurewiththesamearea Noticethatamathematicalpatterncanmakeiteasytosolveaproblem Discoverthatitcanbeconvenienttocountobjectsby2sand5s Realizethatahiddennumberinanumberchartcanbefoundbylooking atthesurroundingnumbers LessonRationale Whydidyouchoosetofocusonthistopic?Forexample,whatdoyounotice aboutstudentscurrentlearningthatledyoutobeinterestedinthistopic?Whatled youtodesignthelessonasdescribedinyourLessonDesignsection?Whilethe
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activitiesinSection4(thepriorsectionofthisguide)shouldenableyoutomakean initialstatementaboutthelessonrationale,youmaywanttorevisityourlesson rationaleattheendoflessonplanning,afteryoufurtherdevelopyourideasabout howtobestteachthistopic.YourMeetingReflectionFormsandmeetingnoteswill comeinveryhandywhenwritingthelessonrationale,allowingyoutoexplain decisionsthegroupmadeforthelessonstructurebasedonyourdiscussions, analysisofstudentthinking,andexaminationofresearch.Thelessonrationalehelps thereaderunderstandthejourneythatledyourgrouptothislessondesign. HowDoesStudentUnderstandingofThisTopicDevelop? WhileUSeducatorsoftenthinkoflessonstudyasfocusingonasinglelesson, infactitfocusesonthewholeunit,eventhoughjustonelessonistypicallyobserved. Theteachinglearningplanexplainshowtheresearchlessonfitswithintheunit forexample,whethertheprimaryfunctionofthelessonistomotivatestudentsto studythetopicinsubsequentlessons,tohelpstudentslearnanewconcept,orto helpstudentsconsolidateandapplywhattheyhavelearnedinpriorlessons.The teachinglearningplanalsonoteshowtheresearchlessontopicconnectswith materialtaughtinpriororsubsequentyearsofschooling.Forexample,ifstudents arelearningtoaddsingledigitnumbersthatsumoverten,itisessentialtonotice whethertheyreactivatetheirknowledgeofdecomposingfive,sotheycan,for example,see8+5as8+(3+2) LessonDesign ACaliforniateachernotesthatMylessonplanninghaschangedthisyear becauseoflessonstudy.ImmovingawayfromWhataretheactivitiesImdoing? toWhatisitthatIwantkidstoget?Thefollowingkindsofquestionsmaybe helpfulasyouplantheresearchlesson: 1.Whatdostudentscurrentlyunderstandaboutthistopic? 2.Whatdowewantthemtounderstandattheendofthelessonandunit? 3.Whatisthedrama,orsequenceofexperiencesandquestionsthatwill propelstudentsfromtheirinitialunderstandingtothedesired understanding? 4.Howwillstudentsrespondtothequestionsandactivitiesinthelesson? Whatkindsofthinking,problemsandmisconceptionswillarise?Howwill theteacherusetheseideasandmisconceptionstoadvancethelesson? 5.Whatwillmakethislessonmotivatingandmeaningfultostudents? 6.Whatevidenceshouldwegatheranddiscussaboutstudentlearning, motivation,andbehavior?Whatdatacollectionformsareneededtodothis?
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The lesson design is usually written out in three or four parallel columns that contain: Thequestions,problems,andactivitiestobeposedbytheteacher Theanticipatedstudentresponses Theteachersplannedresponsestothestudentsandthingsfortheteacherto remember Pointstonoticeduringthelesson(orevaluation) Whathelpsgroupsanticipatestudentthinking? TeacherHeatherCrawford,ofNewJerseynotesthatitisnoteasyto anticipatestudentthinking Itischallengingtotryandthinkaboutthestudentssolutionstotheproblem beforetheydoit,andtotryandgetalloftheanswerstheymightcomeupwith. Youhavetothinkaboutthingsfromthestudentspointofviewandthatisa bigchange. Shegoesontoexplainhowlessonstudychangedtheplanningatherschool: [Now]wethinkalotmoreaboutthemotivationforthelessonandmakingsure thatthekidshavethepriorknowledgethattheyneedbeforeweteacheach lessonBeforewedidlessonstudywereallydidntthinkaboutwhatthe studentresponseswouldbetothequestions.Whenweposedaproblemwe neverreallythoughtaboutwhatthekidswouldcomeupwith.ItwasWell, wehopetheygettherightanswerandifwedontthenwewilldealwithit. Nowwearereallythinkingabout,Well,whatifthisanswerweretocomeup? Howwouldwedealwithit? Theactivitiesinthistoolkitareintendedtoprovidemanyopportunitiesto anticipatestudentthinking.Doinganddiscussingamathematicaltaskasadults, usingamathematicaltasktogatherdatafromyourstudentsandbringitbackto yourlessonstudygroup,andconsultingresearchandknowledgeableothersall buildagroupscapacitytoanticipatestudentthinking. StudentLearningActivities Thelefthandcolumnoftheteachinglearningplanliststhemajoractivities ofthelesson,andthetimeallocatedtoeach(Neededmaterialsmayalsobelisted hereorelsewhere). PointstoNotice(Evaluation) Thecolumnofpointstonoticealertsobserversaboutwhattolookforas theyareobservingeachstageofthelesson.Thepointstonoticewillprovide evidenceabouthowandwhatstudentsarelearninginlightofthelessonyourgroup hasdesigned.Forexample,observersmightbecuedtonoticewhetherstudentsare eagertoinvestigateaproblemintroducedbytheteacher,whatmodelstheydraw, whetherandhowtheyusethetoolsormanipulativesprovidedtothem,what changestheirthinking,andwhatevidencetheyusetopersuadetheirpeers.
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DataCollectionPoints Whatdatawilltellyouhowstudentsaregrapplingwiththemajorideasof thelesson?Welldesigneddatacollectionduringthelessonsupportsarichpost lessondiscussion.Inadditiontothepointslistedinthepointstonoticecolumn, membersofthelessonstudygroupusuallyhavespecificdatacollectionassignments andformstosupportdatacollection,whichmightincludeaseatingchart,listof membersofeachstudentgroup,recordsofstudentspriorthinking,checklistsfor notingfeaturesofstudentwork,formsforrecordingtheparticipationofeach memberofasmallgroup,orformstocollectotherrelevantdataofinteresttothe lessonstudygroup.Otherlessonobservers(fromtheschooloroutside)mayalsobe givendatacollectionassignments.Whilelessonstudynovicesareoftentemptedto roamtheclassroomandseewhateverystudentisdoingduringtheresearchlesson, itisoftenmorefruitfulifmostteammembersfollowselectedstudentsorsmall groupsovertheentirelesson,inordertoseethemomentthelightbulbgoeson(or doesnt)andtounderstandthekeysupportsorbarrierstothelearningofthe observedstudents.Youmaywanttodesignateoneteammembertogatherdata acrosstheclass(forexample,howmanystudentsusedeachtypeofsolution)ifyou cannotobtainthisinformationfromstudentwork. AvoidMicroManaging Asyouplantheresearchlesson,avoidthetemptationtomicromanageeach moveandcommentofthelessoninstructor.Teachermovesarewhatweknowbest, anditmaybemorecomfortabletoplanteachermovesthantodeeplyexplorethe disciplinarycontent.However,studyingthecontentandcurriculummayyield implicationsforteachingmorenaturally.Ifalessonelementislikelytoaffect studentsunderstandingandresponsetothelessontaskinimportantways,thenit isprobablylegitimateterritoryforgroupdiscussion.Problemwordingandcontent, choiceofmanipulatives,anddesignofgraphicorganizersandworksheetsareall examplesoflessonelementsthatmayaffectstudentlearning.Ontheotherhand, decisionssuchaswhethertohaveadiscussionatdesksorgatheredontherugmay bestbelefttotheinstructor,unlesssomeonemakesthecasethattheserelatetothe aspectsofstudentlearningunderstudybythegroupforexample,thatitis importanttobeatdeskssothatstudentscanrecordtheirthinkinginnotebooks. Summary:UsesoftheTeachingLearningPlan Insummary,theteachinglearningplanrepresentsthethinkingofthewhole lessonstudygroupaboutthreeconcentriclayersofpractice:thelessonitself,the largerunitandsubjectareaofwhichitispart,andtheevenlargerdomainof studentslongtermdevelopment.Asyoumovefromplanningtodoingtheresearch lesson,theteachinglearningplanwillservemanyfunctions.Itwill: Supporttheresearchlessoninstructor,byprovidingadetailedoutlineof thelessonanditslogisticaldetails(suchastime,materials,andwording ofkeyquestionsorproblems) Helpyourgroupanticipateproblemsthatmayoccurandhowtheywillbe handled(forexample,howcalculationerrorswillbehandled). 91
Tellobserverswhattolookforduringeachpartofthelessonandwhat datatocollect,andprovideneededforms(forexampleastudentseating chart,priorworkfromeachfocuschildofinterest,ornotetakingforms specificallydesignedtocollectdataofinterest). Captureyourbestcollectivethinkingabouthowtoteachthisparticular topictothesestudents,sothatyoucanshareitwithothers(forexample, anylessonobservers)andrevisititinyourlaterreflection.
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SettingNormsinyourLessonStudyGroup
Whatwouldmakethislessonstudygroupasupportiveandproductivesiteforyour mathematicallearning? Jotdownalistofcharacteristicsimportanttoyou.(Itmayhelptothink aboutcharacteristicsofgroupsthathavefunctionedwellorpoorlyto supportyourmathematicallearninginthepast.)Youmaywanttoconsider somegeneralnorms(suchaslisteningandtakingresponsibility)andsome thathavebeenidentifiedasespeciallyimportanttomathematics,suchas o Exploringandunpackingmathematicalconnections,beingcurious; o Explainingandjustifyingsolutions,agreeingonwhatconstitutesan adequatejustification o Evaluatingsolutionstrategiesforcorrectness,efficiency,andinsight o Expressingagreementordisagreement(Ball&Bass,2000a,2000b; Ball,Bass,Hill,&Thames,2006;Cobb,Yackel,&Wood,1989;Cobb, Stephan,McClain,&Gravemeijer,2001). Shareanddiscussideasasagrouptheideasgeneratedbyeachmember, takingparticularcaretoidentifyanddiscussanypossiblecontradictions.For example,ifonegroupmemberasksforsafeandanotherforchallenging mythinking,talkabouthowbothcanbehonored. Synthesizemembersideastoagrouplistofabout5keynormsyouall support. Recordthenormsforfuturereference. Atthebeginningofeachmeeting,chooseonenormtomonitorthatday.At theendofyourmeeting,discusswhetheryouuphelditandwhatcanbe improved.
ProducedbyMillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,7/2007,basedonworkofSMFCSDLessonStudy GroupandChildDevelopmentProject.
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Thinkaboutthestudentsyouserve. YourIdeals: Ideally,whatqualitieswouldyoulikethesestudentstohavefiveyears fromnow(oralternately,whentheygraduateyourinstitution)? TheActual: Listtheirqualitiesnow. TheGap: Comparetheidealandtheactual.Whatarethegapsthatyouwouldmost liketoworkon? TheResearchTheme:(Thegoal,researchfocusormainaimoflesson study) Bycomparingtheidealandactualstudentqualities,selectafocusforyour lessonstudy.Statepositivelytheidealstudentqualitiesyouchoosetowork on.ForexampleteachersinaJapaneseschoolservingalowincome,diverse communitythathadhistoricallybeensubjectedtodiscriminationchosethe followinggoal: Forstudentstodevelopfundamentalacademicskillsthatwillguarantee theiradvancement,andarichsensibilityabouthumanrights. Yourresearchtheme:
ChoosingaResearchTheme(MainAim)forLessonStudy
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Developing Fraction Number Sense Through Linear Measurement

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DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions

MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup SchoolofEducation MillsCollege 5000MacArthurBoulevard Oakland,CA94613 www.lessonresearch.net 5104303350

Last updated February, 2010

Figure1.LessonStudyCycle Asyouthinkabouthowtoscheduleyourlessonstudyworktogetherusing theresourceguide,youmightconsidertheroughtimelineinFigure2.Itincludesa blankcolumnthatmaybehelpfulforschedulingandnotingyourmeetingdates. Figure2.SampleScheduleforLessonStudyCycle

1hour [optional] 68meetings(or moreifneeded) 1classperiod 1meeting

[1classperiod& 1meeting] 1meeting 1meeting

28(9),2631. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.

AnnualMeetingResearchPresession,April21,2009,WashingtonD.C. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.

PartitioningFractions Awholecanbedividedintosmallerand smallerequalparts. Thesamefractionalquantitycanbe representedbydifferentfractions. TheMeaningoftheDenominator

1 1 Differentunits(suchas and )are 3 5 differentsizes.

TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge TheMeaningoftheDenominator(cont.) Themoreunitsawholeispartitioned into, thesmallereachoneis.

KnowingWhatistheWhole Constructingthewholewhengivena fractionalpart. Keepingtrackofthewhole. .

problemusingpaperandpencil. Student Responses 1 2 19 21 Idontknow

Percent responding, Age13 7 24 28 27 14

1 Problem2:Findtwofractionsbetween and1andwritethemhere: 2 Onthenextpagearesixexamplesofstudentworkonthisproblem.Threearefrom studentswholearnedfractionsinameasurementcontext(theMeasureUp curriculum)andthreearefromstudentswhousedabasaltextbook.

nextpageprovidesmoreinformationontheMeasureUpcurriculum. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.

6 6 Researcher:Whichfractionissmaller? 4 5 6 Chris: .Because4takeslongertogetto6than5does.6 4

Connectinghowstudentsorderfractionsandestimatesumsanddifferences.Pp.205220W.G.Martin&M.E. Strutchens(Eds.)Thelearningofmathematics.69thYearbook.Reston,VA:NCTM,p.215. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.

TokyoShoseki.Adaptedfrom3Btextbook,p.6264. DevelopingNumberSenseforFractions.ElectronicEdition.MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2010. Maynotbereproducedwithoutwrittenpermission.

Discuss:Howdotheimagesandunderstandingsoffractionsthatstudents mightdevelopfromthe3Btextbookcomparewithwhatstudentsmight developfromyourowncurriculumsintroductionoffractions?

DiscussionQuestions(FractionsLesson1) Howdoestheinstructorusethe1meterreferencestrip?Whydoesheuse twoofthe1meterreferencestripstoshow2meters? Whydoestheinstructorhavestudentspredictthelengthofpiecesbefore investigating?

TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge AFractionisaNumber Afractionrepresentsanamount,notjust pieces(suchas2of3piecesofapizza)ora situation(suchas2of3shirtsarered).

TasksandExperiencesThatBuildThis Understanding (NotesfromReviewofJapaneseCurriculum)

PartitioningFractions Awholecanbedividedintosmallerand smallerequalparts. Thesamefractionalquantitycanbe representedbydifferentfractions. TheMeaningoftheDenominator

1 1 Differentunits(suchas and )are 3 5 differentsizes. Themoreunitsawholeispartitioned into,thesmallereachoneis.

TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge KnowingWhatistheWhole Constructingthewholewhengivena fractionalpart. Keepingtrackofthewhole. .

Maythink 4 isbiggerthan 3 because4is 9 4 biggerthan3(comparingnumerators),or 4 isbiggerthan 3 because9isbiggerthan 9 4 ! ! 4(comparingdenominators),or 3 isthe 5

VideoClipTitle___________________________________________________ QuestionIamfocusingmyobservationofthevideoclipon: WhatInoticedaboutthisquestioninthevideo: AdditionalthingsInoticed: Aboutstudentthinking Aboutteachersactionsandteachingmaterials Aboutmathematicalcontent

Studentsareaskedtopredictthelengthofathird,redcardpiece,andtheydiscoverit fitsintothe1meterexactly5times,andistherefore meter.Throughoutthelesson Dr.Tencouragesstudentstomeasurecarefullyusingthecardpiecesandtousemeters toexpressthelengthofthefractionalpart(onethirdwhat?andonefifthwhat?)

FRACTIONS LESSON2 Day3 Video:trt17 min.45sec.

1 2 5 5 Anothergroupbecomesconfusedwhenthemysterystripgoesinto1metertwoanda 2 2 2 halftimesandcallsitboth mand m.Classdiscussionexploreswhy mdoesnotgo 5 3 5 into1manevennumberoftimes.

severalmethods,includingmeasuringwiththe mstripandfoldingthemysterystrip sothatitfitsanevennumberoftimes.

FRACTIONS LESSON1 Day4 Video:trt 23min. FractionSize Mathematicsforelementary school3B(HironakaH.etal., 2006)pp.60.

Thelessonagainbeginswithreviewofselectedstudentjournalstorevisittheprior dayslearning.Thewhiteboarddisplayandasheetinsidethestudentsmathjournals (seebelow)showthesizeofthevariousfractionalpartsinvestigatedduringdays2and3 inrelationtoeachotherandtothe2meterstrip.

Goal:Studentswillknow fractionnotation. Studentswillbecomeaware thatafractioncanbeputon anumberline.

Studentsinvestigateanothermysterypiece(Howcanweexpressthelengthofthe fractionalpart,thebluecardpiece,usingthe1metertapestripasareference?) Studentsdiscoveritis

3 m(foldingthemysterystripinfourths,orusingknownlengthstomeasure),resulting 4 indifferentlengthstrips.Throughdiscussion,thestudentsrealizethatonegroupfound 3 3 mwhereastheothergroupfound oftheoriginalmysterytape. 4 4

Fractionnotationisformallyintroducedusingasignfromtheclassroom: 3numerator 4denominator Groupscreateamysteryfractionstripoftheirchoice(usingthecolorcardsgreen, yellow,redandblue)keepingthelengthsecretsothatothergroupscanguessit.

TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge AFractionisaNumber Afractionrepresentsanamount,notjust pieces(suchas2of3piecesofapizza)or asituation(suchas2of3shirtsarered).

PartitioningFractions Awholecanbedividedintosmaller andsmallerequalparts. Thesamefractionalquantitycanbe representedbydifferentfractions. TheMeaningoftheDenominator

1 1 Differentunits(suchas and )are 3 5 differentsizes. Themoreunitsawholeispartitioned into,thesmallereachoneis.

Comparedtofractionalpartsofarea (whichcanberearrangedinmanyways),length mayprovideaclearimageofwhatis 1 m, 1 m, 3 2 10 m,etc. 11 Linearmeasurementmayhelpprovidea strongimagethattheunitthatfitsin3timesis longerthantheonethatfitsin4times,that 1 is 6 1 halfthelengthof ,etc. 3

TypeofUnderstandingorKnowledge KnowingWhatistheWhole Constructingthewholewhengivena fractionalpart. Keepingtrackofthewhole. .

Lengthmeasurementmaytransferto thenumberlinemoreeasilythansomeother models,sothatstudentsseetherelativesizeof fractions.Afamiliarstandardmeasurementunit (ameter,foot,etc.)maymakeitrelativelyeasy tosee 1 asalengththatgoesin3times, 1 asa 3 4 lengththatgoesin4times,etc..

FractionSize Understandsthatfractionsizeis determinedbythe(multiplicative) relationshipbetweennumeratorand denominatornotjustbythe numerator,notjustbythe denominator,andnotbythe differencebetweennumeratorand denominator.

Table3(continued) ExampleofStudentDifficultyor Understanding

RevisitthelessonstaughtbyDr.Takahashi,startingwiththethreewritten lessonplans,whichcanbedownloadedseparatelyfromourwebsite. Discusssimilaritiesanddifferencesfromlessonplansforintroductionof fractionsthatarefamiliartoyou.

Unit name Fractions

*What Calculations Are We Going to Do?

Teacherand/orstudentssummarizewhat hasbeenlearned;blackboard,class discussion,andmathjournalsmaybeused, oftenendingwithajournalwritingprompt likeWhatIlearnedtoday. MillsCollegeLessonStudyGroup,2006,basedonStigler,Fernandez&Yoshida,1996; Takahashi,2002;TIMSS1999VideoStudyReleasedTapes.

TaskA.HaveyourstudentsdothetaskinSection2(p.18)in whichtheyidentifyhowmany litersarein liters.Orhavethem identifyhowmany metersarein meters,orin 2 meters.

TaskB.Givestudentsapieceofribbonandsay,thisis ofthe wholeribbonslength.Withoutusingaruler,showmethelength ofthewholeribbon.

TaskC.Givestudentsapieceofribbon(orlong,thinpieceof paper)andsay,thisribbonis3timesaslongasanotherribbon. Withoutusingaruler,showmethelengthoftheotherribbon.

TaskE.Quicklyshowtwofractionsontheoverheadprojector(for nomorethanabout10seconds)andaskstudentstoestimatea sumordifference.Forexample,youmightaskstudentstoestimate thefollowingtothenearesthalf:

TaskF.Havestudentsdescribehowtherabbithopsfrom0to1 (andthen2,3)onthenumberlinebelow.Pointtowhere4would beonthenumberlineandaskwhatnumbertherabbithashopped to.Pointtovariousspotsonthenumberlineandaskstudentswhat numberasecondanimal(aturtlewhomoveslessthan1unit)has movedto.

Researchersfoundthatfifthgradestudentsrandomlyassignedtothenumber lineorracecoursepictureweresignificantlymoreaccuratewhenassignedtothe racecoursecondition.16Howwouldyouexplainthis?

18Davydov,V.V.&Tsetkovich,Z.(1991).Ontheobjectiveoriginoftheconceptoffractions.FocusonLearning ProblemsinMathematics,13(1),1383. 19Larson,C.N.(1980).Locatingproperfractionsonnumberlines:Effectoflengthandequivalence.School ScienceandMathematics,80(5),423428.

TaskJ.Havestudentsfigureoutwhatthispoint( ,below)is calledonthenumberline.

Plot , , onthenumberlinebelowinsuchawaythateach numberfallsonatickmark.

Theunmarkednumberlinesaboverequirestudentstofindaunitthat accommodatesallthenumbers(wholenumbersorfractions)ontheline:21 Discusswhatthistaskmightrevealaboutstudentsunderstandingof fractions.

Student W or k T em pl ate for Inves ti gati on 4/T as k G

Investigation5.FractionsModelsasaFoundationfor UnderstandingCalculation,IncludingMultiplicationandDivision ofFractions