Government of India & Government of The Netherlands

DHV CONSULTANTS & DELFT HYDRAULICS with HALCROW, TAHAL, CES, ORG & JPS

MANUAL

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF LITHOSPECIFIC PIEZOMETER

September 2002

Table of Contents
Preface Scope of the Manual 1 Introduction 1.1 General 1.2 Characteristics of geological formations 1.3 Significance of lithology in the construction of piezometers: 1.4 Groundwater monitoring in India- an historical perspective 1.5 Updating the existing network- based on current objectives 1.6 Macro-level planning 1.7 Micro-level planning 1.8 Desk studies 1.9 Field investigations 1.10 Finalisation of piezometer location 1.11 Reporting of field investigations 1.12 Approval for piezometer construction 1.13 Discussion and interaction with local community Drilling preparation 2.1 Planning Construction of piezometer 3.1 Selecting the appropriate drilling technique 3.2 Deciding the depth of piezometers 3.3 Diameter of piezometer 3.4 Actions to be taken prior to drilling 3.5 Piezometer construction in unconsolidated formations 3.6 Sampling procedures during drilling 3.7 Down hole inspection 3.8 Piezometer Completion Piezometers construction in consolidated formations 4.1 DTH drilling characteristics 4.2 Sampling procedures for consolidated rocks Measuring water levels Groundwater sampling Documentation of piezometer construction Piezometer nest i ii 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 13 14 14 15 15 19 19 19 21 21 21 23 24 24 29 29 29 31 33 35 37 38 48 53

2 3

5 6 7 8

Annexure I Hydrogeological Frame Work of Peninsular India Annexure II Geo-physical bore hole logging Annexure III Aquifer parameters and well characteristics

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TOC

Preface
With the commencement of World Bank Assisted Hydrology Project in nine Peninsular States of the country, a sizeable programme for establishing groundwater monitoring network has been taken up. The main objectives were to augment the existing network of observation wells by construction of dedicated piezometers for monitoring groundwater levels and quality. Many of these piezometers have been provided with Digital Water Level Recorders (DWLRs) enabling recording of high frequency water level data. These piezometers are intended to serve as primary stations for monitoring purposes. This has necessitated formulation of guidelines for location and siting of piezometers, their construction and design so that the primary stations truly reflect the groundwater regime behaviour of the aquifer under monitoring. Besides, there is a need to lay down the precise practices for the design and collection of data during drilling. The hydrogeological setting of the Peninsular India represents a varied environment with differing lithological settings, especially in consolidated formations, which are predominant in the HP States. The different lithological environment in conjunction with climatological and land forms call for a separate procedure to follow. Hence the manual is considered essential for reference to the field workers and practicing Hydrogeologists. A Manual on Guidelines for Implementation of piezometers has already been released by the Hydrology Project, during July 1998. The present Manual seeks to present the practices, which should be followed during selecting the location of the piezometer, drilling, construction and design in the different geological formations commonly encountered in a typical hydrogeological environment. The Manual also deals with the methods of sensitizing the piezometer to respond to the aquifer inputs and out puts; maintenance and rehabilitation of the piezometers. One of the main aims of the Hydrology project is to install scientifically designed and correctly installed piezometers to monitor piezometric head of shallow unconfined and deeper confined aquifers. Though the design criteria and field operations are well known to all the field practitioners, certain aspects need to be well understood and assimilated into the practice of implementing a piezometer. The manual gives the guidelines, which are expected to assist the professionals in realising the necessary reorientation of their drilling experience and expertise.

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Scope of the Manual

An earlier Manual on Guidelines for the Implementation of piezometers was prepared and released by the Consultants in July 1998. The Manual dealt with the optimal network design and the details of piezometers in unconsolidated and consolidated formations. However, as majority of the participating HP States fall in hard rock areas of the country, a need has been felt to deal with various aspects of piezometers in different lithologies along with methods of drilling, design and pumping test of piezometers. The manual is intended to serve as a practical guide to the groundwater field workers and as a tool to visualise the hydrogeological situations and ground realities of the piezometer site and what results could be expected. And remedial measures to be adopted to revitalise a piezometer. This Manual seeks to highlight the concept of lithospecific Piezometers, criteria for prioritisation of areas for location and site selection using Remote Sensing and other methods. The procedures of Drilling and Design of Piezometers along with an account of methods of analysis of pumping test data of the piezometers for different types of aquifers have been described. Also topics on Development of piezometers and their Maintenance have been discussed using inputs from various sources. Finally selection and installation of appropriate type of water level recorders in tune with the requirements for litho specific piezometers has been discussed in the manual. It is hoped the manual will meet the guidelines for hydrogeologists engaged in planning, execution and field operations and data retrieval from piezometers as per their requirements.

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1
1.1

Introduction
General

Groundwater monitoring is an essential tool to obtain the information on groundwater quantity and quality data through representative sampling. This helps in recording the response of groundwater system to a natural or artificial input and out put. Any planning for groundwater development should be guided by regime monitoring indicators such as water levels and quality changes over a period. Groundwater is a dynamic resource requiring continuous monitoring of its quantity and quality data for updating and assessment of available resource potential. Such an updating can be made possible by using a sound observational database from a scientifically well established network monitoring system. Groundwater observation monitoring network stations or piezometers are constructed to record the response of groundwater regime to the natural and artificial recharge and discharge conditions. Keeping in view the regional and local requirements, the planning and design of such a network depends upon hydrogeologic, physiographic and climatic situations, purpose of the study, stage of development, as well as political and social demands (UNESCO, 1977). The various types of observation networks can be setup depending on the objectives e.g., hydrogeological, water management, baseline water quality and for specific purposes. In the ongoing Hydrology Project, the objectives of the observational network mainly include high frequency groundwater level and groundwater quality monitoring. A few of the salient features of the groundwater monitoring system are as under:

Strengthening of the existing network through construction of purpose built observation wells (piezometers) through identifying gaps in the data. Ensuring integration of networks of Central and State Groundwater Organisations avoiding any duplication. Achieving optimum observation network density in the given area. Installation of high frequency water level measuring devices like Digital Water Level Recorders (DWLRs) on piezometers at key /nodal locations. Establishment of Data Centres at Unit level, Regional level and National level to handle, storage, validation, synthesis, retrieval and dissemination of data generated to user agencies Development of Hydrological Information System (HIS) To ensure transparency in the availability of demand driven groundwater data required by the User community. Ascertain the data needs, data type (historical, real time etc.), parameters of data requirements of user community through Hydrology Data User Group (HDUG) meetings.

For implementation of the observation network monitoring, CGWB and the State Groundwater Agencies of the participating States have constructed a sizeable number of purpose built observation wells (piezometers) with the provision to install DWLRs at key locations and suitable pumps for water sampling. Some of the piezometers constructed are replacement to old, defunct existing open wells, due to de-saturation of aquifer, disuse, and aging, among other factors.

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The observation wells/piezometers are usually of small diameter so as to accommodate the water level measuring device and the water-sampling pump. In unconsolidated formations, piezometers are provided with screens tapping the zone of interest; where as in the consolidated rocks, piezometers are left open ended (uncased) beneath the loose soil/loose over-burden where the hole has to be provided with a casing. Up-gradation/strengthening of the observation well network is a continuous process which would require replacement of non performing open wells with dedicated piezometers as well as construction of deep piezometers to cover aquifers that have not been previously monitored. Improvement in the density of the network would also arise with time. All this would involve construction of many more piezometers. The present manual aims to serve as a reference guide during piezometer construction. It is expected that this manual would also help the different agencies to formulate Protocols and Procedures for construction of piezometers. The detailed piezometer construction procedure must contain number of elements plus any additional site-specific elements, which may be required. This manual describes the significance of different elements in the piezometer construction

1.2

Characteristics of geological formations

The unconsolidated geological materials are generally composed of sand, gravel, and clay in various proportion as alternate layers and are characterised by occurrence of primary (interstitial) pore spaces which provide the main loci for storage and movement of groundwater in the saturated zone. These materials are often assumed to behave as homogeneous and isotropic media. Yet, the homogeneous aquifers seldom occur in nature, with most aquifers being stratified to some degree. Due to this, the hydraulic conductivity is found to differ in horizontal and vertical directions.
Rock group Crystalline rocks Rock types Mode of occurrence Main features important for groundwater occurrence Weathered horizon, fractures and lineaments with secondary porosity Fractures, vesicles and inter-flow sediments Fractures and solution cavities

Non-volcanic igneous and metamorphic rocks, viz. Granites, gneisses, schists, slates and phyllites, etc. Basalts, andesites and rhyolites

Large size massifs and plutons; regional metamorphic belts

Volcanic rocks

Lava flows at places interbedded with sedimentary beds Mostly as chemical precipitates with varying admixtures of clastics in a layered sedimentary sequence Interbedded sedimentary sequence

Carbonate rocks

Limestones and dolomites

Clastic rocks

Consolidated sandstones and shales

Inter-granular pore spaces and fractures

Table 1.1:

Hydrogeological Classification of Consolidated Rocks (after Singhal & Gupta, 1999)

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The consolidated geological formations dominate the Peninsular India. These formations are devoid of primary porosity and permeability, but tend to acquire some hydraulic conductivity through joints, fracturing, weathering and other geological processes. From hydrogeological point of view, these are classified into Crystalline rocks, Volcanic rocks, Clastic rocks and Carbonate rocks. Groundwater occurrence in these rocks is mainly dependent upon the degree of weathering and consolidation of fractures and fissures, which form the main flow conduits. Table 1.0 gives chief rock types and brief mode of occurrence of groundwater along with main features of occurrence of groundwater in each such formations. The table shows that in contrast to the dominant primary porosity as a main feature for groundwater storage and movement in the unconsolidated formations, distinctly different hydrogeological frame work and flow features characterise the consolidated formations. The location and depth of the network observation wells and/or piezometers in such formations solely depends on the factors like the thickness of weathered zone, occurrence and characteristics of fractures and related hydrological features. In the case of uniformly and densely fractured rocks, the site selection and construction of such piezometers can be more or less similar to that in unconsolidated aquifers. However, in case of non-uniform fracturing, or in weathered zones of crystalline rocks, in carbonate aquifers with solution cavities and in basaltic aquifers with lava vesicles and tubes, the decision on the placement and depth of piezometers may require detailed studies of the hydrogeological situation. The hydrogeological framework of peninsular India is described in details in Annexure-I.

1.3

Significance of lithology in the construction of piezometers:

Groundwater occurs in the aquifers either as an individual horizon or as multiple layers. For proper accounting of resources and judicious planning of exploitation, it essential to monitor the water levels which are indicators of its potential at different times. The quantity and quality of water occurring in the aquifers depend upon its mineralogical and geochemical conditions at the particular level. For this independent observation wells are constructed known as piezometers. All water level monitoring programs depend on the design of piezometer. Decisions made about the design of the piezometer and its location are crucial to water data collection program. Ideally, the piezometer constructed as part of the monitoring network need to provide data representative of the different geology, lithology and groundwater development environments. Decisions about the real-areal distribution and depth of completion of piezometers should take into consideration the physical boundaries and geological complexity of the aquifers under study. Water level monitoring in complex geological and lithological environment may require measurements of water levels in multiple piezometers (nested) constructed at different depths tapping different aquifer units representing varied lithological and geological units in the area. Large geological/lithological units that extend beyond the state boundaries require a network of piezometers that have representation beyond the states distributed among one or more states. One of the purpose of a network is to monitor ambient groundwater conditions or the effects of natural, climatic-induced hydrologic stresses, the piezometer network will require monitoring structures that are representative of regional geological, lithological units that have lateral and vertical continuity and represent the horizontal groundwater flow regime without any major gaps. The aim should be to ensure that there are no mixing up of information due to improper piezometer design. These and many other technical considerations pertinent to the design of a piezometer focussing on lithological and geological units is discussed in detail.
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Commonly overlooked is the need for study of geological map and available reports of the area giving details on the mineralogical and lithological information before deciding about the location and design of the piezometer. Good understanding of the lithology of the area help in designing the appropriate piezometers that enable collection of accurate, authentic and precise water level data, which will reflect true conditions in the aquifer being monitored and provide data that can be relied upon for many intended uses. Therefore field and office practices that will provide the needed levels of quality assurance for water level data should be carefully thought out and consistently employed. In the construction of piezometers the principal objectives should be:

to monitor the water levels and water quality of independent aquifer to understand the relationship between different aquifers to understand the hydraulic characteristics of different aquifers. to evaluate groundwater regime characteristics to understand the regional flow characteristics to refine groundwater resources assessment

The procedure and protocol for design and construction of piezometers shall be dictated by a number of factors including the geology, hydrogeology, lithology, aquifer geometry not forgetting the objectives of the monitoring network. Thus prioritisation of the piezometer site as well as their design and construction should have a clear bearing and perception of the geology, lithology and aquifer type. A geological map, lithological cross section, structural map, geomorphological map and geophysical survey reports are the important tools that will help in understanding the regional geological control on the groundwater system which is an important consideration for the piezometer design. This brings to the fore the need to consider different lithologies separately for hydrological studies necessary for identification of representative piezometer sites. This has lead to introduction of the concept of lithologyspecific-piezometers, commonly referred to as Lithospecific Piezometers.

1.4

Groundwater monitoring in India- an historical perspective

The Central Groundwater Board in 1968 started groundwater monitoring as part of its activities with one observation well for each toposheet over the entire country. In all 68 observation stations were established. Gradually with the need more number of stations with lithological representation were also added. Mostly existing open wells owned by farmers or utilized for drinking water were included in such monitoring systems. With the operation of groundwater exploration and resource evaluation projects under UNDP and other added projects many observation network stations were established tapping shallow as well as deeper aquifers and amalgamated in the regular groundwater monitoring system. These were mostly on the basis of availability of wells as a sort of compromise and not on the basis of requirements at the specific locations. The water levels were measured initially twice, pre-monsoon and post monsoon period, which subsequently was converted to five times in a year falling in the months of January, March, May, August and November months. From 1986 onwards 4 times in a year is measured in the months of January, May, August and November. The data collected is utilised in specific reports for reporting on fluctuations and assessing water resources for the administrative divisions. By 1972 the State Groundwater departments also came into establishment and gradually groundwater monitoring was taken up. The density of network observation wells in alluvium was about one well per 100 sq. km on an arbitrary basis, while in hard rock it was more than

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that mostly in localized areas with groundwater development. Also in exploratory areas with possible scope for groundwater development, monitoring was enhanced with addition of piezometers constructed for well field studies both in soft rock as well as hard rock areas under various national /international added projects in the country. At best these monitoring network stations served as indicators on baseline water level and water quality data. The information emanating from such networks has generally permitted conceptualisation of the groundwater system and its resource evaluation. These were in essence need-based piezometers rather than scientifically required for country monitoring system. The data generated was mostly utilised for use in the internal report preparation by the departments and evaluation of groundwater resources for administrative units for the country as a whole. The depth to water level maps were prepared and interpreted for response of aquifers to various natural inputs from rainfall and canal/irrigation returns in terms of maps both for pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season. Also maps on water quality covering electrical conductivity and iso-chloride and total dissolved salts were prepared and interpreted. The data generated were with certain inaccuracies as the monitoring wells were one those used for drinking as well as irrigation, as a result exact water levels were not possible. Subsequently, with the advent of tube wells and bore wells in hard rock areas which were fitted with electrically operated pumps, the water levels started declining and many of the dug wells went dry during summer period. As a result, lowest water level data could not be recorded. Some of the old wells went into disuse or were dumped with garbage and as such data collection was not possible, leading to data gaps. Topics include in this document are: network review, site investigations, piezometer construction, development, discharge measurement, performing aquifer tests, and water quality sampling.

1.5

Updating the existing network- based on current objectives

The first task before construction of new piezometers is to review the existing monitoring network at the micro level i.e; drainage basin, geological basin and in limited circumstances, considering only the administrative boundary as a unit. The review has to integrate the monitoring wells of all the agencies involved with water level and water quality monitoring. The review has to be necessarily be aquifer wise. The review should be based on all available data. The evaluation should lead to identification of the data gaps (spatial and vertical). The review has to be based on the data available from the networks related to; aquifer wise density, depth of the aquifers and water level plus water quality. The review should also evaluate the areas where the data generated from the existing network has been used i.e.; groundwater resource assessment, understanding the groundwater flow dynamics, delineation of recharge/discharge areas, regional groundwater quality variations over space/time

Based on the review the adequacy of the network has to be evaluated; areas showing gaps in understanding have to be identified; areas showing more than adequate numbers of observation wells have also to be identified and duplicate observation wells, if any, have also
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to be considered for elimination or reducing the monitoring frequency. In case an existing network (with respect to a specific aquifer) is found to be inadequate, additional piezometers, tapping that specific aquifer, need to be provided. The first step towards planning to the enhancement shall comprise of macro-level planning, i.e., estimating the required number of additional piezometers and their location at a macrolevel (say on a map of scale 50,000). The subsequent step shall involve pinpointing the sites for the additional piezometers on the ground, i.e., micro-level allocation.

1.6

Macro-level planning

Depending upon the intended use of the data from the network, the macro-level planning of the network enhancement can be accomplished using the statistical tools in the dedicated software 1.6.1 Coefficient of variation method

The method requires the user to specify the maximum permissible error in the estimate of the mean water level. Subsequently, based upon an analysis of the data from the existing network, the required number of the piezometers is computed, from which the additional number of the piezometers are derived. The following procedure is adopted for locating the additional piezometers within the specified area. Employing the concurrent data from the existing network, draw contours of water level at a uniform interval. Divide the entire area into zones, each zone representing an area falling between two successive contours. Divide the required number of piezometers equally among all the zones. This will ensure a greater density of the piezometers in the regions of steeply sloping piezometric head and vice versa. Count the number of existing piezometers in each zone and hence estimate zone-wise, the required number of additional piezometers. Locate the additional piezometers in each zone in such a way that the piezometers (existing and additional) are uniformly distributed within the zone. Kriging

1.6.2

Kriging is a powerful tool for evaluating an existing network. It also assists in the macro-level location of additional piezometers, in case the existing network is found to be inadequate. The steps involved are as follows: Specify the level of permissible interpolation error. Conduct kriging on the concurrent piezometric data from the existing network. This shall yield contours of piezometric head and of the interpolation error. Study the error contours and hence identify the regions where the error is in excess of the specified permissible level. Additional piezometers are to be allocated to these regions.

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Locate additional piezometers in the identified regions tentatively, generally ensuring that the increase in the network density is consistent with the error excess. Conduct kriging on the tentatively enhanced network and plot contours of the error. It may be noted that kriging permits generation of such contours, even though the data from the newly introduced piezometers do not yet exist. Study the modified error contours and check whether the error everywhere falls below the specified limit and the enhancement has not been over-done. An over enhanced network shall display interpolation errors far less than the prescribed limit. Modify the network further, if necessary by repeating the relevant steps

1.7

Micro-level planning

After having decided the location of the piezometer sites on the map, it is essential to pinpoint the site exactly on the ground. Certain micro-level deviations may be necessary to accommodate various hydrogeological and logistical considerations. 1.7.1 Hydrogeological considerations

These considerations originate from the primary expectation out of a piezometer, i.e. it should record harmonized natural behaviour of groundwater rather than local micro-trends. This can be ensured by keeping in mind the following: The site should show no impact of any external inputs such as from canal, tank, perennial river and irrigation return flows, except in special cases where interest is the study of the influence of these parameters on groundwater system. The site should not fall within the radius of influence of a well, which is under pumping; but it should be capable of recording the effects of the pumping as a regional phenomenon. The piezometric head/water quality at the site should not be influenced by local recharge/pollutant sources. Logistical considerations

1.7.2

There could be many general as well as area-specific logistical considerations such as: No other agency is considering constructing a piezometer tapping the same aquifer, in the vicinity. The site is approachable by the rig and support vehicles. Adequate space is available at the site for setting up drilling equipment, digging mud pit and draining the discharge, while the site should be clear of trees, overhead electric cables, under ground cables/ pipelines/ drainage lines etc. The ownership of the site is clear and agreements have been made for drilling the piezometer and for continued monitoring. The site should be safe from vandalism, as a costly DWLR will be installed. The site should be neither too close nor too far off from the road.

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1.8

Desk studies

Based on the network review and identification of the area where additional informations are required piezometer site selection has to be initiated. Desk studies need to be carried out in the office through review of topographical maps, geological maps, geophysical surveys data, geological cross sections, drilling data, water table/piezometer maps, water quality maps etc. Data emerging from the desk studies should be systematically organised, location wise, for carrying to the field for field review and investigations. 1.8.1 Remote sensing interpretation map

The Hydrology Project has been involved in the creation of GIS data sets in which the thematic maps are generated using satellite data. The thematic maps, should be used during the desk review for the locating the appropriate sites for the piezometers. The Remote sensing maps have to be the basis for delineating the faults, lineaments, study the geology, hydrogeology, land use etc. Using the GIS capabilities different themes should be overlaid to zero on the most appropriate location. Based on the GIS studies and remote sensing interpretations inference on the subsurface soil moisture, recharge potentialities need to be estimated. The Remote sensing interpretations should be used to interpret features like karst topography, dykes, reefs, unconfirmities, buried channels, salt encrustations, tide levels, alluvial fans and abandoned channels etc. In the hard rock terrain's the remote sensing studies should help in understanding the spatial distribution of rock out-crops, the catchment characteristics, the presence of structures and drainage systems influencing the groundwater movement, the nature of the land form and the slope based on which interpret is the likely thickness of regolith/overburden, the general groundwater potentiality and the most preferbale location for constructing the piezometer. For this purpose, the GIS datasets related to geology, its structures, geomorphology, drainage and soil should be integrated and interpreted. The satellite imageries provide a good idea of drainage network for computing drainage density. Drainage density exhibits a very wide range of values in nature depending upon the relief, climate, and resistance to erosion and permeability of rock material. In general, low drainage density (1.9-2.5 km-1) is characteristic of region of highly resistant or highly permeable surface and low relief. High drainage density (12.5 19.0 km-1) is found in regions of weak or impermeable subsurface materials, sparse vegetation and mountainous relief. In areas of low relief, drainage density may be more indicative of permeability of surface material and therefore, could be used as a criterion for the selection of suitable sites for piezometers. The drainage analysis is utilized to differentiate the terrains into highly dissected plateau (HDP), moderately dissected plateau (MDP) and poorly dissected plateau (PDP) (see figure 1.1).

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Figure 1.1:

Map showing lineaments in the hardrock area in Salem area, of Tamil Nadu

Study of lineament is the most important aspect of satellite image interpretations for groundwater studies in the hard rock terrains. It has been established that the groundwater structures constructed close to fractures of tensional origin, or close to their intersections, have proved extremely successful. Siting of piezometers near such favourable structures should be considered and such areas clearly marked on the toposheet of 50,000 scale and inspected in the field. On the satellite imagery, the lineaments can be easily identified by digital image processing as well as visual interpretation, using tone, colour, texture, pattern, and association. The automatic techniques of digital edge (or line) detection can be applied for lineament detection (Singhal and Gupta, 1999). However, fracture traces having low dips, which have more potential for groundwater may not be very easily deciphered. Staff with extensive field experience would be able to make such interpretations easily.

1.9

Field investigations

The Field investigations consists of a number of elements including, geological, hydrogeological, geomorphological and hydrological investigations 1.9.1 Geological investigations

Geological map of the area on 1: 50,000 or 1:250,000 scale prepared by national agencies like Geological Survey of India or State Mines and Geology departments which has been converted to digital format as part of the GIS data set preparation should be printed and carried to the field these maps help to visualize the occurrence of rock formations, their disposition, sequences and structures, faults, dykes etc. Surfacial distribution of rocks and
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their regional continuity should also be visualized. The different lithological and structural features like joints, lineaments, foliation, discontinuities, degree of susceptibility of rocks to weathering, from Dug well sections need to be studied. Field investigations should also include information about the orientation and density of fractures, although their subsurface distribution may be different which can be deciphered from subsurface investigation. A kinematic analysis of fracture pattern and lineaments is often useful in delineation of their tectonic origin. Whereas, plotting of the dip and strike of joints on Schmidt's Stereo net and as rose diagrams can bring out synoptic, structurally weak zones. Data about the thickness and composition of the weathered zone (regolith) is particularly important in crystalline rocks. The minerological composition of weathered products, particularly presence of interstial clay matrix or its absence is important. The texture of quartz grains with respect to their roundness, sphericity, angularity and abundance of will indicate in-situ deposition or transported deposition. The abundance of orthoclase, anorthosite minerals give clue to the extent of weathering in the rock as these are most dissoluble minerals. Similarly, mica is also unstable. The recharge, discharge zones with geomorphic locations and drainage system help greatly in identifying the suitable location. In volcanic rocks presence of vesicular basalts, its thickness and geomorphic locations are important from the view point of groundwater occurrence. The vesicular and amygdloidal basalt is most susceptible to weathering. The vesicles with tubular structures form good water conduits in basalt. Added to this, fractures and lineaments enhance the potential of the rock unit. The hard basalt with fractures underlying the vesicular basalt also forms potential water bearing zones in basalt. Attention should also be paid to the palaeodrainage, characters of individual flow units including their dips and inter-flow formations. The surface drainage plays an important role in basaltic rocks. The recharge-discharge zones should also be identified. The above mentioned details will help greatly in identifying suitable location of a piezometer in basalts. In carbonate rocks, mapping of various solutions (karst) features are of special importance. In carbonate rock areas, the geological map with occurrence of karstified and dolomitic type of rock disposition, better groundwater potential can be visualized better. Presence of sinkholes and valley depressions form main recharge zones. Presence of springs gives clues of solution channels. However, flaggy and bedded disposition of lime stone with monotonous topography display low potential zones. In unconsolidated and semi-consolidated formations nature of deposits are important. Valley fill deposits tend to be of assorted nature, river/fresh water deposits are likely to be with frequent variations in textures of grains, even though there may be continuity in sequence of bed, but will be with variations in lateral porosity. Sudden truncation or swelling of aquifers are common. This needs to be properly visualized through lithological cross sections, prepared on the basis of existing drilling data. Based on exploratory drilling and well log data, following subsurface maps and sections are prepared viz. fence diagrams, isopach maps, structural contour following maps etc. This is done to able to project the subsurface distribution and configuration of aquifers, aquitards and aquicludes. Water table/piezometric contour map if available should also be studied for identifying gaps and location of suitable site for piezometer.

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1.9.2

Hydrological Investigations:

Drainage pattern is the spatial arrangement of streams and is, in general, very characteristic of rock structure and lithology. These drainage patterns reflect the hydrogeological characteristics of the area and therefore can be useful in the location of piezometer sites. Figure 1.2 gives common drainage patterns in consolidated and unconsolidated formations.

Figure 1.2: Common drainage patterns (A.D. Howard)

The drainage maps have been created as part of the GIS data set perpetration. The drainages have been digitised from the toposheet of 50,000 scale and updated using the thematic maps. The drainage maps have also been used in delineating the different drainage order, from the major basins, down to watershed units. During the field investigations the position of the piezometer location has to be ascertained with respect to recharge area/run off zone/discharge area. 1.9.3 Geomorphological investigations

Geomorphological map of the area on 1: 50,000 or 1:250,000, scale available as part of the GIS data sets, should be printed and taken to the field for visualizing the various landforms. Genetically, the landforms are divided into two groups: erosional, and depositional landforms. Erosional landforms are typically associated with the resistant hard rock terrains. They comprise: (a) residual hills, (b) inselbergs, (c) pediments, (d) buried pediments with weathered basements, and (e) valley fills. Depositional landforms, developed by depositional processes of various natural agencies, (e.g. river and wind) are typically made up of unconsolidated sediments and may occur in the regional setting of hard rock terrains. Favourable landforms that contribute significantly to groundwater recharge should be

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identified in the field. The possibility of locating the piezometer in such areas should be examined. 1.9.4 Geophysical Surveys:

Geophysical surveys need to be carried out as a standard procedure for getting a clear understanding of the following depth to bed rock, thickness of weathered zone, extent of saturated zone, approximate quality of water in the saturated zone, thickness of different layers in layered formations and type of layered formations. Influence of structures like fault, unconfirmities and dykes can also will be evaluated. Occurrence of saline and fresh water layers with probable depth of occurrence also will be indicated. Electrical resistivity survey is the most commonly used method to identify the vertical lithological layering distribution in an area. New approaches using the VLF method, ElectroMagnetic methods, Gravity Methods have to be used wherever possible. The main objectives of geophysical surveys are to provide information on:

Depth, thickness and extent of aquifers in stratified formations. Depth, thickness and extent of weathered and fractured zones. Depth to water table. Selecting the site of a piezometer, out of the several target areas. Gross Salinity distribution and contamination. Hydrogeological investigations

1.9.5

Hydrogeological investigations should include detailed well inventory of 2-4 sq.kms around the proposed area. All the groundwater abstraction structures need to be inventoried and the information to be collected should include the depth of the well, aquifer position, rate of pumping, pumping duration, drawdown, rate of recuperation, area irrigated, lithology encountered while construction, static water level, water quality details etc. Collect water sample and carry out field analysis for pH and EC. Collect two sets of representative sample for detailed laboratory analysis. The existing monitoring wells/piezometer around the proposed site needs to be visited and the variations if any with the proposed site understood. Examine the water level hydrograph. Examine the water table elevation contour maps and depth to water table maps generated using two sets of data (pre-post monsoon). Prepare lithological cross section/ fence diagram using the data from the inventoried wells, delineate the prominent aquifers in the area with their thickness and areal extent. Carry out pumping tests/ geophysical downhole logging where adequate information cannot be gathered during well inventory.

1.10

Finalisation of piezometer location

Based on all the studies and keeping in mind the logistical and safety considerations the potential site has to be identified. Where more than one site is considered then a joint team of hydrogeologists should visit the area and identify the most favourable location. The site selected should be verified for its true representation of the area specific lithology and

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regime system. The interference from pumping wells, surface water sources, polluting sources, seepage from return flows should be avoided at all costs.

1.11

Reporting of field investigations

Based on the field investigations a feasibility report has to be prepared. The following information must be documented as a file giving details of the procedures followed in deciding the piezometer site. The report should include: A sketch showing the identified site and important landmarks in the vicinity. The sketch should incorporate the north direction and the distance of the site from the landmarks. Locate the site on the toposheet of 1:50,000 scale. Record its longitude, latitude and the reduced level as read from the toposheet. Use the hand held GPS wherever available for getting the geographical co-ordinate values. A narrative of the geographic setting of the piezometer site with administrative details. Details pertaining to sites adjacent to or in the vicinity of school, sub station, police station, floodplains, wetlands should given. A narrative describing the regional lithologic, stratigraphic, structural, and hydrologic settings of the area. A narrative must be provided which describes field procedures used to characterize geologic and hydrologic conditions of the site. Standardized field procedures may be referenced. Details of the site-specific geology and hydrology based on data collected should be explained. The narrative must describe the proposed piezometer design. Interpretations of results must be presented in a clear and concise manner. All published information sources used in the compilation of the hydrogeologic investigation must be listed. Appendices of the report must include: Compiled logs of all borwells and piezometers. The raw data for any and all tests (e.g., geophysical survey, bore hole logging, water quality analysis, pumping tests). Water level hydrographs of monitoring wells in the neighbourhood Water table elevation contour maps Hydrometerological data of the area All additional information that may facilitate the clearance of the proposed site.

The exact location should be marked on the ground with paint. Lithologic cross-sections must be constructed or inferred. At least one cross-section must be constructed parallel to groundwater flow. The subsurface conditions of the site must be illustrated in these crosssections. Where more than one interpretation may be reasonably made, conservative assumptions must be used. A clear picture has to be given of the thickness, depth and lateral extent of the aquifers in the area with a clear definition of the aquifer to be monitored and the geo-hydrologic conditions. The type of monitoring required and the need if any for a DWLR and sampling pump should be brought out. The report should clearly bring out the need for the Piezometer at the proposed site with a justification for the expenditure to be made in establishing and running the network. The utility of the information emerging from the piezometer should be highlighted. An estimate should also be prepared which should include site preparation, drilling, casing/ screen installation, gravel pack, sealing, development, pump test, platform and well head construction.

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1.12

Approval for piezometer construction

The site selection report from the field offices should be forwarded to the head quarters for approval and clearance. It is expected that the justification for the construction of the piezometer would be reviewed by a committee of senior officers at the head quarters, who will look at the requirement from a national/state perspective as well as from a local perspective. The location of the piezometer should be superposed on the existing network and its utility assessed. The aquifer to be monitored has to be verified on the cross section. The added value from the new piezometer should be verified from a technical, management and financial perspective. On complete satisfaction of the utility of the piezometer the financial estimate has to be examined. While standard rates should be the norm, deviations should also be considered on case by case basis. The sanctions for depth of drilling, casing depth, screen position should be based on the field report, which should come up for ratification after completion of drilling. In the case where drilling contractors are to be hired for drilling the piezometers the procedure for hiring drilling contractors should follow the established norms. The tender document for inviting the drilling contractors should clearly mention that a qualified Hydrogeologist should be part of the drilling team and his/her CV should be part of the enclosures. The utility of hiring more than one contractor when the piezometer locations are far part should be examined seriously. Drilling Contractors when used the terms of the contract should clearly specify the obligations of the contractor as well as the department. Drilling being a seasonal task the procedures for selection of contractors should not be cumbersome. Acceptance of State Govt Approved Rates can reduce the process of selection. Since rain, water and mud are major hindrances, it is normally recommended that the most difficult holes be drilled first if they are accessible, saving the most convenient holes for last or to drill when the others can't be reached.

1.13

Discussion and interaction with local community

On obtaining the clearance for construction of the piezometer from head quarters, a meeting shall be convened in the village where the piezometer site is proposed. The invitees should include the village elected representatives, village officials, elders, farmers, women, schoolteachers and youth. The services of NGO groups active in the area should be used for conducting the meeting. The meeting should address the local groundwater issues and the need for groundwater monitoring. The proposed plan for establishment of the piezometer and the most favourable site location identified need to be discussed. Any suggestions from the community should be considered and animated in detail. The agency should also promise the community to make available the interpretations of the data collected. As a follow up to the discussions, an agreement should be obtained from the community to make available the required co-operation for safeguarding the piezometer as well as upkeep of the area.

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2
2.1

Drilling preparation
Planning

Successful piezometer construction requires careful advance planning to be conducted in the most expedient manner. Proper drill site selection and preparation are essential to avoid drilling at wrong site, minimise wastage of drill time and other associated costs. Land clearance is an essential item that cannot be taken lightly or ignored. Disputed lands can result in a tremendous litigation and liability to the department. The following are some detailed items to consider prior to commencing drilling of piezometer. 2.1.1 Site Preparation

Drilling sites need to be prepared prior to arrival of the drilling rig. The site has to be levelled in order to drill a vertical hole. Inclined bores considerably reduce the diameter and depth calculations become enormous. Prior to extensive site work, the driller must visit the site and clearly place his requirements. Overhead area must be clear of obstructions. Sites with trees and overhead power line should be avoided. If it is necessary to work closer to power lines, the drill crew should inform the electrical authorities either to shut down the power supply or to make the working environment safe. Underground laid infrastructure such as water lines, sewer lines, electrical/telephone cables, if any, should be checked before commencing work. Roots are a major problem, they force their way into the piezometers,. In such areas proper preventive care should be taken by increasing the casing depth or identifying the root path and treating them. It has to be ensured that the drilling rig has access to the site upon arrival. Problems have arisen in the past from hostile villagers and uncooperative landowners, which can be avoided if the village meetings are conducted and local communities are taken into confidence. Bridges/culverts to be crossed must be inspected to check whether they have the required width/ soil strength and have the capacity to take the weight of the rig, along with the spares. 2.1.2 Supervision of drilling

It is important to monitor the drilling and ensure that all procedures adopted should help in constructing a quality piezometer. The piezometer on completion should be providing the true picture of the water level and water quality without any bias. The drilling of the piezometer, geophysical down hole logging, development and pumping test need to be carried out under the supervision of an on site hydrogeologists. Where the work is subcontracted to a drilling contractor, then the drilling contractor should be responsible for employing the site hydrogeologist who will be available at all times till the piezometer construction is complete. The site hydrogeologist shall be responsible to record the drilling details, examine and interpret the drill cuttings, describe and record the physical and lithological characteristics of the geological material, supervise the well design, well development, measure the discharge and collect the water samples.

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2.1.3

Essential tools for field hydrogeologist

Field tools assist the field hydrogeologist in giving an accurate description of the drill cuttings. It is recommended the field hydrogeologist have these basic items (see Figure 2.1) which include: Pocket knife to cut the samples for testing hardness and exposing fresh surfaces Millimeter scale to determine the size of the particles Dilute hydrochloric acid to aid in recognizing calcium carbonate materials such aslimestone, chalk, or dolomite Magnifying glass (a 10x) to make a better identification of materials by enabling closer inspection

Figure 2.1: Field tools for drill cuttings examination

2.1.4

Field notes

Field logs and notes on drilling should be prepared at the drill site itself. The field description of drill cuttings should be simple and orderly so that the use of the terminology is uniform. A good field description of the drill cuttings is very important for the design and preparation of vertical sections. The site hydrogeologist and the drill crew are the only people who witness the drilling and the material obtained. Therefore a reasonable amount of accurate information must be logged. At a minimum, the field hydrogeologist must, in the field, note on a descriptive log the following: The field hydrogeologist must make sure to note the following on descriptive log: Start and stop times for drilling Names of field personnel Drill cuttings details-Colour, Texture , shape, mineral assemblage, rock type Diameter of drill bits Depth at which water encountered and discharge variations with depth Drilling rate
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Casing depth Drill completion depth Screen position Gravel pack position Well completion depth Water bearing zones Development time Discharge after development Water quality details pH, EC Depth to water upon completion

A Standard data collection format should be adopted. All field data should be computerised systematically as soon as the drilling is complete and the field data brought to the District/Regional Data Centre. 2.1.5

Description of drill cuttings

The descriptions of the drill cuttings should be as simple as possible (see table 2.1). Every small variation does not necessarily warrant description on the log. The description should include: Principal constituent: First determine the major constituent in the sample. If a significant portion (greater than five percent) of a secondary material is present then describe and identify it. Colour: Describe the primary color and restrict description to one colour. If one main colour does not exist in a sample, make a simple description of the multicolouration. Texture: Mention the texture of the primary material under three to four main cateogories such as Coarse-grained, medium grained, Fine-grained, Highly organic etc. Shape: Cateogorise the most dominant shape of the drill cuttings under rounded, sub rounded or angular. Hardness: should be mentioned with respect to Mohs 'Hardness Scale 5.5 10: Rocks that will scratch the knife: Sandstone, Chert, Schist, Granite, Gneiss, some Limestone 3 - 5.5: Rocks that can be scratched with the knife blade: Siltstone, Shale, most Limestone 1 3: Rocks that can be scratched with fingernail: Gypsum, Calcite, Evaporites, Chalk, some Shale Cementation: Identify the degree of cementation if any.

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Descriptive adjectives: Use any descriptive adjectives that might further aid in the understanding. Log form: To promote consistency, use the standard log form which is consistent with the data entry system.
Depth to (m) 0.2 6.5 17.1 17.5 29.5 51 52 83 83.9 Lithoological description Laterite Laterite verigated/ wuggy Lateritic clay Basalt weathered Basalt weathered/ fractured Basalt hard Clay Basalt hard Basalt weathered/ fractured Clay Sand Colour red red red black black black black black black Texture hard medium fine medium coarse fine fine fine coarse Shape subangular-subrounded subangular to angular rounded subangular-subrounded subangular to angular subangular-subrounded rounded subangular-subrounded subangular to angular Water touched discharge 0.2cum/hr rounded subangularsubrounded Remarks

86 87

Ash White

fine fine

Table 2.1:

Sample description of a drill cuttings during the construction of piezometer

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Construction of piezometer

The purpose of constructing a lithospecific piezometer is to obtain complete lithological data and not just to drill a monitoring well. In order to obtain data of maximum accuracy, the field hydrogeologist must work closely with the driller and consult with him whenever changes are noticed in penetration rate, slow returns, change in colour of samples, reduction in discharge etc. The hydrogeologist must recognize the reasons for such changes. The difficulties in drilling, such as caving, boulders, caverns, etc. Whenever encountered, must be clearly recorded. Construction of lithospecific piezometers must ensure that the piezometers meet the design criteria for water level and water quality monitoring. Factors to be considered for piezometer construction shall include the following aquifer to be monitored, nature of materials that make up and overlie the aquifer (for example, unconsolidated or consolidated materials; if consolidated materials whether fractured or have cavities caused by dissolution); the depth to water, the type of drilling equipment required; access to the site; well casing and screen materials, length, and diameter, and cost. In unconsolidated deposits, the piezometer design, including the well screen, casing, annular space, back fill, gravel and surface seals. Specific aspects of design however, can vary depending on specific requirements to meet local variations, site conditions encountered, and the drilling method used.

3.1

Selecting the appropriate drilling technique

Drilling technique for construction of piezometer will depend upon the type and nature of formations likely to be encountered below at the selected site. The technique to be adopted for soft and unconsolidated sediments shall be rotary, with bentonite mud or any other biodegradable mud as the drilling fluid. In the hard rocks, DTH drilling rigs are best suited. The DTH drilling technique uses air to bring the cuttings to the surface, as well as cleanses the hole. Availability of high-pressure compressors makes drilling very fast. In such situations the fines get deposited in the fractures. The drilling in such cases should be followed up systematic development. In the soft rocks, with poor accessibility and in river alluvium, hand rotary drilling can be adopted as in parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. In hard rocks, with heavy overburden having boulders the drilling has to be done using a combination of rotory and DTH rigs. The drilling should ensure that it is capable of recording faithfully the harmonized areal behaviour of groundwater of the targeted aquifer in the area, instead of a local micro trend. The piezometer should not be effected by wrong drilling techniques which can bring in external contaminants such as, poor quality water used in the mud pit, thick bentonite mud, drilling oil etc.

3.2

Deciding the depth of piezometers

The depth and diameter of piezometers are two important factors, which not only decide their best suited design, but may also affect the cost/economics of the piezometer installation. In the unconsolidated formations, the aquifer horizon for construction of piezometer has to be based on good understanding of the different vertically distributed aquifers, and the
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specific aquifer of interest. In case all the aquifers need to be monitored, piezometer nests have to be constructed. Systematic collection of drills cuttings and recording of drill time log, followed by electrical logging of the borehole, is very important in delineating the exact thickness of the aquifer. In the event of construction of nests, the deepest aquifer should be drilled first. The identified zones should be correlated with the regional aquifer system, distributed in the sub-basin or basin, and accordingly the piezometer depth is then decided. In crystalline rocks, the depth of the piezometer should be decided on the basis of occurrence of aquifer(s) to be monitored in a given hydrogeological environment. Three rypical situations are discussed Case i: Weathered zone is made up of quartz and the fractured rock immediately underlying it. The weathered zone acts as a good storage zone with its inter-granular connection, while the underlying fractured zone forms the main flow/conduit zone. In such a case the overlying permeable zone recharges the fractured zone and hence the two zones can be considered as part of the same aquifer. The piezometer should be then drilled down to the fractured zone. Case ii: Fractured zone is overlain by clayey weathered zone. The weathered and fractured zone exhibit different permeabilities. In such situations both the weathered and fractured zone are to be considered as independent zones. The monitoring should be done independently for the weathered as well as the fractured zone. The shallow weathered zone can be monitored using an existing open dug well while the fractured zone is monitored by constructing a piezometer. Case iii: Weathered zone is clayey and impermeable, the recharge to deeper fracture zone may be from a distant recharge area. In such case the piezometer has to be installed against the fractured zone only. The extent and thickness of the fractures do not follow a systematic fashion, hence the need for greater care in identifying the fractured zone by thoroughly monitoring the drilling. In case of basaltic rocks, occurrence of multiple aquifers is common. Generally, the upper weathered zone in such rocks is totally clayey and impervious and the first aquifer in such formations may occur at different depth as vesicular zones. Each vesicular flow should be tapped by an independent piezometer. In areas where more than one vesicular flow has to be monitored, piezometer nests or a group of piezometers within a limited area (village, watershed) need to be installed, tapping different aquifers. Care has to be taken in properly sealing the upper aquifers while tapping the deeper zones. Typically, contractors who drill drinking water wells are not the best suited for drilling such piezometers. Departmental drilling rigs should be mobilised for taking up such drilling. In the case of hard sedimentary rocks, good understanding of the stratigraphy is critical in understanding the different potential aquifers. Sandstone, shale and limestone occur in sequences. The sandstone in many cases have copious supplies. The limestone rocks possess both primary and secondary porosity in the form of fractures, solution cavities and cavernous zones. Shale have limited discharge. Good understanding of the startigarphy, combined with judiciously used geophysical surveys and profiling, the depth of the aquifer to be monitored can be inferred. Confined aquifers when met with produce artesian free flowing wells, should be, anticipated at the design stage itself. Methods to monitor the pressure changes should be part of the design.

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The depth has to be accurately measured after the piezometer construction is complete by using a weighted tape. The measurement should also be compared with the total number of drill rods used during the piezometer construction.

3.3

Diameter of piezometer

A piezometer is a non-pumping well and ideally needs to be as small in diameter as possible. The diameter should be such that it shall facilitate measurement of water table using a variety of measuring devices and collection of water sample. The diameter will also be dictated by the diameter of the measuring device, such as the probe of the Digital Water Level Recorder, diameter of the water quality sampling pump. Piezometers having a diameters of 100 mm are the most suitable. Shallow piezometers having diameter of 50 mm are also uncommon. The utility of the piezometers, to carry out pumping tests, geophysical down hole logging and hydrofracturing should also influence the diameter of the piezometer. In the case of deep tube wells (>100 mtrs) in the alluvial areas, the cost will be a major consideration in deciding the diameter of the piezometer. In such situations telescopic design of 100-150mm down to 30 mtrs followed by 50mm dia till the bottom should also be seriously considered. Inclined piezometers can reduce the diameter considerably and cause major problems during lowering of DWLR probe or the sampling pump etc. The diameter of the hole is often critical and is recorded based on the diameter of the drilling bit. The hole diameter is best measured using a calliper log. The piezometer is intended to be vertical, however it does not always stay vertical but drifts from verticality. To understand the drift use of a mirror should be made to reflect sunlight down the hole to enable a visual check on the straightness of a hole. Visibility of half hole is an indication of loss of verticality. The exact point of deviation can be checked by measuring the depth with a tape, while reflecting light down the hole.

3.4

Actions to be taken prior to drilling

Confirm landowner's/concerned government agencies, permission to enter the property for drilling. If the location is within a school/office/hospital discuss with the authorities to confirm the appropriate time when the drilling can be carried out without disturbing their functioning. Check the marking at the site and confirm with the geographical co-ordinates. Locate any subsurface power lines, waters lines, telephone cables, sewer etc. Locate water sources for drilling purposes and secure permission for their use. Prepare the drainage channel for draining of water.

3.5

Piezometer construction in unconsolidated formations

Unconsolidated formations in peninsular India are largely localised to coastal tracts composed of beds of sand and clays, and sedimentary beds of Gondwana and Tertiary formations made of alternate layers of sandstone and shales. Piezometer construction in these areas is through rotary drilling. In the unconsolidated formation, rotary drilling has to be adopted. Rotary drilling makes use of viscous bentonite mixed fluid as medium of drilling. The mud fluid acts as coolant to the rotating drilling bit as well as a medium for bringing out drill cuttings outside the borehole. Use of bentonite clay has been banned for water well

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drilling in many countries, as they are not bio-degradable. Organic materials like guar gum are replacing bentonite clay as popular bio-degradable drilling fluid. The main components (see figure 3.1) of a piezometer in an unconsolidated formation are: Borehole: This is the primary component of a piezometer and acts as a host to the other components. Well assembly: This is essentially the hardware of the piezometer and is accommodated in the borehole and also protrudes above the ground. Depending upon location of the aquifer in the vertical section, it may comprise one or more of the following parts:

Figure 3.1: Piezometer components in unconsolidated rocks

Blank casing pipe: A blank casing pipe is provided to serve one or more of the following objectives: To prevent caving-in/sloughing of the drilled formation. To prevent a hydraulic connection between the piezometer and the drilled formation other than the aquifer to be monitored. To collect the fines entering into the screen. As debris sump.

Screen: A screen provides a hydraulic connection between the piezometer and the aquifer to be monitored. Gravel pack and seal: Gravel is provided in the annular space between the borehole and the well assembly around the screen and beyond, extending preferably over the entire thickness of the aquifer to be monitored. The gravel pack serves the following purposes: inhibits the entry of the fines into the screen. enhances the hydraulic connection between the piezometer and the aquifer

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Cement seal:is provided just above and just below the gravel pack to preempt any hydraulic connection between the piezometer and the overlying/ underlying formations, through the gravel pack and screen perforations. Sanitary seal: A 50cm thick concrete seal is provided at the ground surface to prevent the entry of surface water into the piezometer. The seal should be in the form of a cone around the casing to drain the water away from the well. The seal is underlain by a clay fill/packing for a more effective isolation of the aquifer to be monitored.

3.6

Sampling procedures during drilling

Examination of drill cuttings is very critical part of piezometer design in the un-consolidated formations. Some formations are better aquifers than others. Grain size have to be interpreted during the examination of the lithology (see figure 3.2). Clean gravel have large pores and hold large quantities of water. Sand and gravel mixture are very good aquifers. When percentage of gravel to sand is very high the aquifer will permit copious discharges. Coarse sand are potential aquifers

Figure 3.2: Grain size classification

Fine sand are poor aquifers Clays hold lot of water but cannot flow. In some situations the clays when tapped can yield poor quality water.
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Sandy aquifers when overlain by thick impermeable clay and when penetrated by the piezometer can result in flowing wells. Standarised sampling procedures have to be adopted by all agencies: Collect the samples for every meter. Lay the samples in succession, as obtained, and mark the depth Dry the samples for accurate identification and classification. Describe the samples precisely before and after washing and record any additional information. Look out for fossils and identify them Compare all samples with previous samples. Place the samples in plastic wrap and label legibly for any future identification/test. Sample boxes with pigeon hole windows are best suited to transport and for preserving the samples.

3.7

Down hole inspection

In order to take a decision on the design the piezometer assembly, downhole geophysical logging needs to be carried out. Logging should be used for providing additiona information than gained from examination of drill cuttings. Th details to be collected shall include the formation penetrated, formation characteristics modified as a result of drilling, condition of the hole, the exact depth and thickness of the aquifers and water quality of the aquifers. The standard probes to be used shall be electric, SP, Gamma, calipper, temp and fluid conductivity (refer Annexure-II). The geo-physical logging, examination of drill cuttings and the objective of monitoring should form the basis for finalising the piezometer design.

3.8

Piezometer Completion

Piezometer completion should ensure that the hydraulic head measured in the piezometer is that of the aquifer of interest. Ensures that only the aquifer of interest contributes water to the piezometer and prevents the annular space from being a vertical conduit for water and contaminants. Such completion steps are critical to the long-term goals of groundwater monitoring. It has to be remembered that the investments made in the construction of piezometers are part of network monitoring programme that have to last for decades. Well completion in unconsolidated deposit rocks consists of installing the well casing and screen, filling and sealing the annular space between the well casing and piezometer wall. 3.8.1 Piezometer Design

Good design and careful well construction can only ensure good hydraulic flow characteristics in the aquifer. The screens should be lined up exactly with the permeable portion of the aquifer. The screens should provide the same hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer. The design should prevent entry of fines and sand particles into the piezometer. The piezometer should completely seal the aquifer which are not to be monitored. The well assembly should be able to withstand any corrosion or physical damages during pumping and logging.

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Unconfined aquifer For monitoring the piezometric head of an unconfined aquifer, the piezometer essentially comprises a cement seal at its bottom followed by the well assembly, resting on the seal, comprising of (starting from the bottom) a bail plug, screen and finally a watertight casing pipe extending above the ground surface Confined/leaky-confined aquifer: For monitoring the piezometric head of a confined/leakyconfined aquifer, the piezometer essentially comprises a borehole drilled through the overlying formation and the entire thickness of the aquifer, into the lower formation to accommodate a cement seal at its bottom. The well assembly, resting on the seal, comprises (starting from the bottom) a bail plug, screen and watertight casing pipe extending above the ground surface 3.8.2 Screen length

The well screen should be long enough to ensure that the piezometer records the vertically integrated piezometric head of the investigated aquifer. Thus, there must be a perfect hydraulic connection between the piezometer and the aquifer over the entire aquifer thickness. Ideally, this requires a fully penetrating piezometer, that is, the screen provided over the entire thickness of the aquifer. In case of thin aquifers, a fully penetrating piezometer may be provided. However, in case of thicker aquifers, a fully penetrating piezometer may not be economically feasible, and as such, a partially penetrating piezometer may have to be provided. But even a partially penetrating piezometer can provide an almost perfect hydraulic contact, if it is surrounded by a fully penetrating (that is, extending over the entire aquifer thickness) gravel pack of large enough thickness and hydraulic conductivity. The length of the screen, in such a case must be large enough to ensure a free inter-flow of water between the piezometer and the aquifer through the gravel pack. A screen length of two meters surrounded by a fully penetrating gravel pack may provide the necessary hydraulic contact and ensure the free inter-flow. The gravel pack should have a greater grain size than that of the aquifer material in the vicinity of the screen. The gravel pack grain size and gradation should be so designed to stabilize the aquifer material adjacent to the screen and permit only the finest grains to enter the screen during development, finally providing sediment-free water into piezometer (see figure 3.3). The gravel pack must not intersect multiple aquifers and should not crossconfining units, otherwise they would establish vertical, hydraulic connection along the annulus between the two aquifers, thus defeating the whole concept of piezometers monitoring single aquifers.

Figure 3.3: Idealised arrangement of gravel around the filter assembly for increasing porosity and hydraulic conductivity

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Specific details of completion require consideration of several hydrogeologic factors, including the depth to water, to the top of the aquifer of interest, and to the zone in the aquifer to be monitored; the nature of materials that make up the aquifer to be monitored and that overlie the aquifer expected water-level fluctuations expected direction of the vertical head gradient--down ward, whether the aquifer is confined or unconfined Design of gravel size and screen slot size

3.8.3

Particle sizes are to be determined in the field after sieve analysis of the aquifer material (see figure 3.4). Before sieve analysis the samples need to be dried and weighed. The standard sets of required sieves need to be placed one above the other in the order of increasing sieve diameter. The sample should be placed in the top sieve and shaken to separate the various grain sizes. The weight of the material retained in each sieve should be measured and expressed in percent of the initial weight.

Figure 3.4: Standard sets of sieves

The percentage weight should be plotted against the sieve size, on a logarithmic scale. The resultant curve that is obtained gives information about the uniformity of the aquifer material. Use of screen having a median size of the aquifer material is generally preferred. Since piezometers are not pumping wells the main concern should be top have a good hydraulic connection while at the same time preventing any entry of fine material into the piezometer. The slot size of the screen should be so designed that the aquifer material does not enter into the piezometer. Assuming that fractions greater than or equal to the d60 of the aquifer material are to be retained, a slot size of d60 may be provided. (d60/d10) gives the uniformity coefficient The higher the uniformity coefficient, the higher would the efficiency and vice versa. Thus, depending upon the uniformity coefficient and the extent of the expected well development, the usually recommended slot size is d40 to d60 of the aquifer material.

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The average size of the gravel should be 4 to 6 times the d50 size of the aquifer. The gravel should be as uniform as possible to avoid segregation during the placement. 3.8.4 Annular seals

Annular seal(s) are to be installed from above the gravel pack to near land surface, in order to seal the annular space between the casing and borehole wall. These seals should prohibit vertical flow of water between aquifers and prevent mixing and cross-contamination of aquifers. They also protect against infiltration of water and contaminants from the surface. 3.8.5 Surface Seal

The surface seal prevents surface runoff down the annulus of the well and, in situations in which a protective casing around the well is needed, holds the protective casing in place. The depth of installation of a surface seal can change from area to area. The surface seal should be a mixture of cement and gravel. 3.8.6 Protective Cover

A protective cover should be installed around the piezometer to prevent unauthorized access, house the measuring device as well as to protect the piezometer from damage. The protective cover should be installed at the same time as the surface seal and should extend to below the ground. Many designs of protective casing are already available. Essentially it should be a large diameter casing or a GI sheet with locking protective cover and weep hole, which permits condensation to drain out. 3.8.7 Development

The development of the piezometer, is primarily aimed at ensuring an efficient hydraulic connection between the aquifer and the piezometer. The development e is very crucial since the drilling mud, which inevitably sticks to the walls and invades into the aquifer inhibits the hydraulic connection between the aquifer and the piezometer. The invasion of the drilling mud and thickness of the cake depends upon the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer. The higher the hydraulic conductivity, the higher is the mud invasion and mud cake thickness. The development should completely remove the invaded/sticking mud and also the fines (see figure 3.5). Under-developed piezometers will fail to provide the true information of the aquifer being monitored and the water level data emerging from such piezometers can lead to wrong understanding of the system.

Figure 3.5: Effective development by pumping water under pressure through the screens

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The mud cake around the screen should be dissolved using sodium tripolyphosphate. Sufficient volume of solution of sodium tripolyphosphate should be made and circulated to displace mud around the screen area as well as a portion of the casing for disaggregating the clays. The polyphosphate solution should be allowed to act for at least 24 to 36 hours. The solution should be circulated through the well screen that effectively acts on the mud cake. This should be followed by washing. The development should be carried out through air compressor by alternatively surging and pumping with air. The air should be injected into the piezometer to lift the water. As the water level reaches the top of the casing, air supply should be shut off allowing the aerated water column to fall. Use of eductor lines is recommended when the static water level is deep. High velocity jetting is another development technique that consists of a jetting tool fitted to the bottom of the drill string. The jetting tool should be lowered and washed all along the screen length using fresh water. This should be followed by airlift. Careful jetting of the screened area is required. Jetting combined with airlift should be continued till pumped water is free from fine sand and bentonite, and the discharge from the piezometer stabilizes. Development can also be done through back washing. In back washing, there is a reversal of flow through screen opening, which agitates the sediments and leads to the removal of the finer fraction and rearrangement of the formation particles. As a part of back washing the water column should be alternatively lifted and allowed to fall back. The pump should initially be started at a reduced capacity and gradually increased to full capacity. Mechanical surging needs to be carried out at times using surge blocks attached to drill rods. The surge block forces water into and out of the screen similar to a piston in a cylinder. The surging process at times forces fine material back into the screens and hence the fines should be removed before taking up surging. 3.8.8 Pumping Test

A pumping test is conducted with constant discharge or variable discharge with constant head for estimating hydraulic parameters of the aquifer tapped in the piezometer. The test involves monitoring of the time variation of drawdown in one or more observation wells in response to a pumping at a known discharge, from the piezometer. The observation must be in the vicinity of the piezometer and must be tapping the same zone. If no such observation well is available, the drawdown can be monitored in the piezometer itself. Details of pumping test procedures is enclosed as Annexure-III

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Piezometers construction in consolidated formations

The drilling of piezometers in consolidated formations are different from the construction of unconsolidated and semi-consolidated formations. The groundwater occurrence in the consolidated rocks is in the weathered zone and fractured zone. The consolidated rocks have negligible primary porosity and it is only the secondary porosity, like fracturing and weathering, that provides the porosity and permeability necessary for the storage and flow of groundwater. Groundwater discharges are largely dependent upon the rock type. In granite, gneiss and khondalites highly productive groundwater zones are found in the vicinity of large lineaments, fractures and deep weathered areas. The lava flows are mostly horizontal and occasionally gently dipping and as such, groundwater occurrence is controlled by the water bearing properties of the vesicular zones. In carbonate rocks like limestone, marble and dolomite, solution cavities serve as large repositories of groundwater. In all these rocks the drilling is usually carried out by the Down The Hole (DTH) drilling technique or a combination of DTH and rotary drilling. For monitoring the piezometric head of an unconfined aquifer, the design should be a cased borehole drilled through the top collapsible/weathered rock zone, overlying the unconfined formation to be monitored and is hard enough to stand on its own without the casing. The casing should stand above the ground by 0.3 to 0.5 m. For monitoring the piezometric head of semi-confined aquifer, which has different permeability from the top weathered zone then the design should be a cased hole, drilled through the entire weathered rock zone, overlying the fractured/hard formation to be monitored. The depth of drilling should be such that it taps the most productive part of the fractured zone. Geophysical resistivity surveys should provide the value for the depth of drilling. DTH drilling is very fast and completion of one piezometer of 100-m depth takes only 12-18 hours.

4.1

DTH drilling characteristics

The drilling being very fast, supervision of DTH drilling becomes very important. The site hydrogeologist has to ensure that the compressor is in good condition to deliver the required air pressure and that the drill bit is of the required diameter. The site hydrogeologist has to ensure that the drilled hole is constantly cleaned of the drill cuttings. During the change of the drill rod as well as when a water bearing zone is met, the well should be adequately developed and the discharge measured using a V notch. The drill cuttings should be collected and studied continuously. At the end of drilling to the desired depth, the well should be cleaned for at least two hours. The cleaning should lead to de-clogging of all the fractures drilled through, and removal of all fines and cuttings.

4.2

Sampling procedures for consolidated rocks

The drill cuttings should be sampled for every one-meter frequency and whenever there is a change in lithology. The samples obtained in the DTH drilling are due to the action of the drill bit, which should be kept in mind while examining the sampled cuttings. Further, the depths of the formations as revealed by the cuttings may not always be accurate - though they can be generally relied upon. The drill cuttings have to be classified on the basis of megascopic

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observations using hand lens, both for texture and mineral constituents. The description should identify the rock, colour, grain size, shape, fossils, trace minerals, etc. The drill cuttings should be dried, packed in polythene bags, marked with well number and depth interval, date and time. The samples should be stored in a box with numbered compartments. A correct procedure for collection and storage of drill cuttings ensures good correlation between the drillers log, VES interpretation, downhole logging and samples collected. The recorded drilling data should include the following: A drill log (time taken for drilling each meter of the drilled depth) A description of drill action (such as nature of drilling noise and motion of the rig) Depths at which moisture is struck Depth at which water flows Depths at which discharge increases Colour, pH and EC of the water Removal of fines during drilling

4.2.1

Air drilling causes plugging of fractures and crevices with fines of drill cuttings. The clogged material until removed the hydraulic conductivity with theaquifer cannot be established. The water level measurements from such piezometers give erroneous data and the interpretations of such data gives a wrong picture about the groundwater reservoir. Cleaning and development of the drilled hole should be part of drilling activity and should be carried out simultaneously with the drilling operations. After change of every drill rod, cleaning and flushing of the hole should be carried out. On completion of drilling to the desired depth a final development should be done by running the compressor of the rig till the water is free of cuttings and the water is clear. The development should be carried out using educator pipes if the piezometer is very deep. Jetting should be carried out where the depth of drilling is large, the discharge is low and the drilling speed is very high.

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Measuring water levels

After completion of piezometer construction the piezometer should be surveyed to determine their X-Y coordinates and elevation. A surveyed reference mark should be placed on the North side of the piezometer at the ground elevation and on top of the well casing. This reference point should be used for all depth-to-water measurements. Its height should be determined within 1mm in relation to mean sea level.

Figure 5.1: Water level measurement using water level indicator

The depth to water in the piezometer shall be measured by more than one instrument, such as a steel tape coated with chalk/ electrical tape. Use of DWLR could be another option. Regardless of the equipment used, the depth to water should be measured to the nearest mm. The measuring devices should be chemically inert. They should be thoroughly cleaned after each measurement Water levels measured in piezometer should be used to construct a water table map using the data from the other existing piezometers in the neighbourhood. Before constructing the potentiometric map fresh water level measurements should be taken from the all the piezometers and observation wells in the neighbourhood that will be used in the construction of the potentiometric map. The potentiometric surface should be in consistent with the neighbouring observation wells. Any inconsistency could probably be also due to poor design, improper development, and establishment of vertical hydraulic gradients. Such piezometers should be inspected through geophysical down hole logging or additional development.

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Figure 5.2:

Example hydrograph

The development of the piezometer will result in lowering of water levels. On completion of the piezometer the water level need not have fully recovered. It will take considerable time for the water level to become stable. Continue water level measurements in the piezometer periodically after completion until it becomes stable and it no more shows any recovery. The final water level to be recorded in the well completion report is the stable water level.

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Groundwater sampling

The chemical composition of the groundwater should represent mineral composition of the composition of aquifer through which the water moves. In addition it is influenced by the recharging waters, which can be simple precipitation, or biological and chemical reactions occurring on the land surface and in the soil zone. The piezometer if not completely developed then is likely to reflect the chemical characteristics of the drilling mud and some times drilling oils used. If the piezometers tap more than one aquifer then the sample collected will be a mixed sample reflecting the characteristics of all the aquifers tapped. Several water quality parameters should be measured directly in the field during the process of piezometer construction. These include the electrical conductance, pH, and dissolved oxygen content of the groundwater. Electrical conductance measurements can be used to estimate the concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS) in a water sample. However, it should be noted that natural water contains a variety of both ionic and uncharged chemical species. Therefore, conductance determinations cannot be used to obtain highly accurate estimates of TDS. Two steps should be taken before collecting the sample. First, the depth to water and total depth of the piezometer should be measured from the reference point. After this step water in the piezometer should be evacuated to removed any stagnant water, which may not be representative of flowing groundwater in the aquifer. The standing water may contain foreign material that was inadvertently or deliberately introduced during drilling. Removal of all stagnanat water is performed by removing three times the volume of water standing in the casing. The evacuation procedure can be performed with a low speed pump or bailing device. The water level in an evacuated piezometer should be allowed to recover to the original level before sampling. The type of analysis for which a sample is being collected determines the type of bottle, preservative, holding time, and filtering requirements. Generally, samples should be placed in a cool place or in an ice box. Ideally, the samples, should be transported to the analytical laboratory within 24 hours of sample collection. Sample labels should include the identification number, name of the collector, date and time collected, place of collection, and parameters to be analyzed by the laboratory. Analytical results of the first sample should be made available to the site hydrogeologist within 24 hours to guide remediation activities in the piezometer development or design. To check Laboratory accuracy duplicate samples can be collected and sent to two laboratories, wherever possible.

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Figure 6.1: Small diameter sampling pump for purging and collecting uncontaminated water samples

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Documentation of piezometer construction

The piezometer drilling information should be documented in permanent files. Careful and complete documentation aids in interpretation of groundwater data and provides historical reference for future use of the piezometer. The groundwater data collected must be stored in the computer files of HIS. Documentation of the methods and materials used for well installation is required for each piezometer. Documentation of all the details should be completed at the time of piezometer completion. Documentation should include lithological log, driller's log, piezometer design and record of well development. A record should be kept of other logs collected during and after drilling, such as geophysical logging, pumping test, discharge test, packer test and water quality field analysis. Part of tye documentation should include location map and site sketches. The location map and site sketch need to be of sufficient detail and scale to enable field location of a well by field personnel unfamiliar with the site. Information on the location map. This should typically include roads, topography, water bodies, and cultural features. Compass directions or latitude/longitude and a horizontal scale need to be indicated on the location map. Distances from milestone markers or other permanent cultural features to the piezometer site should also be included. A sketch of the piezometer well head, should be available, identifying features of the outer cover, such as the height of the top of the casing in relation to land surface, the locations of measuring and sampling points, and general characteristics of the protective cover and fencing details. Written descriptions of the site and piezometer characteristics should compliment the sketch. Photographs of each piezometer should be documented in the well file as well as digital data along with the database. The purpose of documentary photographs of each piezometer site is to provide a visual record of land use near the piezometer, which can aid in the explanation and interpretation of the water level data, and can aid in locating the piezometer. When changes occur at or near the piezometer that might affect hydrological interpretation of data from the well, a new set of photographs is required to document those changes. For example, changes in the reference datum of the well or changes in land use near the well might warrant a new set of photographs. The set of photographs should be, one photograph of the piezometer and surrounding area as seen when approaching one close-up photograph and water-level measuring point and any additional photographs to document features that might influence the chemistry of water in and from the piezometer General information and the identification of important features shown on the photographs need to be recorded. The minimum general information should include the date of the photographs, and location and identification of the piezometer (site identification number or station name, latitude and longitude, written description). Features identified on the photographs will include at least the measuring point used for water-level measurements and the sampling point.

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Figure 7.1: Photograph of the piezometer with the protection cover showing the landuse in the neighbourhood

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Piezometer nest

In areas with multiple aquifers, piezometer nests or cluster piezometers have to be constructed for monitoring the piezometric head of independent aquifers. In the unconsolidated formations the different aquifers to be tapped by individual piezometer as part of the cluster has to be based on good understanding of the different vertically distributed aquifers. The design of the cluster piezometers should be such that there is no vertical connection between the different aquifers. Systematic collection of drill cuttings followed by electrical logging of the borehole is very important in delineating the exact thickness of independent aquifers. In the event of construction of nest the deepest aquifer should be drilled first. The independent piezometers should be accommodated within a small area of 15-20m diameter.

Figure 8.1: Design of piezometer nest tapping multiple aquifers

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Annexure I Hydrogeological Frame Work of Peninsular India

The Peninsular India is a vast region with diversified geological, climatological and topographic set up, giving rise to varying ground water situations. The rock formations range in age from Archean to Recent, and are widely varied in composition terrain's of the Eastern and Western Ghats to the flat alluvial plains of the river valleys and coastal tracts. The topography and rainfall control runoff and ground water recharge to a large extent. Almost the entire Peninsula is occupied by a variety of hard and fissured formations, including crystalline, trappean basalt and consolidated sedimentaries (including carbonate rocks), with patches of semi-consolidated sediments in narrow intra-cratonic basins. Rugged topography, compact and fissured nature of the rock formations, combine to give rise to discontinuous aquifers, with moderate to poor yield potentials. The near surface weathered mantle, forms an important ground water reservoir and is a source for circulation of ground water through the underlying fracture systems. In the hard rock terrain, deep weathered pediments, lowlands, valleys and abandoned river channels, generally contain adequate thickness of porous material, to sustain ground water development. Figure A.1.1 gives the geological framework of Peninsular India.

Figure A.1.1: Geological map of India showing natural recharge study area in Granite terrain

An assembly of geological formations in the earth crust containing ground water under saturated conditions is called as ground water basin. Groundwater basins are made up of the rocks of geological formations. These rocks are composed of minerals, which will have their own particular physical appearance and chemical composition. The shape, size of the individual minerals in rocks and their packing in rock units is very important. The rock as a

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whole when considered may appear as compact, hard, loose, brittle, consisting of individual grains, crystals or even an amorphous appearance. Rock types are classified as consolidated or as unconsolidated types. The consolidated types are referred to as hard rocks. These rocks are composed of individual minerals which are fused together and can not be separated from each other. The unconsolidated rock types or soft rocks are made up of loose materials consisting of separated minerals. Consolidated rocks include granites, basalt, gneiss, sandstone, shale, limestone, quartzite etc. Unconsolidated rocks include sands, silt, gravel, clays and loams etc. Rock Porosity: Rock porosity refers to the open space in various rock types. In unconsolidated rocks openings are present in between the grains due to loose packing. In consolidated formations openings are due to fractures, fissures and joints which are not uniform. Figure A.1.2 gives the pore space arrangement in various rock types. Figure A.1.2, a,b,c,d shows the primary porosity also referred to as intergranular porosity, which are openings between the rock grains formed during the

Figure A.1.2: Pore space arrangement in various rock types

Deposition of the unconsolidated sediments. Figure A.1.2e, f shows the decreasee primary porosity in consolidated rocks. The porosity of rock is the ratio of the volume of the openings to the volume of rock and is expressed in percentages. n= V0/ Vt Where n= porosity in fraction, V0 = Volume of pores, Vt = Rock volume

Figure A.1.3: Flow velocities in rock

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The effective pore space is always smaller than the total pore space. As such effective porosity can be defined as the ratio of the volume of effective pore space to the total volume of rock. Figure A.1.3 gives the flow velocities in rock. The porosity of unconsolidated rocks like gravel range from 0.2 to 0.4, sand 0.2 to 0.5 and for silt 0.3 to 0.5 depending upon their grain size packing and sorting. For consolidated formation the porosity is less than 0.1 Based on this the varied modes of ground water occurrence in the country may be broadly summarized as below (CGWB, 1989):(a) Porous formations comprising unconsolidated and semi consolidated sediments. Aquifers interconnected, often extensive, both continuous and discontinuous, moderate to very high yield potential. Consolidated and fissured formations. Aquifers discontinuous; limited yield potential. Porous Formations Unconsolidated formations: In unconsolidated formations rock openings are present between the individual grains and minerals. The distribution of these grains is far more even than in consolidated formations. The openings are known as primary porosity. The porosity depends upon grain packing and sorting. The Quaternary sediments in the coastal and deltaic tracts bordering the peninsular and coastal alluvium form important reservoirs of ground water. The horizons of sand and their admixture form potential aquifers. The aquifer materials vary in particle size and rounding and in their degree of sorting. Consequently, their water yielding capabilities vary considerably. The coastal aquifers show wide variation in the water quality, both laterally and vertically, thus imposing quality constraints for ground water development. Thus, in these tracts, ground water withdrawal requires to be regulated so as not to exceed recharge and in order to avoid sea water ingress into coastal aquifers. Sites for piezometer location can be readily identified in these formations. Semiconsolidated Formations: The Semiconsolidated Formations belong to the group of rocks ranging in age from Carboniferous to Mio-Pliocene. These are mainly composed of shale, sandstone, and limestones formations. The terrestrial freshwater deposits belonging to Gondwana System of the peninsular shield are included under this category. The Gondwana sandstones form highly potential aquifers, locally. Elsewhere, they have moderate potential and in places they yield meagre supplies. These sediments normally occur in narrow valleys or structurally faulted basins. Though these formations have been identified to possess moderate yield potential, the physiography of the terrain restricts exploitation. Under favourable situations, these sedimentaries give rise to flowing well conditions as in parts of Godavari valley, Vellar basin, Cambay basin and parts of westcoast.

(b)

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Consolidated and Fissured Formations: In consolidated rock openings are primarily present at fractures, at joints, along bedding planes, and in the form of solution holes. Openings do not have an even distribution, but are rather localised phenomena. This unevenness is due to during and after consolidation of the rock, cooling, compaction, tectonic activity, or dissolution process cause the uneven distribution of the openings. Such openings are refereed to as secondary porosity. As indicated earlier, from hydrogeological point of view, these rocks cover over a wide stretch of peninsular India and are broadly classified into the following four groups:i. ii. iii. IV. Crystalline rocks. Volcanic rocks. Clastic rocks. Carbonate rocks.

The nature of occurrence of rocks, its geological, lithological, mineralogical characteristics, structural/textural control in disposition of lithounits and consequent occurrence & movement of ground water in these groups of rocks are briefly described below:Crystalline rocks: The major suits of crystalline basement rocks of Peninsular India are of Pre-Cambrian age. The predominant lithological types are granite gneisses and high grade metamorphic rocks like Charnockites, granodiorites and Khondalites. The ancient land surface has been exposed to prolonged weathering, which has resulted in the formation of a mantle of alternation products, normally more than 10 m thick. This alteration product is called regolith and includes both the residual soil and saprolite. The latter is derived from the in-situ weathering and has become largely disaggregated. The residual soil is developed from the underlying saprolite by further dissolution and leaching, combined with other chemical, physical, and bioturbation processes. The rocks are composed of predominantly alluminium silicates. Over long periods the infiltrating acidic rainfall has reacted with the alkaline minerals, leaching the more soluble and mobile components and reprecipitating less mobile minerals with the formation of kaolinite and Fe- Al oxides. In the extreme kaolinite dissolution also occurs and only quartz sand is left. The soil includes tropical oxysols, kaolinite quartz and oxydised Fe- minerals mostly biotites. The relative depth and degree of weathering also depends on the mineral grain size of the crystalline rocks, their intensity of fracturing and the relative proportion of Fe-Mg minerals. The transition to unweathered rock bedrock is generally gradual and occur over a few meters with saprock as intermediate layer. The upper part of saprolite is also with high kaolinite clay, while lower part contains more primary minerals. The boundary between saprolite rock and weathered regolith is more sharp in coarse grained granite than in fine grained banded rocks. A basal breciated zone is present with rock fragmentation but many times misinterpreted as saprock in bore hole logs. The coarse grained quartz rich crystalline rocks develop higher porosity/permeability, while schistose metamorphic rocks have less porosity due to presence of Fe- Mg minerals which readily weather to secondary bi-products. According to their modes of origin, these rocks can be divided into igneous (plutonic and hypabyssal) rocks and metamorphic rocks. The common rock types are granite, gneiss, charnockite, khondalite, quartzite, schist and associated phyllite, slate etc. These rocks
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posses negligible primary porosity but at places, are rendered porous and permeable due to the formation of secondary openings by fracturing and weathering. In moist areas having higher annual rainfall (like Western Ghats), these rocks are often capped by thick lateritic zones, especially in Karnataka. Ground water yield depends on rock types and possibly upon the grade of metamorphism. The ground water studies carried out in the crystalline rocks have revealed the existence of deeply weathered and fractured zones along certain lineaments, locally forming potential aquifers. These lineament zones are found to be highly promising for ground water development. Further, following additional aspects of weathering profile in crystalline rocks are important:

Figure A.1.4: Schematic conceptual hydrologeological model of the weathered crystalline basement aquifer
(Source: P. John Chilton & Stephens D. Foster, Hydrogeology Journal v.3 no. 1, 1995)

Generally, little consideration is given to petrographical and textural aspects for siting of piezometers; yet, in the fine grained igneous rocks (like aplites), the weathered zone is often clayey, whereas in coarse granite and gneiss, it can be productive. In plutonic igneous and metamorphic rocks, the typical profile of the weathered zone beginning with the fresh host rock at the bottom and progressing upwards, varies from A to D as follows: Zone D: Sandy clays or clayey sands, commonly aluminous, ferruginous and often concretionary. Only few metres thick, high porosity and low permeability.

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Zone C:

Massive clay alterites, commonly kaolinitic, in which some primary minerals may be preserved in their original form. High porosity but low permeability. May range upto 30 m thickness. Rock which is progressively altered upward to granular, crystal aggregates and rock fragments. May range from a few metres to 30 m thickness. Low porosity and appreciable permeability. Fractured and fissured rock, may range from a few tens to a few metres thick. It has low porosity and moderate permeability in fracture systems.

Zone B:

Zone D:

The water is often struck at the junction of weathered Zone (B) with the fractured rock (Zone 'A'). Following additional points may also be noted: The sheared and steeply dipping phyllites and schists are often found to be productive. Yet, in the piezometers the weathered zone of these rocks should be isolated due to its clayey nature. The fractures in the fine grained igneous rocks are closely spaced but they may not be open at depths and thus, may not contain water. Besides, wells located along the tensional, brittle (aC2 type) fractures will give reasonably good discharges. In many situations, trends of intrusive bodies (like dykes and quartz/pegmatite veins) represent direction of tensional fractures and lineaments. The water level fluctuations in the crystalline aquifers are often sharp due to their low specific yield and poor yield. The piezometers are often located in the crystalline formations in the direction of their foliation or regional dip, due to the variations in the aquifer in the dip direction. In the metamorphic rocks, which are poor aquifers, the piezometers should be located near structural lineaments and at intersection of fractures to ensure all round availability of water.

In areas underlain by hard crystallines and metasedimentatries (viz., Granite, gneiss, schist, phyllite, quartzite, charnockite etc.), occurrence of ground water in the fracture system has been identified down to a depth of 60 metres upto 200m, locally. It has been noted that the deeper fracture systems are generally hydraulically connected with the weathered saturated residuum. Due to such factors, the depth of piezometers in crystalline formations is required to represent the aquifers being exploited and hence there is a need to drill piezometers to depths greater than 50 m below ground surface coinciding with the fracture zones being tapped in the neighbourhood. A detailed inventory of the operational borewells in the area is a pre-requisite for deciding on the depth of drilling of the piezometer. The yield potential of the crystalline and meta-sedimentary rocks will show wide variations. Very food development of the piezometer is a pre-requisite after completion of drilling. Volcanic rocks The Deccan Trap lava flows are mostly horizontal but occasionally, are very gently dipping. Minerologically basalts are composed of Fe-Mg minerals and epidotes. The epidotes are easily dissoluble and susceptible to weathering due to its hydroxyl group. The basalts form alternate layers of compact and vesicular beds of lave flows. The topography, nature and extent of weathering, presence of vesicles and lava tubes (often interconnected by fractures), thickness, number of flows and the nature of intertrappean layers (red boles) are the important factors which play a major role in the occurrence and movement of ground
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water in these rocks. The 'basic' type of volcanic rocks like basalts exhibit higher productivity than the acidic (siliceous) varieties like rhyolites due to lesser viscosity in the former type of lava, resulting in larger openings between successive lava flows. The basalts have usually medium to low permeabilities depending on the presence of primary porosity of vesicles and secondary porosity arising due to fracturing during cooling of lavas, tectonic disturbances and weathering. Ground water occurrence in the Deccan Traps is controlled by the contrasting water bearing properties of different flow units, thus, giving rise to multiple aquifer system, at places. The important hydrogeological features of volcanic rocks are as under: The weathered zones in basalts in the high rainfall areas like Konkan region of Maharashtra are often clayey with considerable thickness upto 25-30 m and should be isolated by casing. In a given watershed, a Recharge Zone having moderately dissected plateau (MDP) with low to medium erosional characteristics are preferred for location of piezometer sites over the 'Run off' zones situated in high relief areas where groundwater development is also poor. However, piezometers can also be located in the lower parts of a watershed, (termed Storage zone) occurring in the valley areas, where groundwater development is also good. Many a times, in the Recharge zone of a watershed, the weathered zone is restricted in thickness, beneath which a fractured zone are encountered. The construction of the piezometers tapping the fracture zone should correspond to the depth of operational borewells in the area. In areas where more than one lava flows are being penetrated it has to be ensured that independent piezometers have to be conducted for monitoring the groundwater levels in the different lava flow zones. Carbonate Rocks Carbonate rocks include limestones, dolomite and marble. Among the carbonate rocks, limestones have the greatest distribution. In the carbonate rocks the principal aquifers are the fractured zone and solution cavities. Solution cavities develop due to circulation of water. This process leads to widely contrasting permeability within short distances. The cavities are irregular in size and shape and are perpendicular to general direction of drainage. These are referred to as storages with roofs. The cavernous zones often get enlarged in the vicinity of the water table in these formations due to which ground water flow can be turbulent with flow direction not remaining normal to the water table elevation contours. The occurrence of solution cavities in these formations can be highly erratic, but may tend to be localised along bedding planes especially in rocks with clayey intercallations. Potential karstified aquifers are found to occur in these formations in which the discharge is likely quite appreciable. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Consolidated sedimentary rocks occur in Cuddapah and Vindhyan subgroups and their equivalents. The formations consist of conglomerates, sandstones, shales, states, quartzites, apart from the limestones/ dolomites. Locally, they contain phyllites and schists. The Cuddapahs and their equivalents were subjected to low grade metamorphism in places while the Vindhyans and their equivalents do not show any evidence of metamorphism. The occurrence and movement of water in them is governed by bedding planes, cleavages, fractures, joints, faults, contact zones, degree and magnitude of weathering, topography and climate. When interbedded with clay, sandstones can form a multi aquifer system. In case
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of dipping formations, piezometers located along dip direction may tap different aquifers, thus giving rise to artesian conditions along dip slopes. Also, at any given location, the altitude of piezometric head usually increases in the lower aquifers. The clastic formations possess higher porosity and permeability than the crystalline rocks due to its intergranular porosity, though limited due to cementation and fracture systems. As a result, they yield up to moderate quantities of water under favourable conditions. However, their porosity decreases with depth due to compaction. Piezometers sites in these formations have to carefully selected keeping in kind the structural controls. Chemical/mineral composition of Rock types: Commensurate to rock types the mineralogical composition of rocks also varies very greatly, which in turn effect the flow regime as well as quality of water depending upon the susceptibility of minerals for easy decomposition. The granite and granite gneiss is composed of aluminium silicates with potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium hydroxyl groups. 60% of mineral is composed of silica, 30 % feldspar and rest others like mica, basic minerals etc. The aluminium silicates with hydroxyl group are highly unstable and easily dissociate into soluble salts. The orthoclase mineral comprise, potassium silicates and are highly susceptible to weathering under oxidised condition, giving rise to kaolin clay formation. The Charnockites and granodiorites are high degree metamorphosed rocks comprising hypersthene and feldspar minerals. Due high-grade metamorphism and highgrade temperature weathering of the mineral assemblages is not easy. Similarly fracturing of rocks is not very prolific in these rocks except in highly structurally disturbed areas. The schist rocks contain mica, chlorite and hornblende. Sandstone rocks are composed of quartz, feldspar and micas. Limestone is composed of calcite, which is easily susceptible to dissolution forming calcium and bicarbonates. Basalts are composed of Plagioclase, feldspars, Augite and olivine. Olivine easily disintegrate to form diopside, an unstable mineral.
Consolidated (Minerals) Plagioclase, Feldspar, Augite, olivine Quartz, Orthoclase, Feldspar, Mica Mica, Chlorite, Hornblende quartz, Feldspar, Mica Calcite Unconsolidated Rock Type (Minerals) Gravel Quartz main Mineral Sand Quartz, Feldspar, Mica Loam Quartz, clay, mica Clay Kaolinite, illite, etc. -

Rock Type Basalt Granite Schist Sandstone Limestone

Table A.1.1:

Mineral assemblages in different geologcal formations

The varied assemblages of minerals in the rock types in an area gives rise to a host of mineral bi-products when disintegration takes place due to reaction with water in oxidising and reducing conditions. The interaction of minerals in oxidizing conditions produces kaolin clays, which create retardation/blocking to ground water flow conditions. The sodium and calcium group feldspars form a series of metasomatic group of rocks with phased changes in lithology over a period. The water from schists through fractures, rich in potassium gives rise to sodium rich kaolinite. In the process such series of mineralogical changes the ground water regime gives rise to new hydrogeological environment and consequent different flow pattern.

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Similarly olivine and hypersthene bearing basaltic rocks get easily converted to diopside which is unstable hydroxyl magnesium mineral. The magnesium is replaceable by iron (MgFe) in basic rocks forming unstable mineral like gibsite. Similarly granite contains orthoclase and mica minerals and both are unstable, susceptible to easy weathering into soluble kaolin minerals. Mica, particularly of phlogopite variety dissociates and forms soluble under oxidising conditions. In lime stone and dolomite rocks the calcium mineral gets easily dissociates into calcium bicarbonates, forming stalactites and stalgamites; this no doubt creates solution channels but also blocks the flow path. The basalts, granites, granitegneiss and lime stone rock formations have another aspect of fluoride contamination due to alteration of rocks containing fluorite, fluor apatite, cryolite minerals as a secondary bi-product. Contamination of water by fluoride is a serious health hazard for drinking purposes. These minerals get activated with proper environment in a reacting chemical environ, when they come in contact with water, affecting both textural and chemical changes in the flow regime of the area. The coastal alluvial and stratified semi-consolidated formations formed as a fresh water and littoral deposits exhibit large variation in vertical as well as lateral distribution and extension. Abrupt pinching and swelling of aquifers and lateral changes in lithology due to facies change is very common and as such building up of a subsurface lithological section based on archaic data is essential to target aquifer for monitoring. The attitude of aquifer disposition in space also can be visualized by constructing Fence diagram. Aquifer with regional extension and of appropriate thickness can be identified and selected for monitoring. Any abnormal behaviour in the piezometric head can be deciphered with the knowledge of the hydrogeological regime frame work. Textural framework of rock types The texture of hard rocks is generally euhedral crystals when fresh and on weathering yields to irregular, sub angular to subrounded grains of quartz, feldspar and mafic minerals the insitu location. Sediments involved with transportation acquire roundness and the degree of roundness described as sphericity is related to length of transportation from source to the site of deposition. The river sediments and littoral, lake deposits are sub-rounded to rounded in nature and give maximum effective porosity in a stratified layer. On the contrary the subangular grain packing gives minimum effective porosity. In regoliths and tallus deposits the effective porosity is minimal and ground water movement is retarded one, perhaps with no lateral continuity. These process have a bearing in the selection of piezometer sites and interpretation of monitored data. The actual visualization of structural and textural features is possible from the study and examination of drill cuttings of the bore well site. The presence of clay in cuttings indicates in situ weathering with no virtual flow but also a fair degree of clay exchange and with doubtful quality of water. Subangualr and subrounded grains reflect not much transportation of grains and hence limited extension of aquifer and site close to recharge area. As a result rise in water table could be expected to be synchronous to recharge in the area instead of delayed.

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It is essential to understand the grain size and texture of the lithology of a bore well in an area to decipher and interpret the hydrological behaviour of the particular litho unit. For understanding the texture a textural scale diagram is essential as a field guide. Such a complex geological scenario with diversified lithological units will represent a very complicated and varied hydrogeological situation in a region. With the coverage of varied topographical, climatic, hydrogeological and hydrochemical conditions in the area, it is difficult to comprehend to a simple general classification. As such taking recourse to textural frame work the entire range of formations have been grouped in to three categories from hydrogeological point of view, which will also broadly fit into the ground water regime of the area. Ground water occurrence is confined to weathered and fractured/fissured zones with moderate to moderately low ground water prospects. The weathered zone serves as the mother recharge zone receiving recharge directly from the precipitation and acts as a feeder to the deeper confined fracture zones at the same place or from a distant recharge zone. As such in case the deeper aquifer is not connected to the phreatic zone it is very essential to design network stations to monitor the behaviour in both the aquifer separately. The phreatic zone often is connected to deeper fractured zone through a semi-confined layer with very low permeability causing head difference over a period with time lag. Hence it is essential to assess their interrelationship for planning towards exploitation. The identified piezometer site should provide an overview of the hydrogeolgic characteristics of the proposed piezometer site as well as its surrounding region also. It makes use of the available local information so as to fit in the regional ground water regime information system and compatible with to other areas with similar hydrogeologic conditions. The local selection criteria essentially comprises: Identification of potential aquifer horizons and their regional continuity The hydrogeological and hydrochemical data of the aquifer Monitoring protocol long term or short term

A local assessment comprises data from the drilling, hydrogeological and geophysical testing right at the site comprising following elements: Potential zone targeted for piezometer construction Hydraulic characteristics of the identified zone Hydrochemical characteristics of the specific zone

Nature and protocol of the monitoring program of the piezometer, a long-term or short term has to be known.

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Annexure II Geo-physical bore hole logging

Geophysical bore hole logging is a cost effective way of providing vital subsurface information required by geoscientists for piezometer design and evaluation. Logging of piezometers in the construction stage is: To guide the design of piezometer and its completion (construction logging) To identify the lithological sequence and the vertical and lateral variations in rock properties (formation logging) To identify the fluid bearing potential of the individual layers (fluid logging)

Figure A.2.1: Geo-physical down the logger

The logging provides a correlation of the newly drilled section with unknown geology nearby so that the lateral extent and thickness of aquifers and aquicludes can be determined. Where loose or unconsolidated materials are penetrated logging is essential: To guide the design of the piezometer and the selection of well screen and gravel pack and their proper placement (formation, construction, fluid logging)

In existing piezometers as part of quality check geophysical logging is used to: Provide information on the piezometer construction (construction logging) Monitor performance Identify the position and relative magnitude of water inflows including pollutants (Formation and fluid logging) Provide information to correlate similar rock and aquifer horizons from site to site (formation logging and fluid logging) Provide data to examine horizontal, vertical and time varying water quality changes (fluid and geochemical logging) To identify fractures and fissures and distinguish those that are ground water active (formation and stress fluid logging)

The geophysical logging, used alone or in conjunction with other data, like fluid geochemistry, hydraulic properties, pump test data, provides a powerful tool for investigating hydrogeology and resolving problems in both the saturated and unsaturated zone.

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Geophysical logging is carried out by lowering a sensing devise called logging tool (probe or sound) in the hole on a cable with continuous measurements of geophysical properties like resistivity, self potential, natural gamma, temperature (differential and absolute), caliper (borehole diameter), and others. The logs are record as a continuous graphically recorded charts at the surface by the logger unit.
Required Information Lithology and stratigraphic correlation of aquifers and associated rocks Total porosity or bulk density Effective porosity or true resistivity Clay or shale content Permeability Secondary porosity/permeability - fractures, solution openings Specific yield of unconfined aquifers Grain size Location of water level or saturated zones Possible Logging Techniques Resistivity, caliper logs made in open holes; radiation logs made in open or cased holes Calibrated sonic logs in open holes; calibrated neutron or gamma-gamma logs in open or cased holes Calibrated long-normal resistivity logs Natural gamma logs Under some conditions long-normal resistivity logs Caliper or sonic, logs Calibrated neutron logs Possible relation to formation factor derived from resistivity logs Resistivity, temperature, or fluid conductivity logs; neutron or gamma-gamma logs in open or cased holes Calibrated neutron logs Time-interval neutron logs Fluid velocity or temperature logs Calibrated fluid conductivity or temperature logs ; resistivity logs Gamma-gamma, caliper logs All logs indicating lithology, water-bearing characteristics, and correlation and thickness of aquifers Caliper, temperature, or gamma-gamma logs Caliper logs under some conditions

Moisture content Infiltration Source and movement of water in a well Salinity, temperature, density and viscosity of water Construction of existing wells, diameter and position of casing, perforations, screens Guide to screen setting

Cementing Casing corrosion

Table A.2.2: Summary of Logging Applications to Groundwater Hydrology (after Keys and MacCrary, 1971)

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Spontaneous - Potential (SP) log: The SP logs are records of the natural potentials developed due to the ionic exchange between the bore hole fluid and the water in the water bearing horizons. The spontaneous potential is due to membrane potential and the diffusion potential. The membrane potentials are formed at the junction of impermeable zone and drilling fluid; while the diffusion potentials are formed due to ionic exchange between drilling fluid and ground water in the aquifer. The SP is well developed against permeable zone and hence helps in identifying aquifer horizon and its salinity status. The SP log is used for identification of boundaries between porous and non-porous rocks such as clays/s d. In consolidated rocks the SP log is not of much help, but shale-sandstone and shale-limestone sequences may be determined. SP logging is helpful only in open, uncased and fluid filled boreholes. Figure A.2.2 gives the electrical log of the borehole at Pipli in puri district of Orissa, along with lithological log, drill time log for better comparision.

Figure A.2.2: Typical subsurface records of piezometer drilling information The resistivity log: The resistivity log is a record of the apparent resistivity of the subsurface formation with depth. Resistivity logging is carried out in uncased wells, by multiple electrode and single point resitivitance probe. Single point resistance log represents changing electrical resistance between a single downhole electrode and a fixed surface electrode. It does not measure the true resistivity and is strongly affected by change in bore hole diameter. Yet, it gives a clear and good contrast of resistance of the formations and bed boundaries. Figure A.2.2 is an example of use of point resistance, resistivity and spontaneous potential log of a piezometer tapping unconsolidated coastal alluvial formations in Puri district of Orissa state. The multiple electrode logging principle is similar to surface resistivity survey except that the electrodes in the bore hole in mud fluid medium and the current electrodes effect the current penetration inside the formations in the bore hole. The multiple electrode devices performs short normal, long normal and lateral logging. These devices essentially measure the
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apparent resistivity of a volume of rock/material surrounding the hole. The short normals device has an electrode spacing of 0.4 m gives good vertical detail and record the apparent resistivity of the mud invaded zone and are best suited to determine formation boundaries. The long normals with electrode spacing of 1.6 m and laterals with an electrode spacing of 5.7 m record the apparent resistivity beyond the 'invaded' zone. The long normal resistivities reflect better formation resistivities. These logs can be run only in open, uncased and fluid filled boreholes. The factors that influence formation resistivity are the nature and temperature of the water in the formation pores and rock structure. The range of resistivity in hard rocks is quite large. Fractures filled with water decrease the apparent resistivity in hard rocks. Geophysical logs provide continuous graphical records of subsurface attributes (physical properties) constitutes as valuable tools in lithological and geological correlation of various bore data and in establishing regional continuity of the formations. Interpretation of geophysical logs in terms of lithology is difficult from logs alone and supporting information is usually required from the lithologs and drill time logs (or hydrogeologic logs) prepared during drilling of the piezometer. Quantitative interpretation about the quality of groundwater in the aquifers and its effective porosity and permeability is also possible using the principles of formation factor analysis and certain empirical relationships Natural - gamma log: Natural- gamma logs (or gamma-ray logs) are records the amount of natural-gamma radiation emitted by radio active minerals in the rocks/material. Gamma ray logs are useful in identifying the lithology and clay layers in the bore hole and for stratigraphic correlation. High gamma logs are associated with clay layers. These can be run in open as well as cased boreholes filled with, or without water. The radius of investigation extends to about 6-12 inches from the borehole wall. Neutron - gamma log: These logs record the intensity of gamma radiation from a neutron source in the probe after it is back-scattered and attenuated within the borehole and surrounding rocks. The main uses of neutron-gamma logs are for identification of lithology and measurement of bulk density and porosity of rocks/soils. They are also used for locating cavities and cement outside the casing. The radius of investigation is about 6 inches from the borehole wall. These logs are run and recorded as a continuous graphical chart in open or cased boreholes, with or without water. Caliper log: Caliper log is records the average diameter of the bore hole. Its major use is to evaluate the structural and textural nature of rock units, their physical/environment conditions, which effect the hole-diameter. These logs are useful to identify presence of cavities, solution channels, fractures and faults/joints etc. The caliper has to be calibrated with different diameter rings before lowering in to the bore hole. Caliper logs are run during upward logging from the open bore holes filled with drilling fluid (as a continuous graphical record).

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Figure A.2.3: Idealised diagram of geo-physical logging tool-caliper

Temperature log: Temperature logs provide a continuous record of the fluid temperature within the bore hole immediately surrounding the sonde as a continuous graphical chart in degree Celcious. The differntial temperature log gives difference in temperature of fluids existing in the bore hole due to different flow conditions, and thus the influent or effluent nature of aquifer flow can be deciphered. The gradient temperature log gives thermal gradient existing in the bore hole. Temperature logs are best recorded in fluid filled open boreholes. Fluid - Conductivity logs: These logs provide a continuous measurement of the conductivity of the borehole fluid filled in bore hole. When properly corrected, they provide information on the chemical quality of the drilling mud. They can be recorded in open, fluid filled boreholes. Fluid flow meter: A spinner type fluid flow meter measures the velocity of ground water flow occurring at different depths contributing to the total flow from the tube well/bore well. It is conducted in completed well only. The log helps in identifying the relative potential of different aquifers tapped in the bore well. It is run in production or developed well during pumping process. The flow meter needs to be calibrated for different flow velocities in a tank bed before it is lowered in the bore well. The combination of geophysical logs selected depends upon data requirements and the local geological and hydrological conditions.

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Annexure III Aquifer parameters and well characteristics

General
After construction of a piezometer, it is necessary to evaluate the efficiency of the well and evaluation of hydraulic properties of the aquifer encountered in the piezometer by conducting Pumping Tests. Efficiency of a well is expressed in percentage as the ratio of theoretical drawdown to observed drawdown. The well efficiency depends upon two factors, namely well loss and formation loss. Well Loss Characteristics: The drawdown in a pumped well consists of two components, the aquifer losses and the well losses. The aquifer losses are the losses due to the hydraulic head that occurs in the aquifer, where the flow is laminar. The hydraulic head depends on the time of pumping and varies linearly with the well discharge. Well losses are caused due to deviation in flow of the well from a linear to non- linear conditions, accordingly losses categorised into linear and nonlinear losses. Linear well losses are caused by damage to the aquifer during drilling and well completion: head losses due to compaction of aquifer material during drilling; head loss due to plugging of aquifer with drilling mud which results in reduction of permeability near the bore hole; head losses in the gravel pack; head losses in the screen;

Among the non-linear head losses, following are included: friction losses occurring inside the well screen, the suction pipe where the flow in turbulent, and the head losses that occur in the zone adjacent to the well where flow is usually also turbulent.

All the linear and non-linear well losses are responsible for the drawdown inside the well being much greater than one would except otherwise. The steady state drawdowns inside piezometer is expressed by following general expression. S = B *Q + C * Q2 Where BQ is approximately the formation loss and C Q2 is approximately the loss of head as the water enters into the well, B is the formation loss coefficient and C is the well entry loss coefficient. Jacob(1947) suggested the well loss to be proportional to the square of the discharge (Q) as indicated above. Rorabaugh (1953) expressed the total drawdown Sw in the well loss (for steady state flow in a confined aquifer) treating the Q in the well loss term as an unknown exponent.

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s w = BQ + CQ n The well loss can be a substantial fraction of total drawdown when pumping rates are large and can be minimized with proper design and development. In the old piezometers and wells, clogging or deterioration of screens can increase well losses. The condition of a piezometer (or a well) can be evaluated from the Table

Well loss coefficient (C) in mm2/m5 < 0.5 0.5 to 1.0 1.0 to 4.0 > 4.0

Well condition Properly designed and developed Mild deterioration or clogging Severe deterioration or clogging Difficult to restore well to original capacity

Table A.3.1: Relation of Well loss coefficient to well condition (after Walton, 1962) In-situ Slug Test Usually two types of in-situ Slug (or bail) tests can be carried out in a piezometer for evaluation of hydraulic characteristics of aquifer tapped. In practice, such tests are applicable in unconsolidated and consolidated formations as these can be conducted for a point-determination as well as a larger aquifer horizon. 1 Point Piezometer Test: As a point piezometer is open only over a short interval towards its base, the test may not yield representative values of tranmissivity for the entire aquifer. Test for Screened Piezometers, which are open over the entire thickness of a confined aquifer.

Both the tests involve inducing instantaneous change in water level in the piezometer through a sudden addition (Slug test) or removal (Bail test) of a known volume of water. The recovery/drawdown of the water level with time is than observed. Piezometer Test For this Test, Initially, a rigid pipe is driven (removing the soil below the pipe with an auger) or jetted into the soil. When the pipe has reached the desired depth, a cavity (naked hole) is augered below the bottom of the pipe. After the water level in the pipe has reached equilibrium, the slug of water is removed and the subsequent rise of water level is measured. The K value of the soil around the naked hole (cavity) is calculated as below (Luthin and Kirkham, 1949): K= r w2 y log e 0y Apt

where Ap = a factor depending on the shape of the cavity and the depth of the lower boundary (of impermeable or very permeable layer).

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In unstable or loose formations the piezometer cavity must be screened (at the bottom of the pipe) to prevent caving. The volume of soil on which 'K' is measured with this method is smaller than with other techniques. The height (Lc) of the cavity usually varies from 20 to 30 cm. If Lc = 0, the piezometer becomes a cased auger hole, and this technique is called 'Tube' method. Bail/Slug Tests in a Screened Piezometer Tapping a Confined Aquifer: This method is useful in those cases where pumping tests can not be conducted, due to certain logistic problems. The analysis is valid under same assumptions as applicable in Theis method. The method involves a curve matching procedure to determine aquifer transmissivity. For the bail test, the method involves the preparation of a plot of recovery data in the form (H-h)/(H-H0) verses t on a semilog paper, with time t on log scale. The field curve is then superposed on the Type Curve. Keeping the axes parallel the data curve is best fitted to one of the Type curves and a match point is chosen in the graph (in matched position). For case of calculation, it is common to choose a match point so that W = 1.0, hence T= Wr 2 t
2

or T = r

for W = 1

where parameters are expressed in any consistent set of units. However, in the above method, a unique value of storage coefficient cannot be evaluated due to similar slopes of the type curves. The main limitation of slug/bail tests is that these are highly dependent on an intake portion where the screen is noncorroded (or nonclogged) should be done only in a newly constructed piezometer. On the contrary, in case of an old piezometer, if a piezometer has been developed by Surging or Backwashing before testing, the measured values of transmissivity may reflect the increased conductivity of the AGP around the intake. Use of DWLR for monitoring the water levels for slug test has proved very useful in picking up small variations also.

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Pumping Test
A pumping test is conducted with constant discharge or variable discharge with constant head for estimating hydraulic parameters of the aquifer tapped in the piezometer. The test involves monitoring of the time variation of drawdown in one or more observation wells in response to a pumping at a known discharge, from the piezometer. The observation must be in the vicinity of the piezometer and must be tapping the same zone. If no such observation well is available, the drawdown can be monitored in the piezometer itself.

Constant Discharge Tests in Unconsolidated Aquifers:

In the case of homogeneous and isotropic aquifers mostly encountered in unconsolidated formations, the assumptions made while analyzing the aquifer pumping test data can be assumed to be valid to a great extent. The general assumptions are as under:

The aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic. The flow of water in the aquifer is horizontal. The aquifer is of infinite aerial extent and is uniform in thickness. The production well taps full thickness of aquifer. Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is nearly horizontal over the area of influence. The flow is in steady state.

The following additional assumptions are made in case of unsteady state of flow: 1 2 The water removed from the storage is discharged instantaneously with decline of head. The diameter of the well is small so that the well-storage can be ignored.

Though many of the assumptions are valid to a fair approximation, certain assumptions like infinite extent of aquifer, full penetration of aquifer (by the piezometer) and instantaneous discharge of water are often violated even in unconsolidated aquifers. Single well drawdown test for Hydraulic Conductivity In cases, when the aquifer is made up of coarse sand and gravels, a pump test can be made to obtain a rough estimate of hydraulic conductivities in these materials. The equipment required for the test includes a pump, a calibrated bucket and a stopwatch to determine the flow rate. After measuring the static water level in the piezometer, water is pumped from the well at a constant rate. After sometime, the water level in the hole will reach a steady-state level. (Steady state can be assumed to exist when the water level in the hole drops less than 3 cm in 2 hours). At steady state, the flow rate and depth of water in the well are recorded. These data alongwith depth of static water level from bottom of the piezometer are used in the following equation:

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For Unconfined Aquifer: If the aquifer is unconfined, the hydraulic conductivity K (m / day ) = Q log e (R / r ) (H 2 h 2 )

where R (radius of influence) = 500 r, generally and r = radius of piezometer(m) Q = flow rate at steady state conditions (m3/day) H = height of static water table above bottom of piezometer (m) h = depth of water in piezometer (above the bottom) at steady state (m)

For a Confined Aquifer: K (m / day ) = Q log e (R / r ) 2s d

where s = drawdown of water level = (= H - h), m d = thickness of confined aquifer (m)

Recovery Method: This is a good method for estimating transmissivity of a confined aquifer tapped in a piezometer, which has been pumped sufficiently for a longer duration and the pumping has been stopped to allow recovery of the water levels in the piezometer to the original static water level. The residual drawdown (i.e. the difference between the drawdown component and the recovery component) s' is given as under (Theis 1935): s' = 2.3Q log t 1 t 4T

( )
t1,

where t is the time since pumping started and t1 time since pumping stopped. So a plot of residual drawdown (s1) verses log of t/t1 forms a straight line. Thus, for s1 = 2.3Q 4T

the residual drawdown for 1 log cycle of log t/t1 (= 1) becomes 2.3Q 4s 1

and T =

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As distance (r) of observation well from pumped well is not involved in the above equation, the observations of pumped piezometer alone serve the purpose. In case, the piezometer is tapping an unconfined aquifer, the observed drawdown (so) values should be corrected as per the following formula:
2 s cor = s 0

s0 2d

where scor is corrected drawdown and d is the initial saturated thickness of the aquifer. Variable Discharge (or Step Drawdown Test) Test: The variable discharge test, also called Step Drawdown Test is necessary to evaluate the extent of development of a piezometer as well as to evaluate well losses. This test involves pumping of the piezometer at a progressively increasing rate. The pumping should be carried out at a rate till the drawdown is stabilized. Thereafter, the rate of pumping should be increased in steps with the corresponding drawdowns being stabilized. Evaluation of Well Loss by Hantush - Bierschenk Method The well loss can be readily evaluated by analyzing data of a step-drawdown pumping test conducted on a piezometer. However, this method is especially valid for piezometers in unconsolidated formations where the groundwater flow is largely laminar and follows Darcy's law. Procedure: For analyzing the step drawdown test data, the incremental drawdowns (si) for each step are determined from drawdowns for equal time intervals.

The time-drawdown curve for each step is plotted on a semilog graph with time (in min.) on log scale. The individual drawdown curve should be extrapolated with a slope proportional to the discharge in order to measure the incremental drawdowns. The equation rewritten as sw/Q = B + CQ represents a straight line with a slope C and intercept B, at Q = 0.

Determine the values of si corresponding to the discharge at each step, i.e. sw(3) = sw(1) + sw(2) + sw(3) and so on. Subsequently, calculate the ratio sw(i)/Qi for each step.

On arithmetic paper, plot the values of si/Qi versus the corresponding values of discharge (Qi). Fit a straight line through the plotted points . (If the data do not fall on a straight line, a method based on the well loss component CQn, where n > 2) should be used. s w (i) Determine the slope of the straight line which is the value of C. Qi

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Extend the straight line until it intercepts the Q = 0 axis. The interception point on the s vertical w (i) axis gives the value of B. Q(i )

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The above procedure is applicable if

the basic assumptions made earlier for groundwater flow about the infinite areal extent of aquifer and its uniform thickness and the piezometric surface/watertable being horizontal are satisfied; In addition, the assumptions listed below are also made; The aquifer is confined, leaky or unconfined; The aquifer is pumped step wise, at increasing discharge rates; The flow to the well is in an unsteady state; The nonlinear well losses are appreciable and vary according to the expression CQ2.

However, the limitation of the above method is that values of sw(i) depend on extrapolated data and therefore, can be erroneous. Further, in case of consolidated formations, the method is likely to give only approximate values of well loss coefficient as assumption of homogeneity & isotropy of the aquifer are clearly violated. In such aquifers, Rorabaugh method is applicable as the value of 'n' can be considered greater than '2', indicating turbulent flow especially around the piezometer. Evaluation of Well Loss in Consolidated Formations: (Rorabaugh's Method) In this method, the value of n can be assumed greater than 2, so the equation is of the form

i =1

s w (i ) = s w (i ) = BQ (i ) + CQ n (i )

This equation can be written as s w (i ) Q (i )

n 1) = B + C Q( (i )

n 1) CQ ( (i )

or (sw(i)/Q(i) - B) = or log (sw(i)/Q(i) - B) = log C + (n-1) log Q(i) A plot of (sw(i)/Q(i) - B) versus Q(i) on log-log graph will yield a straight line In addition to the assumptions made for Hantush-Bierschenk method, the assumptions for application of this technique include replacement of last assumption(s) as under:

n The non-linear well losses are appreciable and vary according to the expression CQ .

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Procedure:

On semi-log paper, plot the drawdowns sw against the corresponding time t (T on the logarithmic scale) ; Extrapolate the curve through the plotted points of each step to the end of the next step; For each step, determine the increments of drawdown sw(i) by taking the difference between the observed drawdown at a fixed time interval t, taken from the beginning of that step, and the corresponding drawdown on the extrapolated drawdown curve of the preceding step; Determine the values of sw(i) corresponding to the discharge Qi from sw(i) = sw(1) + sw(2) + .. + sw(i); Assume a value of Bi and calculate [(sw(i)/Qi) - Bi] for each step (for this, value of B calculated by Hantush-Biersehenk method can be used as the starting values); On log-log paper, plot the values of [(sw(i)/Qi) - Bi] versus the corresponding values of QI. Repeat this part of the procedure for different values of Bi. The value of Bi that gives the straightest line on the plot will be the correct value of Bi; Calculate the slope of the straight line [(sw(i)/Qi - B]/ Qi. This equals (n - 1), from which the value of n can be obtained; Determine the value of the interception B on the straight line with the Qi = 1 axis. This value of [(sw(i)/Qi - B] is equal to C.

Remarks: As the Rorabaugh method allows consideration of turbulent flow in the aquifer, especially in the vicinity of the production peizometer, it can be readily used in case of fractured aquifers encountered in the consolidated formations. The aquifer parameters usually required to be estimated are the hydraulic conductivity, Tranmissivity and Storativity. These parameters, if estimated on regional basis, can be utilised to optimize ground water withdrawal from the aquifer for a given drawdown. If the piezometer is tapping an aquitard only, such parameters can be all the more relevant for a realistic perception of the hydraulic situation. Time Drawdown Method (for observation piezometer) This method involves measurements of drawdown at an observation piezometer with increasing time of pumping at the nearby piezometer tapping a confined aquifer. The relevant equations used for computing T & S are given below: S= 2.25 Tt 0 r2

where t0 is the time for zero drawdown and r is distance between production piezometer and observation piezometer. If t/t0 = 10 and hence log t/t0 = 1, s can be replaced by s, i.e. by the drawdown difference per log cycle of time and it follows that

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T=

2.30 Q 4 s

where Q is well discharge (m3/day) and s is drawdown for 1 log cycle of time. The following assumptions and conditions should be satisfied:

All the conditions as enumerated for Unsteady State of flow. The values of u = r2S/4Tt are small (u < 0.01) i.e. r is small and t is large. Here S is aquifer storativity, r is distance of observation piezometer from pumping piezometer well and t is time of pumping.

The condition that u is small will be satisfied in confined aquifers for moderate distances from the pumped well within an hour or less. Procedure:

Plot for one of the piezometers (r = constant) the values of s versus the corresponding time t on single logarithmic paper (t on logarithmic scale), and draw a straight line through the plotted points. Extend the straight line till it intercepts the time-axis where s = 0, and read the value of t0 (= time for zero drawdown). Determine the slope of the straight line, i.e. the drawdown difference s per log cycle of time. Substitute the values of Q and s and solve for T. With the known values of T and t0, calculate S.

Remarks:

When the values of T and S are determined they are introduced into the equation u = r2S/4Tt to check if u < 0.01, which is a condition for the applicability of the method. Before being substituted all numerical values should be expressed in the equivalent units. If necessary, conversion factors should be introduced. For example: for the sake of convenience the time in the time-drawdown diagram is often plotted in minutes while the transmissivity is expressed in m2/day. So when introducing the value of t0 the value read from the graph should be divided by 1440 to convert the minutes into days.

For application of the method to piezometers tapping unconfined aquifers, all values of observed drawdowns (s0) should be corrected by using following equation: s cor = s 0
2 s0 2xd

where scor = corrected drawdown d = initial saturated thickness of the aquifer. In such a case of unconfined aquifer, the condition of u being small (< 0.01) will generally be satisfied after about 12 hours of pumping.

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Time-Drawdown Curve Method (for observation piezometer tapping semi confined aquifers): This method is valid for analysing time-drawdown data of peizometer tapping semiconfined aquifer. The relevant equation for finding transmissivity (T) and storativity (S) are as under:

T=

Q W u, r L 4s
4Ttu r2

)
r 2s 4Tt

and S =

Here, W (u, r / L ) is a Well function of u & r / L L c D' K' r in = leakage factor =

where u =

T.c , in m

= hydraulic resistance of aquitard = D'/K', in days = thickness of aquitard (m) and = hydraulic conductivity of aquitard (m/day) = distance between production piezometer (well) and observation piezometer (m)

For use of this method, the following limiting conditions should be satisfied.

The aquifer is semi-confined. The flow to the well is in an unsteady state (i.e. the drawdown differences with time are not negligible nor is the hydraulic gradient constant with time). The removed from storage is discharged instantaneously with decline of head. The well diameter is very small, so that the storage in the well can be neglected.

In this technique, instead of one type curve, there is a type curve for each value of r/L. These type curves are known as Walton Type curves for leaky confined aquifers. Procedure

Plot Walton type curves on double logarithmic paper [W(u, r/L) versus 1/u for difference values of r/L] using the type anves. Plot on another sheet of double logarithmic paper of the same scale s versus t if only one piezometer is used; this gives the observed data curve. Superimpose the observed data curve on the family of type curves and adjust, while keeping the coordinate axes parallel, until a position is found by trial where most of the plotted points of the observed data curve fall on one of the type curves. Select a match point A on the superimposed sheets and note for A the values of W(u, r/L), 1/u, s and t/r2 (or t). Substitute the values of W(u, r/L) and s and the known value of Q and calculate T. Substitute the value of k and the reciprocal values of 1/u and t solve for S.

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The numerical value of r/L belonging to the type curve to which the observed data curve fits in the best way, makes it possible to calculate the numerical value of L and onsequently c because L = T.c .

Remarks

It is difficult to obtain a unique fitting position of the data curve with a type curve unless a sufficient number of the observed data fall within the period during which leakage effects are negligible. Constant Discharge Tests in Consolidated Formations:

A majority of piezometers in the HP States, are located in consolidated formations. Thus, the analysis of pumping test data by conventional methods for aquifers in homogeneous media are not valid for the fractured aquifers as groundwater flow in such heterogeneous aquifers is complex. Due to lack of precise knowledge about nature of fracturing in various kinds of consolidated formations, the identification of the fracture system is often relied on the use of certain models of fracturing. Out of many models available, the more commonly used concept of flow in fractured rocks is the Double Porosity Model. The Double Porosity concept considers a fractured rock formation as consisting of two media: the fractures and the matrix blocks, both having their own, distinct hydraulic characteristics. The permeability of the block is small in comparison to that of fractures, whereas storage of blocks is larger than that of fractures. During pumping of a piezometer tapping such a system, water will be first released from fractures and a pressure difference is created between the fractures and the surrounding blocks. Consequently, water moves from the blocks to the fracture, a phenomenon similar to release of water from an aquitard to the aquifer. The flow through the fracture to the peizometer/well is radial and in an unsteady state. As there is little likelihood of two operating piezometers being available in close vicinity, methods of analysis of pumping test data of observation wells will not be commonly used for aquifer characterization. Yet, in case of exceptional situation with two functional piezometers being available in close vicinity, the pumping test data of observation piezometers can also be analysed. The methods of analysing flow in fractured media are based on the following assumptions and conditions:

The aquifer is confined; The aquifer has an infinite areal extent; The thickness of the aquifer is uniform over the area influenced by the test; The production piezometer fully penetrates a fracture; The production piezometer is pumped at a constant discharge rate; Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal; The flow towards the well is in an unsteady state; The aquifer is of the double-porosity type and consists of homogeneous and isotropic blocks or strata of primary porosity (the aquifer matrix), separated from each other either

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by an orthogonal system of continuous uniform fractures or by equally spaced horizontal fractures;

Any infinitesimal volume of the aquifer contains sufficient portions of both the aquifer matrix and the fracture system; The aquifer matrix has a lower permeability and a higher storativity than the fracture system; The flow from the aquifer matrix into the fractures (i.e. the interporosity flow) is in a pseudo-steady state; The flow to the well is entirely through the fractures, and is radial and in an unsteady state; The matrix blocks and the fractures are compressible; Interporosity flow coefficient = rw2 Km/Kf < 1.78, where = a shape factor, rw = radius of piezometer, Km and Kf = hydraulic conductivity of matrix and block respectively (m/day).

It has been shown that the double-porosity behaviour of a fractured aquifer only occurs in restricted area around the pumped well. Outside that area (i.e. for values greater than 1.78), the drawdown behaviour is that of an equivalent unconsolidated, homogeneous, isotropic confined aquifer, representing both the fracture and the block flow. Warren & Root Method for estimation of Transmissivity of Fractured Aquifers (without observation piezometer) Following procedure may be followed for evaluating transmissivity and storativity of fractured aquifers tapped by piezometers in consolidated formations:

On a sheet of semi-log paper, plot drawdown s versus time of pumping t (t on logarithmic scale); Draw a straight line through the early-time points and another through the late-time points; the two lines should plot as parallel lines ; Determine the slope of the lines (i.e. the drawdown difference s per log cycle of time); Substitute the values of s and Q into Tf = 2.30 Q/4 s, and calculate Tf where Q = well discharge (m3/day); Extend the early-time straight line until it intercepts the time axis where s = 0, and determine t1 Substitute the values of Tf, t1, and r into Sf = 2.25 Tft1/r2, and calculate Sf (Storativity of fracture); Extend the late-time straight line until it intercepts the time axis where s = 0, and determine t2 ; Substitute the values of Tf, t2, r, and into Sf + Sm = 2.25 Tft2/r2, and calculate Sf + Sm (where = a factor; for early time analysis it equals zero and for late time analysis it equals 1/3; and Sm = Storavitiy of the matrix block); Calculate the separate values of Sf and Sm.

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Remarks: The two parallel straight lines can only be obtained at low values (i.e. < 10-2). At higher values, only the late-time straight line, representing the fracture and block flow, will appear, provided of course that the pumping time is long enough. The analysis then yields values of Tf and Sf + Sm. To obtain separate values of Sf and Sm when only one straight line is present, following procedure can be applied

Follow above given procedure to obtain values of Tf and Sf from the first straight line, or if it is not present, values of Tf and Sf + Sm from the second straight line; Determine the centre of the transition period of constant drawdown and determine 1/2 s ; Calculate the value of using Equation = 10-sv/s; Substituting the values of and into Equation [ = Sf / (Sf + Sm)], determine the value of Sm if Sf is known, or vice versa.

Further, to estimate the centre of the transition period with constant drawdown, the preceding and following curved-line segments should be present in the time-drawdown plot. Curve-fitting Method (with observation piezometers) In a fractured aquifer, the drawdown response to pumping as observed in observation wells can be expressed as under (Bourdet and Gringarten, 1980) s= Q F(u*, , ) 4Tf

where u* = Tf t (S f + S m )r 2

For small values of pumping time the equation reduces to s= Q W (u) 4Tf

where

(S u=

+ S m )r 2 4Tf t

Equation is identical to the Theis equation. It describes only the drawdown behaviour in the fracture system ( equals zero). For large values of pumping time equation is same as to

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Theis equation which describes the drawdown behaviour in the combined fracture and block system ( equals 1/3 or 1). For values less than 0.01, Equation for drawdown reduces as under: s= 2.30Q 1.26 log 4Tf

A simple method based on matching both the early and late-time data with the Theis type curve, which yields values of Tf and Sf, and Tf and Sf + Sm, respectively is described below. From the steady-state drawdown at intermediate times, a value of can be estimated. Procedure

Prepare a type curve of the This well function on log-log paper by plotting values of W(u) versus 1/u from values; On another sheet of log-log paper of the same scale, plot the drawdown s observed in an observation well versus the corresponding time t; Superimpose the data plot on the type curve and adjust until a position is found where most of the plotted points representing the early-time drawdowns fall on the type curve; Choose a match point A and note the values of the coordinates of this match point, W(u), 1/u, s, and t; Substitute the values of W(u), s, and Q and calculate Tf ; Substitute the values of 1/u, Tf, t, and r and calculate Sf ( = 0);

If the data plot exhibits a hozizontal straight-line segment or only an inflection point, note the value of the stabilized drawdown or that of the drawdown at the inflection point. Substitute this value into the equation and calculate :

Now superimpose the late-time drawdown data plot on the type curve and adjust until a position is found where most of the plotted points fall on the type curve; Choose a matchpoint B and note the values of the coordinates of this match point, W(u), 1/u, s, and t; Substitute the values of W(u), s, and Q into equation and calculate Tf ; Substitute the values of 1/u, Tf, t, and r into equation and calculate Sf + Sm (= 1/3 or 1).

Remarks:

For relatively small values of , matching the late-time drawdowns with the This type curve may not be possible and the analysis will only yield values of Tf and Sf ; For high values of (i.e. for large values of r), the drawdown in an observation piezometer no longer reflects the aquifer's double-porosity character and the analysis will only yield of Tf and Sf + Sm ;

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