Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 Ž2000.

437–447
www.elsevier.comrlocaterpepi

The change of eruption styles of Martian volcanoes and estimates

of the water content of the Martian mantle
Tomonori Kusanagi ) , Takafumi Matsui
Department of Earth and Planetary Physics, UniÕersity of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
Received 3 December 1998; accepted 10 May 1999

Abstract

Estimated water contents in the Martian mantle range from 36 ppm to more than 1%. These values are based on the
chemical analyses such as hydrous minerals in SNC meteorites and formation models of Mars. This study evaluates the
water content of the Martian mantle using the change with time of volcanic eruption style on Mars as an observational
constraint. Styles of volcanic activity depend on the volatile content of the magma and the atmospheric pressure. Because a
low atmospheric pressure leads to a more explosive volcanic eruption, it has been believed that the volcanism on the current
Martian environment would be very explosive. Our calculations, however, show that, under the current Martian atmospheric
conditions, erupted magma cannot entrain the ambient air effectively, so the decrease in temperature of the magma during
ascent is small. Consequently, the erupted magma may form a lava-like deposit when it falls back on the ground. This
effusive-like style of eruption is a counterpart of clastogenic lava on Mars. On the other hand, numerical calculations under a
thick CO 2 atmosphere, which may correspond to an ancient Martian atmosphere, reveal a rather explosive eruption style.
Geological features of earlier stages of Martian history in the Noachian and Hesperian eras suggest that the volcanic
eruptions on Mars were explosive then. Effusive eruptions, however, became dominant in more recent times. It has been
widely accepted that Mars experienced a major climate change. In addition, the release factor of volatiles on Mars has been
suggested to be as small as 0.017–0.112. This may imply that the volatile content has been almost constant throughout
Martian history. Consequently, we assume that this change in eruption style was caused by the change in atmospheric
pressure. For a given water content of magma, a major climatic change may lead to a transition in eruption style. If we know
the atmospheric pressure at the time of this transition, we can calculate the possible range of the volatile content of the
mantle using our numerical simulations. If the atmospheric pressure on Mars around late Hesperian era is about 1 bar, the
estimated values for a typical Martian magma are 0.05–0.25 wt.%, which is within the range of the water content of typical
terrestrial basaltic magmas. q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Eruption styles; Martian volcanoes; Martian mantle

)
Corresponding author. e-mail: kusanagi@geoph.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

0031-9201r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 1 - 9 2 0 1 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 1 1 2 - 0
438 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447
1. Introduction
A number of observations from both the ground
and space probes such as Vikings 1 and 2, the recent
Mars Pathfinder, and Mars Global Surveyor have
shown that there are various volcanic features on
Mars. Some of these volcanoes are much larger than
the terrestrial counterparts. Particularly, Olympus
Mons, one of the largest volcanoes on Mars, has a
height of ; 27 km and a diameter of ; 600 km.
Most volcanic features on Mars seem to be the
results of effusive volcanic activities involving lava
flows. Several large volcanoes are similar to shield
volcanoes on Earth and thought to be composed
largely of low-viscosity basaltic lava Že.g., Catter-
mole, 1989; Mouginis-Mark and Wilson, 1992.. Sev-
eral other volcanoes, however, show the signs of
explosive eruptions Že.g., Mouginis-Mark et al., 1982,
1988; Greeley and Crown, 1990.. For example, a
group of Martian volcanoes called ‘‘highland pat-
erae’’ have highly eroded slopes suggesting that their
main bodies may have been constructed of ash or
pyroclastic deposits ŽGreeley and Spudis, 1978;
Greeley and Crown, 1990; Crown and Greeley,
1993..
Based on the crater density on the flanks of
Martian volcanoes, Plescia and Saunders Ž1979. ar-
gued that there were various styles of volcanic activi-
ties on the early stage of Martian volcanism but that
only effusive volcanism survived until the later
stages. Tanaka Ž1986. analyzed the stratigraphy of
Mars in detail and concluded that Ži. the activities of
highland paterae started in the late Noachian epoch,
Žii. volcanism prevailed over all the volcanic regions
on Mars during the Hesperian epoch, and Žiii. the
active region was confined to a few locations such as
the Tharsis region from the late Hesperian to the
Amazonian epoch. A general trend found here is that
older volcanoes such as highland paterae may have
been formed by explosive activity, and more recent
volcanoes are composed of lava flows due to effu-
sive activity.
2. The condition for an explosive eruption
An explosive volcanic eruption occurs when
magma disrupts. The disruption condition is reached
when the volume fraction of gases in the magma
exceeds a critical value. The volume of the exsolved
gases is controlled by the solubilities of the gases to
the magma, which is a function of pressure. Conse-
quently, the explosivity of the magma depends on
the gas mass fraction of the magma, the solubility of
each volatile, and the surface pressure of the planet.
The solubility of water into basaltic magma, n d , is
given as a function of pressure P in Pa, as follows
ŽBurnham, 1975; Wilson and Head, 1981; Stolper
and Holloway, 1988; Pan et al., 1991.:
n d Ž P . s 6.8 = 10y8 P 0.7 Ž 1.
Fig. 1 shows the above relation. Under the surface
pressure of Earth, at least ; 0.1 wt.% of water must
be dissolved into the magma for an explosive erup-
tion to be possible. On Mars, however, only about 7
ppm of water is enough to cause explosive volcanic
activity because of the low surface pressure ŽWilson
and Head, 1981.. This means that effusive eruptions
are very hard to produce on Mars because the small-
est estimate for the water content of Martian magma
¨
is 36 ppm ŽDreibus and Wanke, 1987.. The observed
morphology of the Martian surface shows that effu-
sive volcanism is rather dominant in more recent
ages, which is not consistent with the consideration
above.
Wilson and Head Ž1994. suggested the possibility
that Hawaiian-type eruptions should have existed on
Mars. In such eruptions, optically dense fire foun-
tains and ineffective entrainment of ambient air keep
the inner parts of fountains hot. Consequently, land-
ing magma clots coalesce to form rootless lavas or
magma ponds, even if the magma experienced dis-
ruption. The observed large-scale volcanic features
on Mars may have been formed through such erup-
tions. To evaluate this possibility and derive the
conditions to result in such volcanic activity, we
carried out numerical calculations of volcanic erup-
tion processes under Martian conditions.
3. Model
We adopted the model by Sugita and Matsui
Ž1998. for Martian conditions. This model consists
of two parts, magma rise through the conduit and
ascent of an eruption cloud in the atmosphere. In
 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447 439

Fig. 1. Conditions for explosive and effusive eruptions. The explosivity of magma depends on the pressure at the planetary surface. Under
the current Martian atmosphere, more than 7 ppm of H 2 O is needed for basaltic magma to erupt explosively. This value is smaller than the
¨
least estimate for the H 2 O content of Martian mantle by Dreibus and Wanke Ž1987..

both regions, one-dimensional homogeneous steady
flow is assumed. Our model also considers the effect
of gas bubbles on magma viscosity ŽJaupart, 1996..
3.1. The conduit
The generally accepted view of the volcanic erup-
tion process is as follows. First, magma in the magma
reservoir starts to rise because of buoyancy forces
ŽWilson and Head, 1981.. Thus, as it approaches the
surface, the pressure decreases and the volatiles dis-
solved in the magma exsolve as gas bubbles, so that
the density of the magma decreases ŽWilson and
Head, 1981.. As a result, the magma gains buoy-
ancy. The ascent velocity of the magma mainly
depends on both this buoyancy and the wall friction
ŽMcGetchin and Ulrich, 1973.. This is not strictly
true, as one may include some overpressure due to
elastic effects Žfor example, around a storage region.
and viscous stresses are dominant except at the very
late stages of ascent when the magma is fragmented.
However, since it its difficult to take into account the
effect of overpressure, we simply assume that the
pressure in the conduit is in equilibrium with that of
the surroundings. The effect of viscous stresses might
be taken into account partly in our model because in
the assumption of one-dimensional flow the viscous
stress due to horizontal velocity gradient is implicitly
included in wall friction.
When the gas volume fraction reaches a critical
value, bubbles in the magma come into contact with
each other. Then the magma disrupts and the expan-
sion of the gas phase causes an explosive and violent
eruption. If magma disruption does not happen, the
eruption is effusive and forms a lava deposit. The
critical gas volume fraction for magma disruption is
estimated to be around 70% based on the measure-
ment of erupted materials on Earth ŽSparks, 1978..
Following Sugita and Matsui Ž1998., we use the
equations by Wilson and Head Ž1981. to describe the
behavior of magma in the conduit. The equations of
mass and momentum conservation are numerically
solved to obtain the vent diameter and the velocity of
magma. Each equation is given as follows.
440 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447
Ža. Mass conservation
F s p a 2r u s F0 s constant
where a is the vent radius, r is the bulk density of
magma, u is the vertical velocity, F is the mass flux
and F0 is the mass flux at the depth where gas
exsolution initiates Žhereafter, we call this the exsolu-
tion depth.. We assume no mass transfer between
magma and conduit wall. We begin our numerical
simulation by giving the velocity of magma at the
exsolution depth, which is assumed to be the termi-
nal velocity of bubble-free magma by Wilson and
Head Ž1981..
Žb. Momentum conservation:
du 1 dP fu 2
u sy y yg
dz r dz 4a
where z is the depth from the planetary surface, f is
the friction coefficient and g is the gravity accelera-
tion. The friction coefficient f is given as a function
of the Reynolds number Re by:
64
fs q f0
Re
where f 0 is the constant of ; 0.01.
The volcanic gas is assumed to be a perfect gas
and the mixture density of gas and pyroclasts is
given by:
1 1 y ne ne Ru
r
s
s
q
P
where n e is the mass fraction of exsolved gas, s is
the density of pyroclasts, R is the gas constant of the
volcanic gas and u is the temperature of magma.
The temperature of magma might be considered
to decrease because of the thermal expansion of the
gas phase and heat loss through the conduit wall.
However, this is not the case. The heat loss through
the conduit wall is negligible because the time scale
of magma ascent is much smaller than that of the
thermal conduction ŽWilson and Heslop, 1990.. The
temperature change due to bubble expansion is also
very small because the mass fraction of gas phase is
much smaller than that of the pyroclasts and the
surrounding magma acts as an effective heat buffer
ŽSparks, 1978.. Consequently, the magma rise pro-
cess may be assumed to be isothermal.
The motion of magma is controlled by many
parameters, including magma viscosity, temperature,
Ž 2. density, vent geometry, the depth of the magma
reservoir, the volatile content and its solubility to
magma. We use the values of basaltic magma as the
magma viscosity, temperature and density and we
consider water as the volatile. Vent geometry affects
the motion of magma. Giberti and Wilson Ž1990.
studied the influence of geometry on the ascent of
magma in open fissures. However, we simply as-
sumed that the conduit is a circular tube. The radius
of the conduit is considered to change according to
the pressure of the magma, which is assumed to be
equal to the lithostatic load in this model.
On the other hand, this assumption may not be
valid under the low Martian surface pressure. Thus,
Ž 3.
we test the effect using the model by Jaupart and
Tait Ž1989.. This model is the opposite extreme of
the model by Wilson and Head Ž1981. and assumes
that the conduit wall is rigid and the radius of the
conduit is constant from the magma chamber to the
vent. The pressure of the magma is usually higher
than the lithostatic pressure. Because of the geometry
Ž 4. of the conduit, the mixture of gas and melt cannot be
accelerated beyond a critical value. This is called the
choking velocity. The choking velocity, u c , is given
by the sound velocity of the mixture of gas phase
and pyroclasts ŽJaupart, 1996.:
y1 r2
dr
Ž 5. uc s ž /
dP
Ž 6.
where P is the magma pressure at the vent, r is the
mixture density of gas phase and pyroclasts at the
vent. Using Eq. Ž5., Eq. Ž6. is expressed by:
P 1 1 (n RT
uc s
'RT ½ ž(
s ne
(
y ne q
/ e
P 5 Ž 7.
where T is the temperature of magma, n e is the
exsolved gas mass fraction, s is the density of the
pyroclasts, and R is the gas constant of the volcanic
gas. The relationship between the choking velocity
and the exsolved gas mass fraction, n e , is shown in
Fig. 2. This result is almost independent of the
atmospheric pressure because it is very small com-
pared with the vent pressure in this case. For most
cases, the eruption velocity is less than ; 150 mrs
 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447 441

This process has been studied theoretically by a

number of researchers Že.g., Wilson et al., 1980;
Sparks, 1986.. In this study, we use the formulation
by Woods Ž1988. with modification by Sugita and
Matsui Ž1998.. Equations of the conservations of
mass, momentum and energy are incorporated to-
gether with the temperature dependence of the spe-
cific heat of gas and pyroclasts.
The equation of mass conservation is given by:
dF
s 2p a rair u e Ž 8.
dz
where z is the height from the surface, F is the mass
flux, a is the radius of the eruption cloud, rair is the
density of ambient atmosphere and u e is the inward
Fig. 2. Relationship between the exsolved gas mass fraction and
velocity of the surrounding atmosphere. The mass
the choking velocity. Pressure at the vent is 10 5 and 10 7 Pa, flux F is defined as:
respectively.
F s p a 2r u Ž 9.
where u is the vertical velocity and r is the bulk
density of the eruption cloud. The density r is given
except when the vent pressure is extremely high and
by:
exsolved gas fraction is small.
After magma erupts out of the vent, it undergoes 1 1yn nR u
subsequent pressure release through a series of
s q Ž 10 .
r s P
shocks. This increases the vertical velocity and de-
where R is the average gas constant of volcanic gas
creases magma temperature. Since this last process
and entrained air, u is the temperature of the erup-
tends to fill the difference between the eruption
tion cloud, n is the mass fraction of the gas phase in
conditions deduced from the two treatments Že.g.,
the eruption cloud. Since the mass flux of pyroclastic
velocity., the eruption conditions calculated from the
material is conserved, the relationship between the
model of Jaupart and Tait Ž1989. are not very differ-
initial gas mass fraction n 0 and the gas mass fraction
ent from those calculated from the model of Wilson
at the height z is given by:
and Head Ž1981. except that the eruption tempera-
ture is somewhat lower. Thus, we adopt the model Ž 1 y n . F s Ž 1 y n 0 . F0 Ž 11 .
by Wilson and Head Ž1981. for the following calcu- or
lation.
F0
n s 1 y Ž 1 y n0 . Ž 12 .
3.2. The eruption cloud F
where F0 is the mass flux at the vent.
The eruption cloud entrains the ambient air during The equation of motion is given by ŽWoods,
ascent in the atmosphere. The entrained air is heated 1988.:
by the hot pyroclasts in the eruption cloud and
du u2 rair r y rair
expands. If the eruption cloud has enough heat and
initial eruption velocity, the cloud gains buoyancy.
u
dz
sy
8a ( r
y
r
g Ž 13 .
Once this occurs, the cloud rises very high and forms The momentum equation can also be expressed
a convective eruption column. Otherwise, the cloud based on the buoyancy force as follows:
collapses and falls back on the ground surface, form-
ing a pyroclastic flow fed by a fountain-like structure d uF
s yg Ž r y rair . p a 2 Ž 14 .
over the vent. dz
442 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447

By substituting Eqs. Ž9. and Ž13. into Eq. Ž14., the The energy equation is given by ŽSugita and
equation of mass conservation can be expressed by Matsui, 1998.:
ŽSugita and Matsui, 1998.:
d u2 F dF
dF
s
1
(pr air uF Ž 15 . dz ½ HŽu . Fq
2 5 s Hair Ž T .
dz
y Fg Ž 16 .
dz 8
where T is the temperature of the ambient atmo-
This equation is used as the equation of mass conser- sphere. H and Hair is the enthalpy of the eruption
vation instead of Eq. Ž8.. cloud and the ambient atmosphere, respectively.

Fig. 3. Heights and temperatures at the top of eruption clouds. Ža. and Žb. are the results for the current Martian conditions. We see a clear
distinction between convective eruption clouds and pyroclastic flows. Compared with the calculated results for Earth Žc and d., the height of
the fountain feeding a pyroclastic flow on Mars is very small, and the temperature decrease at its top is also small.
 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447
Since the entrained ambient air dominates the
mass of an eruption cloud, the eruption style is
controlled by the vertical structure of the planetary
atmosphere. Since the change in the specific heat
also plays a very important role in the dynamics of
the eruption cloud ŽSugita and Matsui, 1998., this
effect is also taken into account.
By using the result of the calculation of the
magma flow in the conduit as the initial condition,
we can estimate how erupted material rises Ži.e.,
height and thermal structure of an eruption cloud..
3.3. Combined calculation
Combination of the calculations of two stages
gives the volcanic eruption conditions on Mars. The
conditions are more complex if we consider a col-
lapsed eruption column forming a fountain over the
vent as discussed by Wilson and Heslop Ž1990..
However, for simplicity, we do not take into account
such effects. In this study, the eruption velocity and
exsolved gas fraction are derived from the numerical
calculation of the magma ascent in the conduit in
which the water content of the magma, the magma
temperature, and the vent radius are given as free
parameters. Using these values, the calculation for
the dynamics of an eruption cloud is carried out to
characterize its nature Ži.e., the temperature and den-
sity of the eruption cloud at each height and the
ultimate height which the eruption cloud reaches..
Thus, we can evaluate the influence of the water
content on the eruption style through these calcula-
tions.
Fig. 4. Relationship between the water mass fraction of the magma and eruption styles under the current Martian atmosphere.
443
4. Calculation condition and results
We assume basaltic magma with a temperature of
1400 K. Although the viscosity of bubbleless magma
depends greatly on the water content, we assume that
it is 100 Pa s for simplicity. The densities of the
magma and the country rock used in this study are
2500 and 2700 kg my3 , respectively. Under these
assumptions, we carried out calculations for two
atmospheric conditions, the thin current Martian at-
mosphere and a thicker CO 2 atmosphere.
4.1. Eruption under current Martian atmosphere
The current Martian atmosphere is very thin Ž;
600 Pa. and mainly composed of CO 2 . Because of
the seasonal variation due to the formation of the
polar caps, the pressure fluctuates by 50%. Occa-
sional sand storms also alter the pressure by absorb-
ing the sunlight.
The temperature structure of Martian atmosphere
is derived from the data obtained by Mariner 9,
Vikings 1 and 2, and Mars Pathfinder. We used the
temperature structure under a relatively dust-free
condition observed by the Viking landers ŽSeiff and
Kirk, 1977.. The pressure structure is assumed to be
hydrostatic.
The result of the calculation for this temperature
profile is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3a shows that there is
a critical gas mass fraction for a given vent radius,
above which the height of the cloud increases
abruptly to form a convective eruption column.
444 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447

Compared with the result of a calculation for the We used a one-dimensional radiative–convective
equivalent eruption on Earth, the height of the col- equilibrium model ŽNakajima et al., 1992. to de-
lapsed fountain after it gets stable is very low on scribe this thicker atmosphere. The composition is
Mars. This is because the Martian atmosphere is so assumed to be 100% CO 2 and the surface pressure is
thin that the density of the eruption cloud does not 1 bar.
decrease by entrainment of the ambient air into the Fig. 5 shows the result of eruption calculations
eruption cloud. In addition, the temperature decrease under a thick CO 2 atmosphere. Pyroclastic flows
between the vent and the top of the collapsed column reach relatively high altitudes and are cooled effec-
is small. This is also because the cooling due to tively. These flows are unlikely to form lava-like
entrainment is less effective. Consequently, the erup- deposit when they fall on the ground. The eruption
tion cloud with low initial velocity stops rising be- style under this thick atmosphere is shown in Fig. 6.
fore it gets cooled by entraining the ambient air.
Thus, the pyroclastic material in such an eruption
cloud will fall on the ground while its temperature is
still high. If the pyroclasts are still molten, they will
form a lava-like flow. This kind of eruption is ob-
served in Hawaiian type volcanic activity and lavas
made in such activities are called clastogenic lavas
ŽFrancis, 1993.. On Earth, clastogenic lava is formed
at a high eruption rate when the dense lava fountain
prevents pyroclasts from being cooled by radiation
ŽWilson and Head, 1994..
This is a kind of eruption that is caused by
magma disrupted in the conduit but that leaves a
lava-like deposit. The condition to cause such an
eruption is illustrated in Fig. 3b and d. We assume
that the clastogenic lava is formed when the tempera-
ture decrease during ascent is less than 50 K. Under
a thin atmospheric condition, this kind of eruption is
more probable.
Taking this clastogenic lava into consideration,
the condition to form a lava Žor lava-like. deposit on
Mars is that magma contains - 0.25 wt.% water.
This value is comparable to the average water con-
tent of MORB, about 0.2 wt.%. Fig. 4 shows the
relationship between gas mass fraction of magma
and eruption style. The overlapping part displays the
uncertainty due to the dependence of the eruption
style on the vent size.

4.2. Eruption under 1-bar Martian atmosphere

The southern hemisphere of Mars has unique

fluvial features that are thought to have been formed
by running water Že.g., Baker, 1982.. Continuous
flow of water requires a relatively high surface tem-
perature ŽPollack et al., 1987.. Thus, Mars may once Fig. 5. Ža. Heights and Žb. temperatures at the top of eruption
have had a thicker atmosphere than today. clouds under an ancient 1 bar CO 2 atmosphere.
 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447
Fig. 6. Relationship between the water mass fractions of magma and eruption styles under an ancient 1 bar CO 2 atmosphere. The range of
water mass fraction of magma that can result in a lava-forming eruption is almost the same as that under the current thin atmosphere.
A comparison of Figs. 4 and 6 suggests that the
conditions for lava-forming eruptions Žboth gas-free
eruptions and clastogenic lava-forming eruptions.
under an ancient 1 bar atmosphere are not so differ-
ent from those in the current atmosphere despite the
fact that the water content to cause magma disrup-
tion is about one order of magnitude larger. The
minimum magma water content to generate explo-
sive eruptions under a 1-bar atmosphere is about
0.05 wt.%.
5. Water content of the Martian mantle
We can evaluate the water content of Martian
mantle based on the geological features and the
historical change in the volcanic eruption styles.
There are two major candidates for the cause of such
changes in volcanism. One is the change in volatile
content in the Martian mantle. If water in the Mar-
tian mantle has decreased with time, it would have
reduced the explosivity of the Martian volcanoes.
The other is the change in the atmospheric condi-
tions. As was shown in the numerical results, this
alters the nature of the eruption condition consider-
ably. Scambos and Jakosky Ž1990. estimated that the
release factor of nonradiogenic volatiles Že.g., water.
from the Martian interior since the end of its forma-
tion is 0.017–0.112. Such a release factor is too
small to cause a change in volatile content in the
Martian mantle that is sufficient to change the style
of volcanic eruptions by itself Ža release factor of 0.5
is needed from the calculation above..
445
This suggests that the change in eruption style is
due to the change in atmospheric conditions on
Mars. On the basis of this assumption, we can obtain
a lower limit for the water content required for
explosive volcanism under a thick ancient Martian
atmosphere Ž1 bar pressure., and similarly the upper
limit required for more effusive volcanism under the
current thin atmosphere. We have estimated these
values in Sections 4.1 and 4.2. The estimated lower
limit is 0.05 wt.% and the upper limit is 0.25 wt.%.
However, the estimated water content may be one
order of magnitude smaller when we consider the
fact that basalt typically represent 10% partial melt-
ing. In this case, the value of 0.05–0.25 wt.% might
be regarded as a maximum estimate.
In former studies, the water content of the Mar-
tian mantle has been evaluated from chemical infor-
mation. Dreibus and Wanke ¨ Ž1987. estimated the
water content of the Martian mantle to be 36 ppm
from two component model for the formation of
Mars. This estimated value is far smaller than that of
terrestrial basaltic magma Ž0.2–1 wt.% on average
ŽScarth, 1994...
An alternative way to estimate the water content
of the Martian mantle is from the SNC meteorites.
Simple measurement of the water contents in SNC
meteorites gives a value between 130 and 350 ppm
ŽMcSween and Harvey, 1993.. The magmas that
formed the SNC meteorites, however, are thought to
have experienced degassing on their way from the
magma reservoir to the Martian surface, so this value
may not give the proper estimate for the Martian
mantle. Treiman Ž1985. estimated that the amphibole
446 T. Kusanagi, T. Matsuir Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 117 (2000) 437–447
content occupies 5–10% of the inclusions in some
SNC meteorites and concluded that the original
magma must have contained at least 0.1–0.2 wt.%
water, because the amphibole contains ; 2 wt.%
water. On the other hand, by considering the solidifi-
cation process of the magma which formed the SNC
meteorites, the water content of Martian mantle was
estimated to be about 1.4 wt.% ŽJohnson et al., 1991;
McSween and Harvey, 1993..
Our estimate for the water content of Martian
mantle Ž0.05–0.25 wt.%. is in the range of the
estimates based on SNC meteorites. This is consis-
tent with the presumption that SNC meteorites are
Martian igneous rocks ejected by the impacts of
other meteorites. The fact that previous chemical
evaluations for water content and estimates based on
geologic features in this study show remarkable
agreement reinforces the validity of the assumption
that the change in volcanic eruption style is caused
by epochal climate change on Mars.
Acknowledgements
We thank S. Sugita for his valuable comments on
the early version of this paper, which is useful for
the improvement of the paper. We appreciate the
kind and helpful reviews of Lionel Wilson and an
anonymous reviewer.
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letters to nature
lavas 5 km thick, then our estimates of the total quantity of
lava erupted over the past ,4 Gyr (including volcanic edi®ces)
must be revised from the 7 3 107 km3 calculated previously20 to
5 3 108 km3 . Alternatively, the lava could be less extensive if the
formation of Valles Marineris was intimately associated with the
presence of a thick lava sequence, which thins rapidly away from the
canyons. If deep layering is con®ned to the area of a rectangle
enclosing the canyons (,4 3 106 km2 ) and is 10 km thick, then the
volume is 4 3 107 km3 . This alone greatly exceeds a previous
estimate of 8 3 106 km3 of magma extruded in the Late Noachian20.
We conclude that volcanism on early Mars was probably much
more voluminous than previously documented, and that it must
have affected the climate and near-surface environment. Pollack
et al.21 proposed that a warm, wet climate on early Mars was
sustained by a thick CO2 atmosphere, which must be continuously
resupplied or recycled to balance loss of CO2 to carbonates. Two
mechanisms for recycling the CO2 have been proposed: extensive
volcanism21 and impacts22. If the recycling was mainly from impacts,
then the warm, wet conditions corresponded to the time (on Earth)
of heavy bombardment and the impact frustration of life23.
Extensive volcanism on Mars could have maintained a thick
atmosphere for a signi®cant period of time after the heavy
bombardment21. The layers seen by MOC provide evidence for
voluminous volcanism; but a thick atmosphere could have been
sustained only if suf®cient carbonates exist in the crust of Mars,
which has not yet been con®rmed16. M agreed, however, on the age of the youngest volcanism7,8. These
Received 16 September; accepted 21 December 1998.
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21. Pollack, J. B., Kasting, J. F., Richardson, S. M. & Poliakoff, K. The case for a wet, warm climate on early
Mars. Icarus 71, 203±224 (1987).
22. Carr, M. H. Recharge of the early atmosphere of Mars by impact-induced release of CO2. Icarus 79,
311±327 (1989).
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24. Topographic Maps of the Polar, Western, and Eastern regions of Mars (Misc. Inv. Ser. Map I-2160, US
Geol. Surv., Denver, 1991).
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(1976).
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Icarus 34, 622±637 (1978).
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(1995).
Acknowledgements. We thank L. Keszthelyi for discussions, and M. T. Zuber and N. G. Barlow for
comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by the MGS project.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to A.S.M. (e-mail: mcewen@lpl.arizona.edu).
586
© 1999 Macmillan Magazines Ltd
Evidence for recent volcanism
on Mars from crater counts
William K. Hartmann*, Michael Malin², Alfred McEwen³,
Michael Carr§, Larry Soderblomk, Peter Thomas¶,
Ed Danielson#, Phillip JamesI & Joseph Veverka¶
* Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, Arizona 85705, USA
² Malin Space Science Systems, San Diego, California 92191, USA
³ Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721,
USA
§ US Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
k US Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona 86001, USA
¶ Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
# California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
I
University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, USA
.........................................................................................................................
Impact craters help characterize the age of a planetary surface,
because they accumulate with time. They also provide useful
constraints on the importance of surface erosion, as such pro-
cesses will preferentially remove the smaller craters. Earlier
studies of martian crater populations revealed that erosion and
dust deposition are important processes on Mars1±6. They dis-
earlier studies were limited by image resolution to craters larger
than a few hundred metres in diameter. Here we report an
analysis, using new images obtained by the Mars Global Surveyor
spacecraft, of crater populations that extend the size distribution
down to about 16 m. Our results indicate a wide range of surface
ages, with one regionÐlava ¯ows within the Arsia Mons calderaÐ
that we estimate to be no older than 40±100 million years. We
suggest that volcanism is a continuing process on Mars.
The distribution of crater numbers versus crater diameter on
lunar lava plains, called the `production function', represents the
shape of the population of craters being produced on the moon in
current geological time. Its shape is well determined9±11. Our initial
step was to test whether the production function observed on
young, well-preserved surfaces on Mars is the same as that found
on the Moon. This result has been found for craters larger than 1 km
in diameter, but has not been well tested for the steep branch below
1 km (ref. 7) (see ®gures). Dashed reference lines in the shape of the
lunar production function are shown in each of the crater count
diagrams in this Letter, along with an upper solid line that marks the
crater density on the most heavily cratered surfaces in the Solar
System, dated about 4.0 Gyr old on the Moon, and believed to mark
the saturation equilibrium condition where new craters erase old
craters10,12. These reference lines allow the comparison of the Mars
counts with the lunar production function.
Here we report our analyses of images obtained by the Mars
Orbiter Camera (MOC) on board the Mars Global Surveyor space-
craft. Martian crater counts obtained from the MOC images are a
signi®cant advance over previously published data, and the images
reveal the importance of mobile dust in shaping the martian
landscape and softening the pro®le of craters13,14. In general, our
procedure is to count all craters but avoid areas with obvious
clusters of small secondary ejecta craters. To study the crater size
distribution in a relatively young area, we chose a MOC image that
crosses a strip of the ¯oor of the summit caldera of the very young
Tharsis volcano, Arsia Mons. Figure 1a shows some of this surface,
and the crater counts obtained on Arsia Mons and its summit
caldera are given in Fig. 1b. The largest crater within the summit
caldera is barely 1 km across, and so the counts are extended to
larger sizes (using open symbols) with additional counts from the
¯anks of Arsia Mons. These counts (caldera and whole volcano)
each appear consistent with the shape of the lunar crater diameter
NATURE | VOL 397 | 18 FEBRUARY 1999 | www.nature.com
 letters to nature
distribution, and support the contention that the recent martian
production function matches that of the Moon at all observed sizes.
At the upper left of Fig. 1b, the curve intersects the proposed
saturation equilibrium line (shown solid) at diameter D < 60 m.
This behaviour is analogous to that found in the lunar maria, where
the steep branch hits the saturation line at D < 300 m.
These data contain age information. The reference lines (Fig. 1b)
show that the crater density in the summit caldera is only 2±10% of
that found in the lunar maria; the crater density on the outer slopes
may be roughly 3±10 times that. Our interpretation is that the
caldera lavas are relatively young and that no substantial obliterative
losses have occurred for craters down to D ˆ 60 m, or depths as
shallow as ,10 m. A review12 of asteroid and cometary data and
cratering physics suggests that the actual martian crater production
rate in recent geological time is 1±4 times the mean post-mare lunar
rate, with a best estimate of 2. This best estimate yields an age
estimate for Arsia Mons caldera lava ¯ows of roughly 40±200 Myr,
and the outer ¯ank ages would be several times older, with
uncertainties of a factor of 2±3.
The good match between the slope of the martian and the lunar
crater diameter distributions, at 60 m , D , 1 km, indicates that
there has not been enough dust in®ll in this region to remove many
craters larger than 60 m. Nonetheless, although the altitude is
,26 km above the mean surface of Mars, we see direct evidence
for some dust deposition in certain areas on the caldera rim. Figure
2 shows a portion of MOC image no. 3308 in a region of horst±
graben structure just outside the north caldera rim of Arsia Mons.
Rilles and other textures are clearly seen on the horst surfaces, but
are muted or covered entirely by smooth deposits on the lower
graben ¯oors, especially in smooth drifts banked against the edges of
the grabens. The dust source may be fallout from global dust storms
that inject dust into layers as high as 35±40 km in the martian
atmosphere15,16.

Figure 1 Crater density on Arsia Mons. a, Portion of MOC image no. 3308,
showing portion of summit caldera ¯oor on Arsia Mons. b, Crater counts for the
caldera ¯oor and ¯anks of Arsia Mons, superimposed on reference lines scaled
to crater populations on lunar lava plains. The two short solid lines represent the
stratigraphic de®nition of the division between three eras of Martian history:
Amazonian (lower part of graph), Hesperian (between the lines) and Noachian.
The counts suggest that the caldera ¯oor is younger than the ¯anks of the
volcano. (The crater counts were obtained from the images by more than one
person, to avoid bias and to test repeatability; the name of the person is given in Figure 2 Horst±graben structure concentric with Arsia Mons caldera rim. Parts of
the key.) graben ¯oors show evidence of dust deposits. See text for details.

NATURE | VOL 397 | 18 FEBRUARY 1999 | www.nature.com

© 1999 Macmillan Magazines Ltd 587
letters to nature
An additional issue clari®ed by these data involves the minimum
crater size on Mars. Viking lander analysts concluded that the crater
population cut off below diameter D ˆ 50 m, due to atmospheric
breakup of bolides17. The MOC images give the ®rst chance to test
that prediction. We ®nd no cut-off down to D < 16 m. Many local
regions are resurfaced by dust drifts and have few small craters, but
other nearby areas show old surfaces where crater numbers increase
smoothly as D decreases, down to 16 m and less.
The comparison between young areas and ancient upland areas
Figure 3 Crater density in the area around Nirgal Vallis. a, Moderate crater density
in plains adjacent to Nirgal Vallis, in MOC image no. 605. We note the degraded
states of some craters. b, As in Fig. 1b but for the older upland region around
Nirgal Vallis, including area of image a. The solid, bent line is a calculated steady-
state line showing the OÈpik effect for craters with constant net dust deposition of
10-6 m yr-1 (W.K.H., unpublished results). The counts suggest an old surface, more
than 3 Gyr old, in which smaller craters have been lost by obliterative processes,
such as dust in®ll.
588
© 1999 Macmillan Magazines Ltd
on Mars is striking. Figure 3a shows a moderately heavily cratered
upland area near Nirgal Vallis in MOC image no. 605, and crater
counts are given in Fig. 3b. Figure 4a shows a heavily cratered terrain
in MOC image no. 2303 on the ¯oor of the crater Schiaparelli, a
large, old crater which in turn is superposed on one of the most
heavily cratered martian terrains, Arabia Terra; crater counts are
given in Fig. 4b. As is characteristic of all heavily cratered areas, the
crater counts for both these areas show a pronounced ¯attening of
the primary crater branch from 1 km , D , 45 km. This ¯attening
Figure 4 Crater density in the area around the crater Schiaparelli. a, Portion of MOC
image no. 2303 showing heavily cratered portions of the ¯oor of the crater
Schiaparelli. Many craters are severely degraded. b, As in Fig.1b but for the ¯oor of
crater Schiaparelli and the surrounding old region of Arabia Terra, including area
of image a. The largest craters in Arabia Terra appear near saturation, and the
surface is probably ,4 Gyr old. Schiaparelli appears somewhat younger, perhaps
3±4 Gyr old. Smaller craters in this region have apparently been lost by obliterative
effects; the oldest visible 20-m craters may date back no more than ,10 Myr.
NATURE | VOL 397 | 18 FEBRUARY 1999 | www.nature.com

was detected by O È pik as early as 1965 and was attributed by him to
deposition of material in craters, preferentially obliterating small
craters1. It has subsequently been interpreted as evidence of long-
term erosion, deposition, and lava ¯ooding of martian craters,
especially in the earlier parts of Mars' history2±6, although it has also
been suggested that the early production function on Mars was
¯atter than the present function18. Our MOC data show that the
steep branch of the curve in old areas also appears distinctly ¯atter
than on the Moon; in addition, the MOC images (Figs 3a and 4a)
reveal a range of degradation states among 100-m-scale craters.
These states range from fresh craters to craters with dune deposits
on the ¯oor, to craters whose ¯oors are ®lled and whose rims barely
protrude above the dust. This ®ts the view that small craters have
been lost by dust in®ll and blanketing, and the ¯attening of the
production-function curves, at least at small diameters, is thus
attributed to the OÈ pik effect.
The heavy, bent, solid line in Figs 3b and 4b is a predicted steady-
state line for the O È pik effect in®lling of craters. This curve is
generally derived in refs 3 and 4, but has been modi®ed by
unpublished calculations of one of us (W.K.H.), taking into account
the depth±diameter relation for fresh martian craters18. The average
net deposition rate in crater ¯oors, assumed in this curve, is
,10-6 m yr-1, consistent with other estimates2±7,14. The predicted
curve is a good ®t for the data. The conclusion is that on the oldest
martian uplands, smaller craters are probably in a rough equili-
brium with local obliteration processes, at least if we average over
large enough areas. A similar statement applies to Earth, but with
higher obliteration rates.
The comparison of crater size distributions on the old surfaces
and young lava surfaces of Mars, and the lunar mare lava plains,
indicates the wide range of surface ages on Mars, relative to the
Moon; this comparison supports a conclusion that the youngest
large-scale lava eruptions on Mars are much younger than on the
Moon, having occurred in the last few per cent of martian time. The
discovery of martian basaltic meteorites with crystallization ages of
1.3 Gyr or younger19 supports this conclusion. The crater statistics
that we report here suggest that volcanism is continuing on Mars in
current geological time. M eroded uplands adjacent to martian ¯uvial valleys and the implica-
Received 16 September; accepted 14 December 1998.
1. OÈ pik, E. J. Mariner IV and craters on Mars. Irish Astron. J. 7, 92±104 (1965); The Martian surface.
Science 153, 255±265 (1966).
2. Hartmann, W. K. Martian cratering (Paper I). Icarus 5, 565±576 (1966).
3. Chapman, C., Pollack, J. & Sagan, C. An Analysis of the Mariner 4 Photography of Mars (Spec. Rep. 268,
Smithson. Astrophys. Obs., 1968).
4. Hartmann, W. K. Martian cratering III: Theory of crater obliterations. Icarus 15, 410±428 (1971).
5. Jones, K. L. Evidence for an episode of crater obliteration intermediate in Martian history. J. Geophys.
Res. 79, 3917±3931 (1974).
6. Chapman, C. R. Cratering on Mars. I. Cratering and obliteration history. Icarus 22, 272±291 (1974).
7. Hartmann, W. K. Martian cratering, IV: Mariner 9 initial analysis of cratering chronology. J. Geophys.
Res. 78, 4096±4116 (1973).
8. Neukum, G. & Hiller, K. Martian ages. J. Geophys. Res. 86, 3097±3121 (1981).
9. Strom, R. G., Croft, S. K. & Barlow, N. G. in Mars (ed. Kieffer, H.) 383±423 (Univ. Arizona Press,
Tucson, 1992).
10. Hartmann, W. K. Planetary cratering 1. Lunar highlands and tests of hypotheses on crater
populations. Meteoritics 30, 451±467 (1995).
11. Plaut, J., Kahn, R., Guiness, E. & Arvidson, R. Accumulation of sedimentary debris in the south polar
region of Mars and implications for climate history. Icarus 76, 357±377 (1988).
12. Hartmann, W. K. et al. in Basaltic Volcanism on the Terrestrial Planets (eds Basaltic Volcanism Study
Project) 1050±1129 (Pergamon, Elmsford, NY, 1981).
13. Hartmann, W. K. & Gaskell, R. W. Planetary cratering 2: Studies of saturation equilibrium. Meteorit.
Planet. Sci. 32, 109±121 (1996).
14. Malin, M. C. et al. Early views of the Martian surface from the Mars Orbiter camera of Mars Global
Surveyor. Science 279, 1681±1685 (1998).
15. Binder, A. B. et al. The geology of the Viking 1 lander site. J. Geophys. Res. 82, 4439±4451 (1977).
16. Gault, D. E. & Baldwin, B. S. Impact cratering on Mars: some effects in the atmosphere. Eos 51, 343
(1970).
17. Carr, M. H. & Viking Orbiter Team Viking Orbiter View of Mars (Spec. Publ. 441, NASA Washington
DC, 1980).
18. Cinala, M. J. in Impact and Explosion Cratering (eds Roddy, D. J., Pepin, R. O. & Merrill, R. B.) 575±
592 (Pergamon, Elmsford, NY, 1977).
19. Nyquist, L. et al. A single-crater origin for Martian shergottites: Resolution of the age paradox? Lunar
Planet. Sci. 29, 1688 (1998).
Acknowledgements. We thank G. Herres, G. Esquerdo, and, in Madrid, J. Anguita and M. de las Casas, for
assistance with crater counts and data processing. We also thank D. Berman and G. Hartmann for editorial
assistance.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to W.K.H. (e-mail: hartmann@psi.edu).
NATURE | VOL 397 | 18 FEBRUARY 1999 | www.nature.com
© 1999 Macmillan Magazines Ltd
letters to nature
Groundwater formation
of martian valleys
Michael C. Malin* & Michael H. Carr²
* Malin Space Science Systems, PO Box 910148, San Diego,
California 92191-0148, USA
² US Geological Survey, 345 Middle®eld Road, Menlo Park,
California 94025, USA
.........................................................................................................................
The martian surface shows large out¯ow channels, widely
accepted as having been formed by gigantic ¯oods that could
have occurred under climatic conditions like those seen today1±5.
Also present are branching valley networks that commonly have
tributaries1±8. These valleys are much smaller than the out¯ow
channels and their origins and ages have been controversial. For
example, they might have formed through slow erosion by water
running across the surface, either early or late in Mars' history9±13,
possibly protected from harsh conditions by ice cover14±16. Alter-
natively, they might have formed through groundwater or
ground-ice processes that undermine the surface and cause
collapse, again either early or late in Mars' history3,4. Long-
duration surface runoff would imply climatic conditions quite
different from the present environment. Here we present high-
resolution images of martian valleys that support the view that
ground water played an important role in their formation,
although we are unable as yet to establish when this occurred.
Images acquired by the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) during the
aerobraking phase (September 1997 to February 1998) of the Mars
Global Surveyor mission typically have resolutions in the range 4±
8 m per pixel, in most cases a factor of 20±50 times better than
previous imaging17,18. The images reveal new details about the
valleys that strongly support an origin by ¯uid erosion. Although
apparent drainage networks are observed locally, dissection of the
adjacent upland surface, as might be expected if the ¯uid had an
atmospheric rather than a subsurface source, is not seen. The lack of
tion for a localized water source was previously noted in studies of
Viking Orbiter images19,20.
Figure 1 is an image of Nanedi VallisÐan 800-km-long valley
that appears incised into cratered plains north of the Valles
Marineris. Nanedi Vallis is one of the longest and freshest-appearing
of the martian valley networks. Despite its length it has only a few
short tributaries, and no obvious catchment area. It starts close to
the equator at 498 W in an area where there is other evidence for
groundwater action, including the source of the out¯ow channel,
Shalbatana Vallis. The circuitous path of the valley seen here appears
to have been inherited from sur®cial ¯uid movement, although the
source of the ¯uid is not apparent. Such arcuate and reversing paths
are dif®cult, if not impossible, to create by headward erosion (that
is, progressively upstream towards the source) of a stream, lending
support to an interpretation, based on visual appearance, that the
valley formed by entrenchment of an originally meandering ¯ow.
This interpretation is further strengthened by the observation of an
interior channel, presumably the speci®c course of the valley-
forming ¯uid. However, as with many entrenched valley systems
on Earth, mass movements accompanying groundwater action are
likely to have created much of the relief and width of the presently
observed valley. It could be argued that valley formation re¯ected
groundwater processes fed by precipitation, and that the lack of
dissection of the adjacent plain is the result of high permeability of
the near-surface materials21. However, the total absence of metre-
scale dissection here and elsewhere on Mars, and the near-absence of
upstream tributaries (suggesting a spatially limited source), support
a subsurface rather than atmospheric source.
These MOC images show clearly that the uncratered and often
589
ExoMars
Searching for Life on the Red Planet
 ExoMars

Jorge Vago, Bruno Gardini, Gerhard Kminek,

Pietro Baglioni, Giacinto Gianfiglio,
Andrea Santovincenzo, Silvia Bayón
& Michel van Winnendael
Directorate for Human Spaceflight,
Microgravity and Exploration Programmes,
ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands

stablishing whether life ever existed on

E Mars, or is still active today, is an

outstanding question of our time. It is also
a prerequisite to prepare for future human
exploration. To address this important
objective, ESA plans to launch the ExoMars
mission in 2011. ExoMars will also develop and
demonstrate key technologies needed to extend
Europe’s capabilities for planetary exploration.

Mission Objectives
ExoMars will deploy two science elements
on the Martian surface: a rover and a
small, fixed package. The Rover will
search for signs of past and present life
on Mars, and characterise the water and
geochemical environment with depth by
collecting and analysing subsurface
samples. The fixed package, the
Geophysics/Environment Package (GEP),
will measure planetary geophysics para-
meters important for understanding
Mars’s evolution and habitability,
identify possible surface hazards to
future human missions, and study the
environment.
The Rover will carry a comprehensive
suite of instruments dedicated to exo-
biology and geology: the Pasteur payload.
It will travel several kilometres searching
for traces of life, collecting and
analysing samples from inside surface
rocks and by drilling down to 2 m. The
very powerful combination of mobility
and accessing locations where organic
molecules may be well-preserved is
unique to this mission.

esa bulletin 126 - may 2006 17

 ExoMars will also pursue important
technology objectives aimed at extend-
ing Europe’s capabilities in planetary
exploration. It will demonstrate the
descent and landing of a large payload on
Mars; the navigation and operation of a
mobile scientific platform; a novel drill to
obtain subsurface samples; and meet
challenging planetary protection and
cleanliness levels necessary to achieve the
mission’s ambitious scientific goals.
The Search for Life
Exobiology, in its broadest terms, denotes
the study of the origin, evolution and
distribution of life in the Universe. It is
well established that life arose very early
on the young Earth. Fossil records show
that life had already attained a large degree
of biological sophistication 3500 million
years ago. Since then, it has proved
extremely adaptable, colonising even the
most disparate ecological habitats, from
the very cold to the very hot, and spanning
a wide range of pressure and chemical
conditions. For organisms to have emerged
and evolved, water must have been readily
available on our planet. Life as we know it
relies, above all else, upon liquid water.
Without it, the metabolic activities of
living cells are not possible. In the absence
of water, life either ceases or slips into
quiescence.
Mars today is cold, desolate and dry. Its
surface is highly oxidised and exposed to
sterilising and degrading ultraviolet (UV)
radiation. Low temperature and pressure
preclude the existence of liquid water;
except, perhaps, in localised environments,
and then only episodically. Nevertheless,
numerous features such as large channels,
dendritic valley networks, gullies and
18 esa bulletin 126 - may 2006
sedimentary rock formations suggest the
past action of surface liquid water on Mars
– and lots of it. In fact, the sizes of out-
flow channels imply immense discharges,
exceeding any floods known on Earth.
Mars’s observable geological record
spans some 4500 million years. From
the number of superposed craters, the
oldest terrain is believed to be about
4000 million years old, and the youngest
possibly less than 100 million years.
Most valley networks are ancient
(3500–4000 million years), but as many
as 25–35% may be more recent. Today,
water on Mars is only stable as ice at the
poles, as permafrost in widespread
underground deposits, and in trace
amounts in the atmosphere. From a
biological perspective, past liquid water
itself motivates the question of life on
Mars. If Mars’ surface was warmer and
wetter for the first 500 million years of
its history, perhaps life arose independ-
ently there at more or less the same time
as it did on Earth.
An alternative pathway may have been
the transport of terrestrial organisms
embedded in meteoroids, delivered from
Earth. Yet another hypothesis is that life
may have developed within a warm, wet
subterranean environment. In fact, given
the discovery of a flourishing biosphere a
kilometre below Earth’s surface, a similar
vast microbial community may be active
on Mars, forced into that ecological niche
by the disappearance of a more benign
surface environment. The possibility that
life may have evolved on Mars during an
earlier period surface water, and that
organisms may still exist underground,
marks the planet as a prime candidate in
the search for life beyond Earth.
Hazards for Manned Operations on Mars
Before we can contemplate sending
astronauts to Mars, we must understand
and control any risks that may pose a
threat to a mission’s success. We can
begin to assess some of these risks with
ExoMars.
Ionising radiation is probably the single
most important limiting factor for
human interplanetary flight. To evaluate
its danger and to define efficient mitigation
strategies, it is desirable to incorporate
radiation-monitoring capabilities during
cruise, orbit and surface operations on
precursor robotic missions to Mars.
Another physical hazard may result
from the basic mechanical properties of
the Martian soil. Dust particles will
invade the interior of a spacecraft
during surface operations, as shown
during Apollo’s operations on the
Moon. Dust inhalation can pose a
threat to astronauts on Mars, and even
more so under microgravity during the
return flight to Earth. Characteristics of
the soil, including the sizes, shapes and
compositions of individual particles,
can be studied with dedicated in situ
instrumentation. However, a more
in-depth assessment, including a
toxicity analysis, requires the return of a
suitable Martian sample.
Reactive inorganic substances could
present chemical hazards on the surface.
Free radicals, salts and oxidants are very
aggressive in humid conditions such as the
lungs and eyes. Toxic metals, organics and
pathogens are also potential hazards. As
with dust, chemical hazards in the soil will
contaminate the interior of a spacecraft
during surface operations. They could
damage the health of astronauts and the
www.esa.int

The ExoMars Rover will be able to drill down to 2 m for samples
operation of equipment. Many potential
inorganic and organic chemical hazards
may be identified with the ExoMars
search-for-life instruments.
Geophysics Measurements
The processes that have determined the
long-term ‘habitability’ of Mars depend
on the geodynamics of the planet, and
on its geological evolution and activity.
Important issues still need to be resolved.
www.esa.int
What is Mars’ internal structure? Is there
any volcanic activity on Mars? The
answers may allow us to extrapolate into
the past, to estimate when and how
Mars lost its magnetic field, and the
importance of volcanic outgassing for the
early atmosphere.
ExoMars will also carry the Geophysics/
Environment Package, accommodated on
the Descent Module and powered by a
small radioisotope thermal generator.
A Mars Express image of the Ares Vallis region,
showing evidence of ancient, vast water discharges.
This immense channel, 1400 km long, empties into
Chryse Planitia, where Mars Pathfinder landed in
1997. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin, G. Neukem)
Searching for Signs of Life
If life ever arose on the Red Planet, it
probably did so when Mars was warmer
and wetter, during its initial 500–
1000 million years. Conditions then were
similar to those on early Earth: active
volcanism and outgassing, meteoritic
impacts, large bodies of liquid water, and
a mildly reducing atmosphere. We may
reasonably expect that microbes quickly
became global. Nevertheless, there is
inevitably a large measure of chance
involved in finding convincing evidence of
ancient, microscopic life forms.
On Earth’s surface, the permanent
presence of running water, solar-UV
radiation, atmospheric oxygen and life
itself quickly erases all traces of any
exposed, dead organisms. The only
opportunity to detect them is to find their
biosignatures encased in a protective
environment, as in suitable rocks.
However, since high-temperature meta-
morphic processes and plate tectonics
have reformed most ancient terrains, it is
very difficult to find rocks on Earth older
than 3000 million years in good condition.
Mars, on the other hand, has not suffered
such widespread tectonic activity. This
means there may be rock formations from
the earliest period of Martian history that
have not been exposed to high-temperature
recycling. Consequently, well-preserved
ancient biomarkers may still be accessible
for analysis.
Even on Earth, a major difficulty in
searching for primitive life is that, in
essence, we are looking for the remnants of
minuscule beings whose fossilised forms
can be simple enough to be confused with
tiny mineral precipitates. This issue lies at
the heart of a heated debate among
esa bulletin 126 - may 2006 19
 Aurora

palaeobiologists. It is therefore doubtful

that any one signature suggestive of life
– whether it is an image implying a
biostructure, an interesting organic
compound or a fractionated isotopic ratio
– may reliably demonstrate a biogenic
Mission strategy to achieve ExoMars’s scientific objectives: origin. Several independent lines of
evidence are required to construct a
1 To land on, or be able to reach, a location with high exobiology interest for past and/or
compelling case. ExoMars must therefore
present life signatures, i.e. access to the appropriate geological environment.
pursue a holistic search strategy, attacking
the problem from multiple angles,
2 To collect scientific samples from different sites, using a Rover carrying a drill capable of including geological and environmental
reaching well into the soil and surface rocks. This requires mobility and access to the investigations (to characterise potential
subsurface. habitats), visible examination of samples
3 At each site, to conduct an integral set of measurements at multiple scales: beginning with (morphology) and spectrochemical
a panoramic assessment of the geological environment, progressing to smaller-scale composition analyses.
investigations on interesting surface rocks using a suite of contact instruments, and In 1976, the twin Viking landers
culminating with the collection of well-selected samples to be studied by the Rover’s conducted the first in situ measurements
analytical laboratory. focusing on the detection of organic
compounds and life on Mars. Their
4 To characterise geophysics and environment parameters relevant to planetary evolution,
biology package contained three
life and hazards to humans.
experiments, all looking for signs of
To arrive at a clear and unambiguous conclusion on the existence of past or present life at metabolism in soil samples. One, the
the Rover sites, it is essential that the instrumentation can provide mutually reinforcing lines of labelled-release experiment, produced
evidence, while minimising the opportunities for alternative interpretations. provocative results. If other information
It is also imperative that all instruments be carefully designed so that none is a weak link in had not been also available, these data
the chain of observations; performance limitations in an instrument intended to confirm the could have been interpreted as proof of
results obtained by another should not generate confusion and discredit the whole biological activity. However, theoretical
measurement. modelling of the atmosphere and regolith
chemistry hinted at powerful oxidants
The science strategy for the Pasteur payload is therefore to provide a self-consistent set of
that could more-or-less account for the
instruments to obtain reliable evidence, for or against, the existence of a range of
results of the three experiments. The
biosignatures at each search location.
biggest blow was the failure of the Viking
gas chromatograph mass spectrometer
Spacecraft: Carrier plus Descent Module (including Rover and GEP) (GCMS) to find evidence of organic
Data-relay provided by NASA molecules at the parts-per-billion level.
Launch: May–June 2011, from Kourou on Soyuz-2b (backup 2013) With few exceptions, the majority of the
scientific community has concluded that
Arrival: June 2013 (backup 2015)
the Viking results do not demonstrate the
Landing: Direct entry, from hyperbolic trajectory, after the dust storm season. presence of life. Numerous attempts have
Latitudes 15˚S–45˚N, all longitudes, altitude: <0 m, relative been made in the laboratory to simulate
to the MGS/MOLA* zero level the Viking reactions. While some have
Science: Rover with Pasteur payload: reproduced certain aspects, none has
mass 120–180 kg, includes: Drill System/SPDS and instruments (8 kg); succeeded entirely. Incredibly, 30 years
lifetime 180 sols after Viking, the crucial chemical oxidant
hypothesis remains untested. ExoMars
Geophysics Environment Package (GEP):
will include a powerful instrument to
mass <20 kg; includes: instruments (~4 kg); lifetime 6 years
study oxidants and their relation to
Ground Mission control and mission operations: ESOC organics distribution on Mars.
Segment: Rover operation on Mars surface: Rover Operations Centre Undoubtedly, the present environment
GEP operations: to be decided on Mars is exceedingly harsh for the
*MGS/MOLA: Mars Global Surveyor/Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter widespread proliferation of surface life: it
is simply too cold and dry, not to mention
the large doses of UV. Notwithstanding

20 esa bulletin 126 - may 2006 www.esa.int

 ExoMars

Recommended Pasteur Exobiology Instruments1

Panorami c To characterise the Rover’s geological context (surface and subsurface). Typical scales span from panoramic to
Instruments 10 m, with a resolution of the order of 1 cm for close targets.

Panoramic Camera 2 wide-angle stereo cameras and 1 high-resolution camera; to characterise the Rover’s environment and its
System geology. Also very important for target selection.
Infrared (IR) For the remote identification of water-related minerals, and for target selection.
Spectrometer
Ground Penetrating) To establish the subsurface soil stratigraphy down to 3 m depth, and to help plan the drilling strategy.
Radar (GPR)

C ont ac t To investigate exposed bedrock, surface rocks and soils. Among the scientific interests at this scale are:
Instruments macroscopic textures, structures and layering; and bulk mineralogical and elemental characterisation. This
information will be fundamental to collect samples for more detailed analysis. The preferred solution is to
deploy the contact instruments using an arm-and-paw arrangement, as in Beagle-2. Alternatively, in case of mass
limitations, they could be accommodated at the base of the subsurface drill.

Close-Up Imager To study rock targets visually at close range (cm) with sub-mm resolution.
Mössbauer Spectrometer To study the mineralogy of Fe-bearing rocks and soils.
Raman-LIBS2 external To determine the geochemistry/organic content and atomic composition of observed minerals. These optical
heads are external heads connected to the instruments inside the analytical laboratory.

Su pp ort These instruments are devoted to the acquisition and preparation of samples for detailed investigations in the
Instruments analytical laboratory. They must follow specific acquisition and preparation protocols to guarantee the optimal
survival of any organic molecules in the samples. The mission’s ability to break new scientific ground, particularly
for signs-of-life investigations, depends on these two instruments.

Subsurface Drill Capable of obtaining samples from 0 m to 2 m depths, where organic molecules might be well-preserved.
It also integrates temperature sensors and an IR spectrometer for borehole mineralogy studies.
Sample Preparation Receives a sample from the drill system, prepares it for scientific analysis, and presents it to all analytical
and Distribution laboratory instruments. A very important function is to produce particulate material while preserving the
System (SPDS) organic and water content.

Analytical To conduct a detailed analysis of each sample. The first step is a visual and spectroscopic inspection. If the
L a bor at or y sample is deemed interesting, it is ground up and the resulting particulate material is used to search for organic
molecules and to perform more accurate mineralogical investigations.

Microscope IR To examine the collected samples to characterise their structure and composition at grain-size level. These
measurements will also be used to select sample locations for further detailed analyses by the Raman-LIBS
spectrometers.
Raman-LIBS To determine the geochemistry/organic content and elemental composition of minerals in the collected samples.
X-ray Diffractometer (XRD) To determine the true mineralogical composition of a sample’s crystalline phases.
Urey (Mars Organics Mars Organics Detector (MOD): extremely high-sensitivity detector (ppt) to search for amino acids, nucleotide
and Oxidants Detector) bases and PAHs in the collected samples. Can also function as front-end to the GCMS. Mars Oxidants
Instrument (MOI): determines the chemical reactivity of oxidants and free radicals in the soil and atmosphere.
GCMS Gas chromatograph mass spectrometer to conduct a broad-range, very-high sensitivity search for organic
molecules in the collected samples; also for atmospheric analyses.
Life-Marker Chip Antibody-based instrument with very high specificity to detect present life reliably.
1Mass (without drill and SPDS): 12.5 kg. 2LIBS: Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy.

Recommended Pasteur Environment Instruments3

Environment To characterise possible hazards to future human missions and to increase our knowledge of the Martian
Instruments environment.

Dust Suite Determines the dust grain size distribution and deposition rate. It also measures water vapour with high
precision.
UV Spectrometer Measures the UV radiation spectrum.
Ionising Radiation Measures the ionising radiation dose reaching the surface from cosmic rays and solar particle events.
Meteorological Package Measures pressure, temperature, wind speed and direction, and sound.
3Mass: 1.9 kg. The Pasteur environment instruments are presently planned to be accommodated in the GEP.

www.esa.int esa bulletin 126 - may 2006 21

 Aurora
these hazards, basic organisms could still
flourish in protected places: deep
underground, at shallow depths in
especially benign environments, or within
rock cracks and inclusions.
The strategy to find traces of past
biological activity rests on the assumption
that any surviving signatures of interest
will be preserved in the geological record,
in the form of buried/encased remains,
organic material and microfossils.
Similarly, because current surface
conditions are hostile to most known
organisms, as when looking for signs of
extant life, the search methodology should
focus on investigations in protected
niches: underground, in permafrost or
within surface rocks. This means that
there is a good possibility that the same
sampling device and instrumentation
may adequately serve both types of
studies. The biggest difference is due to
location requirements. In one case, the
interest lies in areas occupied by ancient
bodies of water over many thousands
of years. In the other, the emphasis is on
water-rich environments close to the
surface and accessible to our sensors
today. For the latter, the presence of
permafrost alone may not be enough.
Permafrost in combination with a
sustained heat source, probably of volcanic
or hydrothermal origin, may be necessary.
Such warm oases can only be identified by
an orbital survey of the planet. In the next
22 esa bulletin 126 - may 2006
few years, a number of remote-sensing
satellites, like ESA’s Mars Express and
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
(MRO), will determine the water/ice
boundary across Mars and may help to
discover such warm spots. If they do exist,
they would be prime targets for missions
like ExoMars.
On Earth, microbial life quickly became
a global phenomenon. If the same
explosive process occurred on the young
Mars, the chances of finding evidence of it
are good. Even more interesting would be
the discovery and study of life forms that
have successfully adapted to the modern
Mars. However, this presupposes the prior
identification of geologically suitable, life-
friendly locations where it can be
demonstrated that liquid water still exists,
at least episodically throughout the year.
For these reasons, the ‘Red Book’ science
team advised ESA to focus on the
detection of extinct life, but to build
enough flexibility into the mission to be
able to target sites with the potential for
present life.
Mission Description
The baseline mission scenario consists of
a spacecraft composite with a Carrier and
a Descent Module, launched by a
Soyuz-2b from Kourou. It will follow a
2-year ‘delayed trajectory’ in order to
reach Mars after the dust-storm season.
The Descent Module will be released from
The ExoMars surface science exploration scenario. The Rover will
conduct measurements of multiple scales, starting with a
panoramic assessment of the geological environment, progressing
to more detailed investigations on surface rocks using a suite of
contact instruments, and culminating with the collection of
well-selected samples to be analysed in its laboratory
the hyperbolic arrival path, and land
using either bouncing (non-vented, as in
NASA’s rovers) or non-bouncing (vented)
airbags, and deploy the Rover and GEP.
In the baseline mission, data-relay for
the Rover will be provided by a NASA
orbiter.
An alternative configuration, based on
an Ariane-5 ECA launcher, may be
implemented depending on programme,
technical and financial considerations.
In this option, the Carrier is replaced
with an Orbiter that provides end-to-end
data relay for the surface elements. The
Orbiter will also carry a science payload
to complement the results from the
Rover and GEP, and provide continuity
to the great scientific discoveries flowing
from Mars Express.
ExoMars is a search-for-life mission
targeting regions with high life potential.
It has therefore been classified as
Planetary Protection category IVc. This,
coupled with the mission’s ambitious
scientific goals, imposes challenging
sterilisation and organic cleanliness
requirements.
The ExoMars Rover
The Rover will have a nominal lifetime of
180 sols (about 6 months). This period
provides a regional mobility of several
kilometres, relying on solar array electrical
power. The Pasteur model payload
includes panoramic instruments (cameras,
ground-penetrating radar and IR spectro-
meter; contact instruments for studying
surface rocks (close-up imager and
Mössbauer spectrometer), a subsurface
drill to reach depths of 2 m and to
collect specimens from exposed bedrock,
a sample preparation and distribution
unit, and the analytical laboratory. The
latter includes a microscope, an
oxidation sensor and a variety of
www.esa.int

The analysis sequence within Pasteur’s analytical laboratory
instruments for characterising the
organic substances and geochemistry in
the collected samples.
A key element is the drill. The reason for
the 2 m requirement is the need to obtain
pristine sample material for analysis.
Whereas the estimated extinction horizon
for oxidants in the subsurface is several
centimetres, damaging ionising radiation
can penetrate to depths of around 1 m.
Additionally, it is unlikely that loose dust
may hold interesting biosignatures,
because it has been moved around by
wind and processed by UV radiation. In
the end, organic substances may best be
preserved within low-porosity material.
Hence, the ExoMars drill must be able
to penetrate and obtain samples from
well-consolidated (hard) formations,
such as sedimentary rocks and evaporitic
deposits. Additionally, it must monitor
and control torque, thrust, penetration
depth and temperature at the drill bit.
Grain-to-grain friction in a rotary drill
can generate a heat wave in the sample,
www.esa.int
destroying the organic molecules that
ExoMars seeks to detect. The drill must
therefore have a variable cutting protocol,
to dissipate heat in a science-safe
manner. Finally, the drill’s IR spectro-
meter will conduct mineralogy studies
inside the borehole.
Conclusion
NASA’s highly successful 2004 rovers
were conceived as robotic geologists. They
have demonstrated the past existence of
long-lasting, wet environments on Mars.
Their results have persuaded the scientific
community that mobility is a must-have
requirement for all future surface missions.
Recent results from Mars Express have
revealed multiple, ancient deposits
containing clay minerals that form only
in the presence of liquid water. This
reinforces the hypothesis that ancient
Mars may have been wetter, and possibly
warmer, than it is today. NASA’s 2009
Mars Science Laboratory will study
surface geology and organics, with the
ExoMars
The Pasteur payload’s drill-bit design concept. The drill’s full 2 m
extension is achieved by assembling four sections (one drill tool
rod, with an internal shutter and sample-collection capability, plus
three extension rods). The drill will also be equipped with an IR
spectrometer for mineralogy studies inside the borehole. (Galileo
Avionica)
goal of identifying habitable environ-
ments. ExoMars is the next logical step.
It will have instruments to investigate
whether life ever arose on the Red
Planet. It will also be the first mission
with the mobility to access locations
where organic molecules may be well-
preserved, thus allowing, for the first
time, investigation of Mars’ third
dimension: depth. This alone is a
guarantee that the mission will break
new scientific ground. Finally, the many
technologies developed for this project
will allow ESA to prepare for
international collaboration on future
missions, such as Mars Sample Return.
Following the recent accomplishments
of Huygens and Mars Express,
ExoMars provides Europe with a new
challenge, and a new opportunity to
demonstrate its capacity to perform
world-class planetary science.
ExoMars is now in Phase-B1 and is
expected to begin Phase-B2 in mid-2007
and Phase-C/D in early 2008. e
esa bulletin 126 - may 2006 23
 Doctoral Dissertation Research Proposal:
Geographic Representations of the Planet Mars, 1867-1907

K. Maria D. Lane
Department of Geography, University of Texas

Committee: Ian R. Manners (Chair), Diana K. Davis,

Steven D. Hoelscher, Kelley A. Crews-Meyer, Roger Hart

Abstract

This dissertation research will use archival and interpretive methods to examine
geographical representations of the planet Mars produced by Western astronomers and science
writers in the late nineteenth century. Specifically, this project will investigate the ways in which
the development of cartography and texts portraying Mars between 1867 and 1907 participated in
wider ideological discourses concerning science, imperialism and modernity. The working
hypothesis is that representations of Mars’ geography not only reflected the social contexts of
astronomical societies, sponsored observatories, and the larger Western scientific communities
through the use of common textual tropes and cartographic conventions; but that they also served
to modify or construct these very contexts. The proposed research will investigate the extent to
which historical geographies of Mars challenged or altered dominant discourses of modern
Western superiority by representing the planet as a landscape inhabited by beings with superior
engineering and organizational skills.
This inquiry will be conducted through archival investigation of three specific conflicts in
the representation of Mars that marked turning points in the planet’s astronomy: over (1) the
nomenclature assigned to its geographical features, (2) the mapping of canals on its surface, and
(3) the interpretation of such canals as the work of intelligent beings. Interpretive analysis of
archival materials – including astronomers’ original maps, sketches, manuscripts, observation
logbooks, correspondence and lectures; popular media coverage of astronomers’ findings; and
contemporaneous maps and documents produced for imperial and other purposes – will focus on
reconstructing the historical, social and cultural contexts in which astronomers worked, while also
establishing the extent to which discourses of Mars’ geography infiltrated other scientific,
imperial and popular dialogues during the same time period. Analysis will be guided by the
hypothesis stated above, but will remain open to other scientific-cultural explanations for the
nature and meaning of what appear today to be rather curious and remarkable geographies of the
Martian landscape. By focusing on maps and texts that are relatively unknown to scholars
outside the history of astronomy, this research will contribute materially and theoretically to the
history of cartography, science studies, historical geography and studies of colonialism.
Introduction and Research Question

Despite the growing interest in nineteenth-century geographical representation, no

geographer has yet seriously examined the remarkable discourses that emerged during the latter

half of the century to represent the geography of worlds beyond Earth. Popular histories of

astronomy (e.g. Sheehan 1996; Morton 2002) indicate that astronomers collected extensive

geographic data about the nearby planets, usually recording their findings in detailed maps that

were strikingly similar in appearance to many of the well-studied imperial maps produced during

the same time period. Although much of this astronomical-geographical knowledge compiled

during the late nineteenth century has since been revised or discarded on the basis of twentieth-

century remote sensing images, I contend that colonial-era discourses concerning otherworldly

geographies had widespread scientific and cultural significance at the time they were created.

The representation of Mars as a canal-covered landscape in 1877, for example, not only

reverberated throughout the Western world’s scientific communities, but also initiated a storm of

public debate and speculation regarding humankind’s isolation in the universe. Numerous

astronomers’ claims that they could see a canal network on the Martian surface induced

widespread theoretical acceptance of the “plurality of worlds” (the existence of humanoid life on

celestial bodies other than Earth) in both Europe and the United States over nearly four decades

(Guthke 1983; Crowe 1986). Despite the clear cultural significance of this episode, it has largely

been dismissed by standard teleological approaches in the history of astronomy as a case of

scientific error. The proposed research rejects that interpretation, suggesting instead that a

detailed investigation of the statements and interactions of individual astronomers, scientists,

public officials and even public media between 1867 and 1907 will reveal the Mars “canal craze”

to be a significant and complex negotiation of sciences, cultures, and modernities. Specifically,

the project will address the following research questions:

1. In what ways did prominent nineteenth-century geographical discourses regarding Mars’
surface features and inhabitants reflect the specific social contexts of astronomical societies,
sponsored observatories, and the larger Western scientific communities?

2. How were scientific representations of Mars as an inhabited, irrigated planet contested and,
ultimately, widely accepted as true in Europe and the United States?

3. To what extent did geographies of Mars challenge dominant discourses of modern Western
superiority by representing the planet as a landscape inhabited by beings with superior
engineering and organizational skills?

Theoretical Context

This project is theoretically informed by several related literatures that form a compelling

interdisciplinary intersection: studies of colonialism, the history of cartography, and science

studies. The proposed project will draw from recent inquiries in these literatures, contributing

materially or theoretically to each.

Studies of Colonialism

Historically, the late nineteenth-century production of scientific Mars maps coincided

with a period of intense European imperialism, during which both science and cartography

(especially scientific cartography) were fundamental to the establishment and maintenance of

European power in the colonial realms (Anderson 1991; Godlewska 1995; Ryan 1996; Edney

1997). In the last two decades, studies of nineteenth-century imperialism and colonialism have

been dominated by post-colonial scholarship that concerns itself with analysis of the ways in

which imperial (and, to a lesser extent, indigenous) maps and texts constitute “discourses,”

through which knowledge and power have been negotiated and institutionalized in various

regions of the world.

The foundational post-colonial work, Said’s Orientalism (1978), argued that imperialism

depended for its power on discursive strategies and social practices that constructed geographical

knowledge about the colonial realm. Specifically, Said analyzed “Orientalist” discourse to show

that Western geographic knowledge about the Islamic world has relied on implicit epistemologies

that powerfully support Western dominance of Islamic regions and peoples. He claimed that

2
Western Orientalists’ creation of an “imaginative geography” to describe the Islamic world is

traceable in the repetition of certain tropes and literary conventions, and that the uncritical

acceptance and repetition of these tropes and conventions in Orientalist scholarship frequently

resulted in an imaginative discourse that bore little relation to the region’s actual geography.

According to Said, Orientalist writing should thus be viewed less as a commentary on the Orient

itself than as a reflection of the Occident, showing that Europeans establish their identity in

opposition to non-Europeanness, establishing themselves always in a superior, hegemonic

position.

Despite its merits, however, Said’s work has rightly been criticized for presenting an

essentialized, totalizing view of Western scholarship. Although Orientalism analyzed individual

texts and authors, Said painted them as powerfully constrained within the bounds of Orientalist

structure and ignored any resistance or divergence of approaches, thus leaving himself open to

damaging criticism that his analysis implicated all Western authors/scholars in the production of

imaginative geographies that fueled imperialism (Driver 1992). Subsequent post-colonial

scholarship has helpfully focused its scope on a wider variety of Orientalist texts, authors, genres

and historical situations (see especially Lowe 1991; Pratt 1992), highlighting many cases of

discursive resistance to imperial ideologies and activities.

The proposed research will contribute to colonial studies not only by analyzing the extent

to which selected astronomical imagery and writing served to construct a previously unstudied

“imaginative geography” of Mars, but also by assessing the possibility that such representation

constituted a challenge to the dominant Orientalism Said identified. Preliminary analysis

suggests that nineteenth-century astronomers and popular science writers used common tropes

and metaphors to make the planet’s unfamiliar geography conceptually accessible and familiar to

scientific colleagues and popular audiences. Through repetition and uncritical citation of each

other’s work, it appears that European and American astronomers created a powerful discourse

that represented the red planet as an Earthlike, inhabited, engineered, and irrigated landscape.

3
This discourse employed a number of familiar metaphors that were also present in orientalist and

colonial texts, including association with the eternal and immutable classical world (Godlewska

1995), the supposed crippling aridity (Saberwal 1997; Grove 1997) and ruined landscape (Grove

and Rackham 2001) of the distant realm, and environmental determinism of inhabitants’

physique/intelligence (Hudson 1977). The nineteenth-century imaginative geography of Mars,

like those produced by Orientalists to represent the Islamic world, was certainly more reflective

of astronomers’ own geographical notions than of the reality of Mars’ surface characteristics.

Nonetheless, it seems to have constrained subsequent investigations and compelled certain

perspectives of Mars’ geography until at least the 1960s, when photographic imagery taken by

remote probes contradicted the view of Mars as an inhabited planet.

Interestingly, however, the standard imaginative representations of Mars appear to have

departed from or challenged several well-known imperial tropes, including the presentation of the

unknown realm as an empty wilderness (Blaut 1993), the effacement of human presence (Pratt

1992) or “creative destruction” of an existing culture to make way for European customs

(Godlewska 1995), the presentation of any inhabitants as backward and depraved (Said 1978),

and the assumed superiority of European civilization through technology (Godlewska 1995). The

imagined Martians of the late nineteenth century were not the animal-like inhabitants that

Europeans described after visiting the Orient; they were skilled, noble engineers who managed to

irrigate their arid planet with a massive global system of interlinked canals. These cosmic

neighbors were hardly inferior to the modern European technologists who had just completed

their first major canal (Suez) in 1869.

This preliminary analysis raises exciting challenges to Said’s widely-accepted concept of

Orientalism, suggesting that the discourse astronomers engaged in to represent the geography of

Mars constructed a familiar imaginative Other that was actually superior to modern Europeans.

The ways in which conceptual engagement with this Other – through scientific, philosophical,

4
and popular discourses – may have deflected, challenged or transformed modernity’s truth claims

in the West will serve as the primary inquiry of the proposed research.

History of Cartography

Recent scholarship in the history of cartography has paralleled and contributed to many

of the developments described above in studies of colonialism. Rejecting a common view of the

history of cartography as a linear evolution of cartographic styles, conventions and technologies

that continually increase the accuracy of observation, calculation and representation in

mapmaking, new approaches in the last few decades have begun to question this prevailing

narrative’s Eurocentrism, its claims to objective truth, and its linear notions of progress. A

number of powerful revisions have instead begun to examine cartography as a cultural practice,

fraught with ideological meanings and distortions that undermine its claims to scientific

objectivity (Edgerton 1987; Boelhower 1988; Harley 1989). Following Harley’s (1989)

revolutionary contention that maps should be read as ideological, cultural texts, cartography has

generally come to be accepted as a form of discourse, in which knowledge and power are

expressed and negotiated.

Given cartography’s long association with the exercise of political and military power,

Harley suggested that geographers must consider how the particular historical and ideological

circumstances of a map’s production, use and consumption reflect and establish such power

(Harley 1988). Accordingly, some of the most productive recent work in the history of

cartography has critically examined map series prepared by colonial-era explorers and

administrators, especially examining the ways in which imperial cartographies metaphorically

justified colonial activities or erased indigenous peoples from desirable territories (Ryan 1994;

Carter 1999; Edney 1997). These works indicate that even reconnaissance cartographies

representing basic geographic data necessarily carry ideological meaning. The identity and

ideological position of the map’s maker, patron, and audience have been shown to fundamentally

5
influence the ways in which maps operate to construct or limit geographical knowledge

(Helgerson 1988; Ryan 1994; Manners 1997).

This literature clearly informs the proposed examination of nineteenth-century Mars

maps (and related representations), requiring a critical evaluation of the social contexts of

astronomical societies and sponsored observatories in which individual Mars astronomers

worked. Additionally, however, I suggest that the proposed research will contribute materially to

the history of cartography by bringing to light a series of map, imagery and texts that closely

paralleled the well-studied imperial maps of the same era. As argued above, the ways in which

Mars representations differed from standard imperial representations of unknown territories

should be examined as a potential site of resistance, in which astronomers differentiated

themselves from surveyors or geographers and presented a very different view of Western

superiority.

Although historians of astronomy and popular science biographers have made some use

of the collections I intend to visit, I argue that no modern researcher has seriously considered the

turn-of-the-century Mars maps as meaningful scientific or cartographic documents. Despite the

fact that historians and geographers have extensively examined imperial cartography produced in

the same era, the Mars canal maps have largely been disregarded as curiosities. The few

historical works to examine the collections that are relevant to this research have either limited

their analyses to chronological accounts of observation technology (Sheehan 1996) and the

origins of present-day Mars nomenclature (Blunck 1977), or have dealt only briefly with

nineteenth-century mapping as a historical backdrop to analysis of the cultural impact of

twentieth-century photographic Mars maps (Morton 2002). By focusing on Mars maps, drawings

and related items (correspondence, publications, lectures, etc.) that are relatively unknown to

critical scholars outside the history of astronomy, this research will provide a material

contribution to the history of cartography.

6
 Science Studies

The investigative framework for this study is informed primarily by recent advances in

science studies. Popular constructivist assertions of the 1970s and 1980s (e.g. Collins 1974;

Callon 1986) – that scientific knowledge is influenced by a cultural dimension – have been

replaced by critical scholarship that has formulated a model of science as culture (Shapin and

Schaffer 1985; Biagioli 1993). In re-reading and revising historical accounts that treat science

and culture as separate entities, this new approach to science studies suggests that scientific

change occurs as a result of complex cultural negotiation. Identifying numerous instances of

“translation” and “hybridization” (subversive appropriation) of one culture’s knowledge/power

claims by another, recent scholarship rejects Kuhn’s (1970) idea that science proceeds in

revolutionary leaps and bounds.

Contemporary science studies has engaged concepts developed in cultural studies to

explain the nature of scientific practice and its knowledge/power claims. A linguistic- or

discourse-based approach to the ways in which science is negotiated and formulated with various

cultural practices or political ideologies, however, raises a host of complex new issues for

historians of science to contend with. In critiquing the universal view of science, for instance,

historians of science must avoid lapsing into relativistic accounts of the linguistic

“incommensurability” of cultural worldviews or knowledge claims (Hart 1999). Such relativism

problematically asserts an unbridgeable divide between the “West” and its “Others,” lending

unfortunate credence to the persistent notion that Westerners have achieved superiority over non-

Western civilizations on the basis of technological superiority (Adas 1989) or unique quantitative

perceptions of reality (for a critique of this view, see Hart 2000). Recent cultural studies of

science have accordingly developed the concept of “translation” to dismantle monolithic notions

of “the West” and its “science,” fundamentally revising traditional historiography of the cultural

encounters between Western explorers, merchants, missionaries or colonial administrators and

non-Western societies (Prakash 1999; Hart 1999).

7
 The research proposed here will examine late nineteenth-century astronomy as a culture,

governed both by internal rules and constraints as well as external needs to communicate with

other scientific and institutional cultures. Archivally, this research will investigate the particular

settings in which individual astronomers worked to produce articles, lectures and, importantly,

maps that recorded their observational findings regarding Mars’ geography. Analytically, it will

elucidate the intertwining of particular national, institutional, and social contexts with

astronomers’ scientific activities. For instance, the proposed research will investigate the ways in

which astronomers’ use of modern cartographic conventions may have functioned as an attempt

to shore up astronomy’s (and astronomers’) disciplinary status in the face of increasing

imperialist hype and funding for natural sciences such as geography. Analysis of the interactions

among astronomers of differing nationalities, competing institutions, and varying social groups

will focus on the localized contestation and negotiation of particular knowledge claims through

both texts and maps. This focus will provide a critical view of the ways in which astronomers

positioned themselves and defined their scientific identity through their studies of Mars.

In addition, the proposed research will investigate the cultural interactions among Mars

astronomer-geographers and other intellectuals in related scientific and philosophical disciplines.

Applying a science studies approach, the debated acceptance of certain astronomers’ statements

regarding the existence of a canal network on Mars’ surface can be examined as a process of

translation and negotiation. Examination of the publications and direct communications between

individuals who interpreted the Martian canals as evidence of aliens and those who subscribed to

a metaphysical belief that humans were alone in the universe will help determine whether these

groups engaged in strategies of subversive appropriation and modification of each other’s claims.

If so, the textual and cartographic record of how such claims were translated and negotiated will

be probed for evidence of the extent to which the discourse regarding Mars’ canals produced new

cultural worldviews.

8
 Finally, this research will investigate the particular characteristics of the negotiated view

of Mars as a “plural world,” inhabited by humanoid “Others.” Although the late nineteenth-

century discourse regarding Mars’ inhabitants clearly employed notions of difference, familiarity

and superiority – elements that Said (Said 1978) identified as central to the modern Western

project of knowledge production – numerous astronomers and their allies formulated these

concepts differently, postulating that Martians were actually superior to humans. In this sense, I

argue, nineteenth-century Mars astronomy may have constituted an alternate modernity, one that

in fact interacted significantly with the contemporaneous imperialist modernity. Using a cultural

studies approach, this negotiation of modernities will be investigated as a process of cultural

translation, discernible in the historical record through publications by and communications

among representatives of the various modernities.

Research Plan and Methodology

Using methods of historical and archival research, this inquiry will be carried out by

examining three specific conflicts in the representation of Mars: (1) the controversy over Mars’

nomenclature, which focuses mainly on the contentious transition from Richard Proctor’s 1867

surname-based scheme to Giovanni Schiaparelli’s 1877 classical Latin convention based on the

geography of the ancient Mediterranean world; (2) the vigorous debate over the existence of

Martian canals between Schiaparelli and Nathaniel Green, whose 1877 maps differed widely in

level of detail; and (3) the conflicts regarding sensationalism during the “Canal Craze” of the

1890s and early 1900s, consisting mainly of attacks on Percival Lowell by skeptical astronomers

and other scientists who refuted his interpretations of the Martian canals as the work of intelligent

beings. Each of these controversies marked a turning point in Mars astronomy (Sheehan 1996)

and thus represents a rich opportunity for detailed analysis of the research questions outlined

above.

9
 Archival Research

To analyze these controversies, I will travel to relevant libraries and observatories (see

below) to view astronomers’ original maps, sketches, manuscripts, observation logbooks,

correspondence, lectures and other materials in order to reconstruct the specific historical and

social contexts that influenced their work. In addition, I will compare representations of Martian

geography with the numerous geographical discourses presented in secondary sources that have

been interpreted from contemporaneous maps and documents, such as those produced for

imperial purposes. Finally, I will review original sources at each repository (and related archives,

where necessary) for evidence of the extent to which discourses of Mars’ geography infiltrated

other scientific and popular dialogues during the same time period. This will include examination

of newspaper articles, popular essays, books and other materials.

Repository/Location
Lowell Observatory Library
Flagstaff, Arizona
Royal Astronomical
Society Library
London, UK
Brera Observatory Archive
Milan, Italy
Collections
Percival Lowell collection (1894-1916)
• Observation log books
• Correspondence
• Published manuscripts
• Lectures
• “Mars craze” clipping file
RAS Letters
• Richard Proctor correspondence
• Other Mars-related correspondence
RAS MSS
• Nathaniel Green’s Mars maps/drawings
1877-1888 and assorted personal papers
RAS Papers
• Proctor’s / Green’s publications
• Mars maps, various astronomers
• Scientific and popular journals
• RAS lectures
• Mars globes
• Cartoons
Giovanni Schiaparelli collection
• Observation logbooks
• Published manuscripts
• Mars drawings/maps
• Correspondence

10
 Interpretation and Analysis

Interpretive analysis of these archival materials will remain open to various cultural and

scientific explanations for the nature and meaning of what appear today to be rather curious and

remarkable geographies of the Martian landscape. The interpretive focus, however, will

primarily investigate the possibility that nineteenth-century Mars astronomy may have

significantly challenged dominant discourses of modern Western superiority by representing the

planet as a landscape inhabited by beings with superior engineering and organizational skills.

In order to assess the validity of this preliminary hypothesis, Said’s methodological

approach to discourse analysis will be used to identify narrative voice, literary structures, figures

of speech, images, themes, and motifs evident in individual scientific texts. Although Said did

not claim that his methods of discourse analysis could be applied to maps or other images, this

research will methodologically follow the examples of scholarship in the history of cartography

that suggests the identification and interpretation of conventions such as scale, framing, selection

and coding (Harley 1988; Cosgrove 1999) can be used to interpret maps as texts. To determine

the ways in which tropes and conventions used in individual texts and maps constituted (or did

not constitute) a broader discourse, Mars representations will be examined in relation to one

another. As Said showed for the Orientalist literary canon, I expect to be able to demonstrate that

certain representational conventions became broadly established in the Mars-related scientific

literature over time, especially when they metaphorically presented Mars’ geography in familiar

(terrestrial) terms.

Accepting Said’s (1978) premise (drawn from Foucault) that knowledge reflects and

maintains power, this project will seek to interpret the ways in which nineteenth-century

representations of Mars, which had widespread scientific and cultural significance at the time

they were created, influenced the hegemonic power of the modern Western nations in which such

representations were produced and consumed. In this regard, analysis of the Mars discourse will

be situated alongside analyses of contemporaneous orientalist discourses, such as Said’s argument

11
that imaginative geography produced the West’s superiority complex, Mitchell’s (1989) argument

that Western forms of representation themselves constitute a “method of order and truth”(236),

and even Bhabha’s (1995) hypothesis that European modernity was fashioned by its encounter

with the colonial Other.

In conducting an analysis of the Martian geography discourse, however, this research will

carefully avoid the pitfall of treating Western astronomy as if it were a unified endeavor.

Although I argue that a dominant discourse emerged to represent Mars, this research will

specifically focus on resistance and controversy (regarding the nomenclature applied to surface

features, for example) as a way of highlighting the heterogeneity of approaches to the

presentation of Mars. Learning from both Said’s mistakes and the helpful corrections provided

by subsequent colonial discourse analysts (Lowe 1991; Pratt 1992), this research will analyze the

ways in which competing representations of Mars were produced by astronomers working in

different professional and cultural settings, writing for different audiences. The resolution of

various controversies in favor of certain astronomers’ opinions over others’ will be assumed to

reflect a variety of power relationships that can be read through the discourse of the maps and

texts.

Preparation to Conduct the Proposed Research

In preparation for undertaking this research, I have begun communicating with

librarians/curators at repositories that hold the papers and maps of Proctor, Green, Lowell and

their contemporaries. In initial contacts, I have verified the extent and accessibility of their

collections, and have received enthusiastic support for my dissertation research. Although

contact has not yet been established with the Brera Observatory, where Schiaparelli’s papers and

maps are held, other researchers familiar with the facility have assured me that it will be

accessible and suitable for my research inquiries. Given this initial legwork, I propose that the

12
archival research activities outlined above can reasonably be accomplished according to the

timeline below.

Methodological Preparation

As a doctoral student, I have taken methodological coursework in historical/ archival

research and discourse/metaphor analysis that uniquely prepares me to undertake a complex

research design that will rely on historical interpretation of a number of disparate archival

sources. During this time, I have also completed two projects in original discourse analysis, both

of which resulted in well-received papers that have allowed me to clarify my understanding of

methodological nuances.

Language Competency

The majority of the documents and maps I intend to examine are in English, as Proctor,

Green and Lowell published and corresponded primarily in English. Schiaparelli’s work was

published mainly in Italian, however, and some of his correspondence (especially with English

and American colleagues) is in French. Accordingly, I have begun study of Italian this semester,

with a focus on reading skills, intending to attain the equivalent of second-year Italian by the time

I visit the Italian archives. My working knowledge of both Spanish and Portuguese will help me

swiftly achieve reading knowledge of Italian before summer 2004. To analyze correspondence

written in French, I intend to rely on existing or commissioned translations.

Timeline for Research Activities

Phase 1: January – April 2003 (Austin, Texas)

• Proposal defense, advancement to doctoral candidacy
• Secondary source readings on Percival Lowell and contemporaries
• Preparations for archival research at Lowell
• Italian language course
• Grantwriting

Phase 2: May – June 2003 (Flagstaff, Arizona)

• Archival research at Lowell Observatory

Phase 3: July – December 2003 (Austin, Texas)

13
• Analysis of research findings
• Followup travel to relevant U.S. repositories, as needed
• Secondary source readings on Richard Proctor, Nathaniel Green, Giovanni Schiaparelli
• Preparations for archival research at RAS, Brera
• Italian language courses (summer B and fall semester)
• Grantwriting

Phase 4: January – May 2004 (London, UK)

• Archival research at Royal Astronomical Society and related English repositories

Phase 5: June – August 2004 (Milan, Italy)

• Archival research at Brera Observatory and related Italian repositories

Phase 6: September 2004 – August 2005 (Austin, Texas)

• Analysis of research findings
• Dissertation writing
• Preparation of articles and conference presentations

Potential Funding Sources

To fund the archival phases of the proposed research, I applied in Fall 2002 or will apply
in Spring 2003 for a number of grants, fellowships, and awards, including:

• Council on Library and Information Resources: Mellon Fellowship for Dissertation Research
in Original Sources ($20,000 – 12 months)
• NASA-American Historical Association: Fellowship in Aerospace History
($20,000 – 12 months)
• National Science Foundation: Doctoral Dissertation Research Improvement Grant in Science
and Technology Studies ($12,000 – 9 months)
• University of Texas Department of Geography: Teaching Assistantship
($11,900 – 9 months)
• Society of Women Geographers: Evelyn L. Pruitt National Fellowships for Dissertation
Research ($15,000 – 12 months)
• Royal Astronomical Society: Grants for Studies in Astronomy and Geophysics (£5,000)
• J.B. Harley Research Fellowships in the History of Cartography (£1,000 – 4 weeks)

In addition, I intend to apply in Fall 2003 for awards that would fund dissertation writing after the
archival phases of the research are complete, including:

• American Association of University Women: American Fellowships for Dissertation

Research ($20,000 – 12 months)
• University of Texas: Harrington Dissertation Fellowship ($25,000 – 12 months)

14
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17
Lunar and Planetary Science XXVIII 1797.PDF

JSC MARS-1: MARTIAN REGOLITH SIMULANT

Carlton C. Allen1, Richard V. Morris2, David J. Lindstrom2, Marilyn M. Lindstrom, and John P. Lockwood3
1Lockheed Martin Engineering & Sciences, Houston, TX 77058 2NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston,

TX 77058 3Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Hawaii Volcanoes NP, HI 96718

We have developed a simulant to the regolith of Mars for support of scientific research, engineering
studies, and education. JSC Mars-1 is the <1 mm size fraction of a palagonitic tephra (glassy volcanic
ash altered at low temperatures). The material was collected from the Pu’u Nene cinder cone, located in
the saddle between Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea volcanoes on the Island of Hawaii. Palagonitic tephra
from this cone has been repeatedly cited as a close spectral analog to the bright regions of Mars [1,2,3].
Simulant Preparation and Analysis. The tephra was mined from a cinder quarry on the slope of
Pu’u Nene cone. Soil overburden was removed and tephra was collected from a palagonitized zone 40-
60 cm thick. The tephra was dried and sieved to separate the <1 mm size fraction. This material was
packaged in moisture-proof containers for shipping and storage.
Preliminary Simulant Characterization. We analyzed a single sample from the area chosen for
large scale simulant preparation. Splits were characterized by visible and near-IR (VIS/NIR) reflectance
spectroscopy at the Johnson Space Center. X ray fluorescence (XRF) and loss on ignition (LOI)
analyses were performed at Washington State University. We intend to publish detailed data from
representative samples of JSC Mars-1 in the near future.
Spectra. JSC Mars-1 is yellow-brown in color. Figure 1 compares the VIS/NIR spectrum of the
simulant to a composite martian bright region spectrum (atmospheric contributions removed) [4]. Both
spectra contain a relatively featureless ferric absorption edge through the visible, an indication of a ferric
absorption band in the 800-900 region, and relatively flat absorption in the near-IR. Bands at 1400 and
1900 nm in the simulant spectrum result from higher levels of H2O and OH in the simulant than on Mars.
The presence of the ferric features near 600, 750 and 860 nm in the martian spectrum imply higher
levels of red (well-crystalline and pigmentary) hematite on Mars than in the simulant [5,6].
Chemical Composition. Table 1 lists the major and minor oxide composition of JSC Mars-1, as
measured by XRF. This composition is compared to that of a typical Mars surface sample analyzed at
the Viking lander 1 (VL-1) site [7].
Mineralogy. Morris et al. [3] published extensive analyses of a <1 mm tephra sample collected from
Pu’u Nene. The sample is dominated by amorphous palagonite. The only phases detected by X ray
diffraction are plagioclase feldspar and minor magnetite. These analyses constrained the abundance of
phyllosilicates to <1 wt.%. Iron Mossbauer spectroscopy detected magnetite as well as traces of
hematite, olivine, pyroxene and/or glass. The majority of iron was present as nano-phase ferric oxide
(64%). These data yield a Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio of 1/3.
Grain Size. Table 2 lists the published grain size distribution of Pu’u Nene tephra [3]. For
comparison, the blocky material which covers 78% of the area near VL-1 on Mars ranges in size from
0.1-1500 m [8].
Specific Gravity. The bulk specific gravity of JSC Mars-1 is 0.8 g/cm3. This value can be increased
to 0.9 g/cm3 by vibrating the sample. The drift material near VL-1 has a specific gravity of 1.2 +/- 0.2
g/cm3 and the blocky material has a value of 1.6 +/- 0.4 g/cm3 [8].
Magnetic Properties. JSC Mars-1 contains a highly magnetic component. Approximately 25 wt.% of
the sample can be lifted with a strong magnet. By comparison, observations of the Viking sample arm
magnets indicate that the martian soil contains between 1-7% magnetic material [9].
Availability. We anticipate that approximately 9,100 kg (20,000 lb) of JSC Mars-1 will be available in
1997 for distribution to qualified investigators and teachers. The simulant will be stored at the Johnson
Space Center. Anyone desiring a portion of this material should address their request to Dr. Carlton
Allen (address above; telephone 281-483-2630, fax 281-483-5347).

References. [1] Evans, D. L. and Adams, J. B. (1979) Proc. 10th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 1829-1834.
[2] Singer, R. B. (1982) J. Geophys. Res. 87, 10,159-10,168. [3] Morris, R. V. et al. (1993) Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 57, 4597-4609. [4] Mustard, J. F. and Bell, J. F., III (1994) Geophys. Res. Lett. 21,
3353-3356. [5] Morris, R. V. and Lauer, H. V., Jr. (1990) J. Geophys. Res. 95, 5101-5109. [6] Morris, R.
V. et al. (1997) J. Geophys. Res. in press. [7] Clark, B. C. et al. (1982) J. Geophys. Res. 87, 10,059-
Lunar and Planetary Science XXVIII 1797.PDF
JSC MARS-1: MARTIAN REGOLITH SIMULANT: Allen, C.C. et al.

10,067. [8] Moore, H. J. et al., (1987) U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper 1389. [9] Hargraves, R. B. et al., (1977) J.
Geophys. Res. 82, 4547-4558.

Figure 1. VIS/NIR reflectivity spectra of Mars Composite Bright Region [4] and JSC Mars-1

Table 1. Chemical Composition Table 1. (continued)

Martian n.d. not detected n.a. not analyzed

JSC Mars-1 Surface Fe2+/Fe3+ = 1/3 * XRF ** XRF normalized
Fines C-1 without LOI *** Ref [7] **** Weight loss after
heating for 2 hrs in air at 900 C (includes H2O,
Oxide Wt.%* Wt.%** Wt.%*** SO3 , Cl)
SiO2 34.5 43.7 43
Al2O3 18.5 23.4 7.5
TiO2 3.0 3.8 0.65
FeO 2.8 3.5 n.d. Table 2. Pu’u Nene Tephra Grain Size*
Fe2O3 9.3 11.8 17.6
MnO 0.2 0.3 n.a. Size ( m) Wt.%
CaO 4.9 6.2 6
MgO 2.7 3.4 6 500-1000 21.4
K2O 0.5 0.6 0 250-500 29.5
Na2O 1.9 2.4 n.a. 150-250 20.8
P2O5 0.7 0.9 n.a. 90-150 12.9
SO3 n.a. n.a. 7 45-90 9.2
20-45 5.4
Cl n.a. n.a. 0.7
<20 1.3
LOI**** 21.8
* Ref [3]
 Mars Exploration
"Follow the Water"
Young Ho Park
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Pasadena, CA 91109
Abstract— The red planet Mars has been a subject of
imagination over the centuries, as well as intense
scientific interest. As the overwhelming success of two
Mars Exploration Rovers unfold before us, this article
reviews the overview of NASA's Mars Exploration and
rationale.
1. INTRODUCTION
In 2004, we have observed two historic events in Mars
exploration. The first Mars Exploration Rover (named
Spirit) landed on Mars on January 3, 2004. The second
Mars Exploration Rover (named Opportunity) landed on
Mars on January 24, 2004. At the time of this writing,
both rovers are operating nicely, taking pictures of Mars
surface and taking various scientific measurements to
reveal many secrets of Mars now and many, many years
ago.
There have been only five successful landing of
spacecraft on Mars surface: Viking 1 Lander 1 and 2 in
1975, Mars Pathfinder with Sojourner in 1997 and Spirit
and Opportunity this year. As we know that many Mars
missions have failed, Mars missions are challenging and
require extreme ingenuity and dedication of all involved
team.
2. MARS VS EARTH
Mars is the fourth planet from Sun. The distance from
Sun is about 1.5 times that of Earth. The mass of Mars is
10% of Earth. The diameter of Mars is 53% of Earth.
The gravity of Mars is 37% of Earth. The Mars
atmospheric pressure is only 0.7% of Earth atmosphere.
The average recorded temperature on Mars is -63° C with
a maximum temperature of 20° C and a minimum of -
140° C.
The atmosphere of Mars is quite different from that of
Earth. It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide with
small amounts of other gases. The six most common
components of the atmosphere are: Carbon Dioxide
(95.3%), Nitrogen (2.7%), Argon (1.6%), Oxygen
(0.13%), Water (0.03%), Neon (0.00025 %).
Figure 1. Earth and Mars
3. WHY MARS?
Mars is the only planet, other than Earth, that shows
strong evidence of liquid water having coursed over its
surface. There are many clear signs of rivers and lakes on
Mars surface (Figure 2). Based on limited Mars
exploration, it seems that there is no obvious sign of
water on Mars surface at this time. However, there is
abundance of indication that once water flowed on Mars
surface at one time or another in the long history of Mars.
Although our current understanding of life's origins may
be limited, at least on Earth, there is life where water is.
Thus, based on we see on Mars surface it is possible that
Mars may have been habitable and may have harbored
life.
In Figure 3, striking features of gullies are shown in the
picture recently taken by Mars Orbiter Camera on Mars
Global Surveyor. According to a dictionary, a gully is "a
deep ditch or channel cut in the earth by running water
after a prolonged downpour". No one is sure yet how the
gullies are formed. One conjecture is that subsurface
water or ice melted and the water may have gushed out.
The implication of this conjecture is tremendous so that
there may be water or ice under the Martian surface even
at present time. An analogy may be permafrost on Earth
in polar region such as Alaska. The permafrost is
permanently frozen subsurface soil. However, caution
may be required to draw such haste conclusion without
further conclusive evidence.
NASA has created Mars Program with a theme of "
Follow the Water." The objective of the program is to
detect conclusive evidence whether water existed on
Mars, water exists on Mars subsurface if not on surface,
and ultimately evidence whether life, even in
microbiological life form, existed in the lifetime of Mars.
Figure 2. Mars Surface picture taken by a Mars Orbiter
Figure 3. Picture taken by Mars Orbiter Camera on Mars
Global Surveyor
4. MARS EXPLORATION ROVER
Mars Explorer Rover (MER) mission is to send two
rovers to Mars. The scientific objective is to determine
the history of climate and water at sites on Mars where
conditions may once have been favorable to life. Each
rover is equipped with a suite of science instruments that
will be used to read the geological record at each site, to
investigate what role water played there, and to determine
how suitable the conditions would have been for life.
Figure 4. Artist Conception of a Mars Exploration Rover.
Mars Exploration Rover A (now called Spirit) was
launched on June 10, 2003 and landed on Mars on
January 3, 2004. Mars Exploration Rover B (now called
Opportunity) was launched on July 7, 2003 and landed on
Mars on January 24, 2004. Both rovers are identical in
design. The names of rovers were suggested by a
schoolgirl and selected after a worldwide competition.
As seen in media, both rovers are conducting their
scientific mission among many challenges. Each rover
has 90 Martian days for it's prime mission. Scientific
instruments of each rovers are: Panoramic Camera, Mini-
Thermal Emission Spectrometer, Microscopic Imager,
Moessbauer Spectrometer, Alpha Particle X-Ray
Spectrometer. The robotic arm includes rock abrasion
tool. Also, each rover has magnet arrays. (For more
information visit http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/)
MER Spirit has landed in Gusev crater area (Figure 5)
and the current Mars surface does not seem to have liquid
water. However, the scientists believe that Gusev crater
area included flowing water, accumulated water in lakes,
and deposit of sediment over a long period of time. This
history makes Gusev crater very interesting exploration
site. Figure 6 shows the picture where MER Spirit
examines a Mars Rock.
MER Opportunity has landed in a small crater in
Meridiani Planum (Figure 5). Meridiani Planum
interests scientists because it contains an ancient layer of
hematite, an iron oxide that, on Earth, almost always
forms in an environment containing liquid water. The site
appears dry now. So how did the hematite get there? Was
there once water in the area? If so, where did it go?
These are main questions for which MER Opportunity
will collect in-situ measurement data.
 Figure 5. Landing Site for Mars Exploration Rovers
Figure 6. MER Spirit examining a Mars Rock
5. FUTURE AND SUMMARY
In addition to two Mars rovers on Martian surface, NASA
has two spacecraft orbiting Mars now: Mars Global
Surveyor and Mars Odyssey. Also, European Space
Agency has Mars Express in Mars Orbit currently.
NASA plans to send one spacecraft to Mars every two
years. Phoenix (a lander) will be launched in 2007 and
Mars Science Laboratory (MSL, a rover) will be launched
in 2009. In a long term, a Mars sample return mission is
considered.
Figure 7. Layered Rock picture taken by MER
Opportunity
Of course, President has set a long-term goal for sending
men to Mars possibly within two decades.
People ask, " Why do we do this for such a high cost?"
Practical answer is that there are invaluable science and
technological byproduct. Teaching science and
technology and inspiring next generation are another
essential part. On the other hand, continuous
advancement of a civilization is only possible with the
spirit of "Exploration".
 14307

Radar Ranging of the Planet Mars at 8495 MHz

G. S. Downs and P. E. Reichley
Communications Systems Research Section

A simulation was performed for the radar system in order to ensure detection
of the planet Mars at the start of the 1975 series of radar probes of the surface.
Appropriate parameters were found. Appropriate parameters were also found for
use at opposition (December 1975). Systematic errors in the measured delay with
changes in surface roughness were observed. This effect is shown to be many
times larger than the expected rms fluctuations in the measured delays.

\. Introduction from the surface of the planet was determined. Up to 120

delay measurements were made to allow determination
The surface of the planet Mars will be probed with of the detection probability and the measurement accu-
S- and X-band radar signals during 1975 and 1976, all in racy. An appropriate set of radar parameters was chosen
preparation for the landing of two spacecraft in 1976. in light of the results of this study.
The measurements to be performed at JPL will use the
R & D radar system at DSS 14, Goldstone, California, at
a frequency of 8495 MHz. In preparation, several series II. How Delay Is Measured
of radar data sets were simulated and processed. That is,
the expected power in the reflected signal was calculated The basic radar data set consists of a matrix of re-
as a function of time delay and frequency for several sets ceived power as a function of time delay and excess dop-
of radar system parameters. The random fluctuations pler shift. Separate regions on the surface will exhibit
caused by receiver noise were superimposed using a separate time delays because of the spherical shape of
random number generator. The appropriate signal-to- the planet.
noise ratio was calculated for certain distances to the
planet, assuming appropriate X-band antenna param- Let 9 represent the angle between the line of sight from
eters. The round-trip time delay of the signal reflected the radar to the center of the planet and the radius to the

JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29 95

point on the surface. The time delay ^ of the signal re-
flected from that surface point back to the radar is given
by
(1)
where R is the radius of the planet and c is the speed of
light; D is the distance along the line of sight to the
closest point on the surface. Note that 6 is also the angle
of incidence of the signal on the surface. 6 and D are
each functions of time. The large delay due to D is re-
moved at the time of data collection. The small changes
in 6 due to the relative motion of Mars and Earth in the
time interval 2D/c are neglected. The locus of a curve
of a constant r is a circle in the plane perpendicular to
the line of sight and whose center lies on the line of
sight. Regions of a particular delay are isolated by modu-
lating the phase of the transmitted signal with a pseudo-
random binary code. If the bit length of the code is T
seconds, the normalized cross correlation function of the
transmitted signal with the received signal is given by
- -^ IT - T« I; -T 0 | <T
RrM '• (2)
-TO! >T
where TO is the round trip delay. A band of surface ele-
ments located within T seconds of TO can be isolated. In
practice, the received signal is passed through a bank of
correlators, the tth corresponding to a round trip delay
T 0 j. The power in the output of the ith correlator is then
the sum of the power in the reflected signals correspond-
ing to the delays r0i — T <T < roi + T, each delay com-
ponent being weighted by the range window R(T) —
Rf.(r). There is an ambiguity in the delay TO of the re-
flected signal which is equal to the length of the binary
code. That is, R( T ) is periodic in time mT, where m is the
number of bits in the code. Usually the planetary ephem-
eris is good enough to resolve this ambiguity in time de-
lay. There remains, however, a small perturbation to the
total reflected power from the region defined by R(T,,,)
since contributions are obtained from all regions centered
at T = TO, ± nmT, where n is any integer.
Further resolution of the planet's surface is usually ob-
tained by taking advantage of the doppler spreading of
the reflected signal caused by the rotation of Mars. Loci
of constant doppler shift are circles on the surface, par-
allel to the plane defined by the apparent spin axis of the
planet and the line of sight. The intersections of the
96
circles of constant range and the circles of constant dop-
pler shift then isolate particular small regions on the sur-
face (see Fig. 1). Therefore, the discrete power spectrum
of the output of each correlator is estimated using dis-
crete time samples. The power at each discrete frequency
fa in the spectrum is in fact the sum of power from regions
of varying doppler shift /. Each region is weighted by the
familiar function
(3)
where N is the number of discrete frequencies, separated
by A/, in the power spectrum.
The delay-doppler geometry imposed on the planet's
surface is pictured in Fig. 1, where the planet is viewed
from the direction of the apparent spin axis. The angle
of incidence 6 is the angle between the direction to Earth
and IV, the local normal to the mean sphere. The shape
of the range window R(T) is shown at the left for the case
of T = 6 /iS. The shape of the doppler window D(/) is
shown at the right for the case of A/ = 10.2 Hz, when
A. = 12.55 cm. As is often the case in these measurements,
the correlators are separated such that TOU + D — roi = T/2.
Note that as the planet rotates, any given region near the
doppler equator (a great circle perpendicular to the cir-
cles of constant doppler shift and bisecting the rings of
constant range) is probed at a variety of angles of inci-
dence. Each set of received power as a function of delay
and doppler (a data frame) represents a snapshot of the
surface near the doppler equator. An example of such a
data frame appears in Fig. 2.
Consider for the moment the power vs time delay at a
fixed doppler shift. The reflected power corresponds to a
narrow region at a particular longitude and a minimum
angle of incidence. The location of the planet at that par-
ticular doppler shift is taken to be the delay at which
the power is a maximum. As the planet rotates, a series
of delay functions corresponding to particular values of
6 become available for a particular longitude. With the
extra delay due to curvature of the surface removed, the
collection of delay functions is usually added to produce
a composite delay function in which the signal-to-noise
ratio is larger. The delay corresponding to the peak
power then defines the distance to the planet.
In practice, the presence of noise will cause errors in
locating the planet. Also, the weak signal case gives rise
to a finite possibility of a false detection of the planet.
JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29
The following discussion is devoted to a determination
of the probability of a correct detection and the measure-
ment error, once detection has been established. These
probabilities and errors are dependent on the signal-to-
noise ratio, which in turn is dependent on the parameters
of the radar system and the surface characteristics. The
radar system parameters and surface characteristics are
varied over an appropriate range in the discussion below.
III. The Data
An example of simulated data is presented in Fig. 2.
The spectrum of the output of 32 correlators is presented
in Fig. 2(a) for the noise-free case. The magnitudes of
the spectral components are proportional to the received
power expected for the case of T — 6 /*s and A/ = 36.2 Hz
at A = 3.53 cm. Note that correlators are offset progres-
sively in delay by T/2 = 3 ps. These magnitudes were
calculated by evaluating the radar equation:
P,GJ.GrA2 p0C R(r - r0) D(f -
ds.
//
(4)
where P, and G, are the transmitting power and antenna
gain, respectively. G, is the receiving antenna gain. The
transmitter operates at wavelength A. The planet, located
at distance D, is characterized by a reflectivity p0 and
roughness parameter C. The denominator of the inte-
grand in Eq. (4) (sometimes called the Hagfors back-
scatter function, Refs. 1 and 2) describes how the power
scattered back toward the receiver varies with the angle
of incidence, where 0 is now a function ^ and /. The sur-
face S over which the integration takes place is deter-
mined by the position of the range and doppler windows
relative to the planet. The details of the evaluation of the
integral, and in particular the effects of aliasing in fre-
quency and ambiguity in range will be discussed in a
forthcoming article.
The received power P(f,r) was calculated for 32 de-
lays and 64 frequencies for values of A/ = 36.2, 72.5 and
145 Hz with T = 6 us and for A/ = 1'45 Hz with T = 12
^s. In each case, T O ( ^ I I — T0i = AT — T/2. In the case of
Mars, these values of A/ correspond to N — S slices on the
surface of widths of 0.16, 0.32 and 0.64 deg in longitude,
respectively. The transmitter power Pz was taken to be
400 kW, operating at 8495 MHz, so A = 3.53 cm. The
gains GT and G, were taken to be equal, and these values
were deduced from data provided by Freiley (Ref. 3).
JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29
A nominal value of system efficiency of 0.40 was assumed
from the data of Ref. 3. This value corresponds to a value
1 a lower than the mean transmit system efficiency at an
elevation of 70 deg. The corresponding antenna gains are
71.1 dB. The 4 sets of values of (A/,T) were subdivided
into sets of different values of D, where D varied between
0.56 AU (closest approach during the 1975 opposition)
and 1.5 AU. These subsets were, in turn, subdivided even
further to correspond to roughness C = 50, 150, 300, 1000,
2000 and 5000. A total of 78 distinct sets of data frames
were then generated from Eq. (4). A value of pa = 0.08
was assumed for all evaluations of Eq. (4). This value is
an average obtained from previous radar probes of Mars.
Although p0 varies between 0.01 and 0.15, most regions
have a reflectivity close to 0.08.
In practice, data frames similar to those of Fig. 2(b)
are measured at regular time intervals. To improve the
signal-to-noise ratio, several sequential data frames are
usually added together. The magnitude of each spectral
component then represents an energy. That is, a signal of
intensity P — P(f,r) watts is integrated for t, seconds to
produce Ft, joules. Now, t, should be long enough to al-
low a particular region on the planet's surface to rotate
from one discrete doppler frequency to the next. In this
analysis, t, was chosen such that the planet rotated about
0.75 of that distance. For example, when A/ = 36.2 Hz
(0.16 deg in longitude), t, was chosen to be 30 seconds,
an interval in which the planet rotates 0.12 deg.
The superimposing of a noisy signal of the proper
magnitude was performed in the following manner. A
series of random numbers with a variance of 1 .0 was gen-
erated. The scale of the variance was chosen by noting
that the receiver noise power is fcT8Af watts for each
spectral component, where k is Botzmann's constant and
Ts is the system noise temperature. In time t, the mean
energy obtained by integrating this component of the
noise is kT,±ft, and the variance associated with the
measurement of this component is (kT,)2£ft,. The mea-
surement of the planetary component Pt, also is subject
to random fluctuations. The total variance is calculated
assuming that the wideband receiver component and the
planetary component are each nearly Gaussian random
processes. (They are in fact Rayleigh processes in which
the mean is much larger than the root-mean-square fluc-
tuation.) The total variance is then (kT,Ytft, + (Pt,)2/
In the generation of the series of random numbers it
was assumed that Pt, < < kT&ft,, so that the planetary
component of the variance could be ignored. The series
97
of random numbers, so scaled, and the mean value of the
receiver noise were added to the function P(/,T) to obtain
a simulated data frame. T, was taken to be 23 K. A data
frame similar to Fig. 2(b) was generated from the noise-
free frame of Fig. 2(a) in the above manner. The data in
Fig. 2(b) correspond to D = 0.56 AU and C = 300. The
constant wide-band component of the receiver noise has
been subtracted. A total of 70 data frames containing
independent additive noise, representing integrations over
ti seconds, were generated to provide a good measure of
the statistics of interest.
IV. The Delay Measurements
In practice, one cannot probe the planet's surface with
a monostatic radar system (one antenna) on a continuous
basis, since the transmitter must be turned off during
reception. Hence, the simulated data frames were ar-
ranged in time to duplicate the case in which the radar
signal is transmitted for a time interval equal to the
round-trip time between Earth and Mars, and then re-
ceived for one round-trip time. Reception immediately
follows transmission for an equal time interval. Clearly,
in one round-trip time one will usually collect several
data frames, each representing an integration of t, sec-
onds. Since the transmitter is not on continuously, only
% of the available angles of incidence will be probed. A
view window, of width equal to the amount of rotation
accomplished in one round-trip time, slides over the sur-
face allowing some angles of incidence and omitting
others.
The results of the delay measurements are presented
in Tables 1-4. At first, the radar system parameters T and
Af were chosen to be equal to those used in earlier work
on Mars at 2388 MHz. The doppler shifts were scaled
from 2388 to 8495 MHz such that A/ corresponded to a
longitude interval AL of 0.16 deg. At each of the four
values of D in Table 1, six values of roughness C were
chosen to cover the range expected at 8495 MHz. A num-
ber NT (between 90 and 120) composite delay functions,
each representing a different mixture of angles of inci-
dence, were available for each combination of D and C.
If the peak amplitude of a composite delay function was
2.5 to 3 times larger than the rms noise level, the planet
was considered detected and the corresponding delay T
was recorded. However, in ND detections, a certain num-
ber NF are false detections which usually occur in the
weak signal case. Values of T which placed the planet
more than T fis away from the known position of the
98
planet were considered false detections. The fraction Pj
of successful detections and the fraction Pe of these de-
tections that were false are listed in Table 1 and calcu-
lated from
Np-N,
NT
(5)
The values of ND, the mean TJO in the range estimates,
and the associated rms fluctuation o-TO presented in Table
1 represent averages over all the available data. However,
some of the composite delay functions contain contri-
butions from angles of incidence primarily near 0 deg
(the maximum is about 2 deg in this simulation). These
delay functions were isolated and, finding Nc of them, the
mean T&C of this set and the associated rms fluctuations
<TTC were calculated and listed in Table 1.
The true mean and variance are represented by Tt,c
and <TTC. The reason for this can be understood by examin-
ing Fig. 3. The delay T of each composite delay function
has been presented vs the centroid nd of the angle-of-
incidence view window. The centroid is expressed in
units of AL (or A/). In Fig. 3, where C = 5000, the shape
of the backscatter function changes rapidly with 6, so the
shape of the delay function flattens markedly as rid in-
creases. A positive drift in the delay of the peak ampli-
tude and a decrease in the magnitude of the peak accom-
pany this flattening. The positive drift is readily observ-
able in Fig. 3(a). Noise fluctuations are low since the
corresponding distance is only 0.56 AU. The distance is
1.14 AU in Fig. 3(b), and the larger scatter in T for n<; > 6
is evidence of the decreasing peak amplitude. By includ-
inly only the values of r for which nd < 6 in the statistics,
a true representation of the measurement accuracy is
obtained. Including all available values of T produces a
larger variance because of the systematic drift in T with
window position.
The mean n,c is a function of the roughness parameter
C. In Fig. 4(a) the measurements of T are presented vs
nd for C = 150 at a distance of 0.56 AU. The drift in r
with nd is not as extreme as in Fig. 3(a) since the back-
scatter function varies more slowly with 6. Note however
that TJ,C for nd < 6 is not identical to the similar value in
Fig. 3(a). This bias is again caused by the retarded, flat-
ter delay functions characteristic of low values of C or
JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29
larger values of 6. The data of Fig. 4(b), corresponding
to D = 0.8 AU, show how small signal-to-noise ratios
mask the effects discussed above.
At opposition D = 0.56 AU. The results of Table 1
indicate that maximum ranging accuracies of 40 to 300
ns can be obtained. The systematic changes of T with nd
and C are large compared to these hypothetical accuracies.
It will then be desirable to apply corrections to the esti-
mates of T to obtain the minimum possible rms fluctu-
ations.
The data of Tables 3-4 were obtained in a search of the
data-frame parameters which ensure detection of the
planet Mars at the start of the 1975 series of measure-
ments (during August, when Mars is at 1.2 AU). The
parameters underlying Table 4 (T = 12 ps, AL = 0.64
deg) provide a reasonable probability of detection of
rough as well as smooth surfaces at 1.2 AU. These are the
parameters to be used at the start of the series of mea-
surements. Tables 2 and 3 are useful as an aid in deter-
mining what T and AL should be as Mars progresses
towards opposition.

References
1. Hagfors, T., "Backscattering from an Undulating Surface with Applications to
Radar Returns from the Moon;" }GR, 69, pp. 3779-3784,1964.
2. Hagfors, T., Radar Astronomy, Evans, J. V., and Hagfors, T., eds., Chapter 4,
pp. 187-218, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.
3. Freiley, A. J., "DSS-14 XKR Cone Performance," JPL Interoffice Memo No.
3331-75-001, Mar. 10,1975 (an internal document).

JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29 99

 Table 1. Detection probability and a- for T = 6 us, AL = 0.16 deg, p,( = 0.08

r*
5, %
P*
% ND
"TV
/JS
T
6o>
US NO
"re,
/tS
rte>
/*s

0.56 50 98 1 118 0.44 2.6 64 0.30 2.4

150 100 0 120 0.26 2.4 64 0.12 2.25
300 100 0 120 0.31 2.3 64 0.08 2.1
1000 100 0 120 0.31 2.0 64 0.09 1.75
2000 100 0 120 0.38 1.7 56 0.04 1.4
5000 100 0 120 0.45 1.4 56 0.04 1.1
_
0.80 50 56 10 65 1.33 40 1.38
150 97 0 113 0.65 61 0.42 -
300 100 0 117 0.62 61 0.15 -
1000 100 0 117 0.39 61 0.11 -
2000 100 0 117 0.40 55 0.04 -
5000 100 0 117 0.54 55 0.04 -
_ _ _
1.00 50 3 57 4 1.80
150 62 1 76 1.18 42 0.98
-
300 83 1 102 0.72 54 0.57
1000 95 0 117 0.62 58 0.33 -
2000 95 0 117 0.55 55 0.32 -
5000 92 0 113 0.57 52 0.22 -
_
1.14 50 2 50 2 1.34 —
—
150 38 10 38 1.52 29 1.44 -
300 73 3 73 0.94 39 0.80 -
1000 86 0 86 0.45 50 0.38 -
2000 91 0 91 0.54 52 0.45 -
5000 88 0 88 0.50 49 0.35 -

100 JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29

 Table 2. Detection probability and <rr for T = 6 /is, AL = 0.32 deg, />, = 0.08

D,
AU
C
%
P.,
*, "TO' r
bo>
"e /is
Tic-
IIS

1.00 50 12 _ 13 1.47 8 1.18 —

150 81 3 91 1.09 2.5 56 1.24 2.5
300 82 3 83 0.81 2.5 46 0.68 2.5
1000 93 0 94 0.61 2.0 52 0.58 2.0
2000 94 0 95 0.49 1.6 47 0.56 1.6
5000 93 0 94 0.74 1.5 46 0.54 1.2
_ _ _
1.14 50 4 _ 4 1.15
150 60 6 61 1.50 34 1.50 -
300 82 3 83 0.81 46 0.68 -
1000 93 0 94 0.61 52 0.58 -
2000 94 0 95 0.49 47 0.56 -
5000 93 0 94 0.74 46 0.54 -
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1.50 50
150 - - - - - - -
300 30 10 26 1.37 20 1.28 -
1000 76 0 67 0.53 41 0.59 -
2000 83 0 73 0.63 37 0.65 -
5000 84 0 74 0.45 37 0.51 -

ORIGINAL PAGE is
POOR QUALITY

JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29 101

 Table 3. Detection probability and OT for T = 6 /is, AL = 0.64 deg, />„ = 0.08

D, CT
TO» T
6o»
AU
C
%' %' v. /US JUS », "re-
ps
Tbc>
MS

1.00 50 46 12 49 1.92 3.3 31 1.72 3.1

150 92 1 98 0.93 2.7 65 0.98 2.9
300 100 0 106 1.00 2.7 70 0.65 2.6
1000 100 0 106 0.91 2.2 70 0.51 2.0
2000 100 0 106 0.61 1.7 53 0.29 1.5
5000 100 0 106 0.67 1.4 53 0.20 1.1
_
1.14 50 11 31 10 1.60 6 2.0
150 78 6 74 1.50 48 1.55 -
300 95 0 90 1.00 57 0.84 -
1000 100 0 95 0.75 62 0.53 -
2000 100 0 94 0.64 49 0.56 -
5000 98 1 93 0.71 50 0.82 -
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
1.50 50 _
150 9 - 8 1.5 7 1.40 -
300 49 5 44 1.62 27 1.20 -
1000 78 0 69 0.72 44 0.65 -
2000 80 0 71 0.47 37 0.46 -
5000 84 0 75 0.64 37 0.25 -

102 JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29

 Table 4. Detection probability and <rT for T = 12 pS, AL = 0.64 deg, P, = 0.08

ff T
TO» 60»
C N0 *e T
AU % % Its its Its %

1.00 50 82 4 91 2.62 5.4 86 2.66 5.4

150 100 0 111 1.48 5.0 103 1.50 5.0
300 100 0 111 1.10 4.4 103 0.74 4.4
1000 100 0 111 0.78 3.4 103 0.70 3.2
2000 100 0 111 1.12 2.8 53 0.32 2.4
5000 100 0 111 1.48 7.0 53 0.36 1.6
_
1.14 50 44 10 49 3.40 30 3.40
150 91 2 101 2.00 63 2.20 -
300 98 1 109 1.75 70 1.96 -
1000 100 0 111 1.28 71 0.92 -
2000 98 0 109 1.44 55 0.77 -
5000 95 0 106 0.93 51 1.14 -
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1.50 50
150 30 10 30 3.10 19 3.60 -
300 68 0 69 1.84 42 1.92 -
1000 76 1 77 1.08 44 1.10 -
2000 80 0 81 ' 1.08 38 1.38 -
5000 80 0 80 1.04 37 1.30 -

JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29 103

 3.5,1

POSITIVE
DOPPLER
SHIFT

EARTH

Fig. 1. Partitioning of Mars by the radar system

104 JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29

 90

30

15

-1.12 1.16 -1.12

DOPPLEK SHIFT, kHz

Fig. 2. Received power vs doppler shift and delay for -if = 36.2 Hz, T = 6^8, p0 = 0.08,
and C = 300: (a) noise-free case, (b) noisy case (see text for noise parameters)

JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29 105

 T i 1 1 1 1
(a) (b)

- — x -
X

•• x x

***********
S* w X ^ XX

1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 10

Fig. 3. Estimation of r MS the centroid n,, of the angle-of-incidence window for C = 5000:
(a) 0 = 0.56 All, (b) D = 1.14 AU

(a) (b)

x
*»:»
»:» -* x
*, :«"**««« „
x

10 10

Fig. 4. Estimation of - vs the centroid n,, of the angle-of-incidence window for C = 150:
(a) O = 0.56 AU, (b) D = 0.8 AU

106 JPL DEEP SPACE NETWORK PROGRESS REPORT 42-29

Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 9, 01794, 2007
SRef-ID: 1607-7962/gra/EGU2007-A-01794
© European Geosciences Union 2007

The Red Soil on Mars as a proof for water and

vegetation!
R.Paepe
GEOBOUND International, BV MUHS, The Hague, The Netherlands
(geobound.roland.paepe@wanadoo.nl / Phone: +31-703-520510)

Red Soils on Earth are common features. Actually, what does the label “soil” stands
for? It is used by so many people most of them with no training in soil science or in
the related field of geology. And yet, everybody uses “Soil” as a simple connotation to
indicate the surface, floor, territory, base/bottom, ground; or any kind of loose earth.
And when it is red, it is called Red Soil. However, as a concept in soil science a Red
Soil means something quite different: it then relates to a thorough soil/pedological
weathering most often originating under tropical climatic conditions. The latter is
characterised by specific sediment differentiation in the uppermost geological layers
as to structure, texture and development of successive soil horizons. The latter bio-
chemical process is a result of the clay/humic/Fe-sesquioxides vertical transport in the
surface layers under the aegis of leaching respectively enrichment enhanced along the
roots of any kind of vegetation cover. This process is called “pedogenesis” or soil de-
velopment resulting in the development of a series of specific “soil” horizons in the
strict pedological sense. Depending on the nature of the parent material (hard or loose)
and of the prevailing climatic conditions, different soil types may be generated which
are compiled in the international soil classification system. In reverse, from the soil
type former conditions of climate and vegetation cover may eventually be disentan-
gled. Despite the fact that pedology has the state of a well developed science in earth
sciences the term “soil” as stated above has still different meanings and connotations
depending on the professional field in which it is being considered and not at least
on the skilfulness of the scientist involved. In fact numerous geo-scientists misuse the
name too. And what about the scientists not acquainted with earth science at all? This
is absolutely true in the field of astrobiology. What is then the meaning of the label
“Red Soil” on Mars, Venus and other planets? In fact are they really “Soils” as defined
above or just simply red coloured (pediment) surfaces as the ones covering broad ex-
tensions in the tropical regions of Brazil and Congo? In fact, soil weathering should
be clearly dissociated from all other types of rock alteration processes. Moreover soil
composition, especially clay – phyllosilicates, display characteristic features enabling
detection of real pedogenetic processes. Close observation of the impact traces at the
Mars module site as well as the recent detection of phyllosilicates clays on Mars, may
lead to firm indicators about pedogenesis processes on Mars. This opens new possi-
bilities for the study of soil development similar to earthly soil processes on Mars and
perhaps on other planets of the Solar system as well.
Bacteria occur in great amounts in soils on Earth. Both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria
occur so that a great variety of species is shown. Most unexpectedly there number is
higher in desert environments rather than in moist places like the Amazone. Hence,
soil cyanobacteria play an important role in the building of microbiotic crusts in ex-
treme environments of drought and cold like Antarctica. Cyanobacteria also induce
important biochemical cycles such as the nitrogen-fixation in soils. Geologically their
origin may be far remote in time so that it may be assumed that they are time-resistant
as well. Therefore soils of extreme desert conditions, cold and warm, on both Earth
and Mars may contain great amounts of such resistant bacteria. Soils in the pedologi-
cal sense if present on Mars and other Planets may then likely open new broad fields
of investigation which research has hitherto been somewhat neglected.
As a consequence, now that phylosilicates have been detected on Mars the role of
water in the soil-weathering process of clays has undoubtedly been proved. This could
furthermore imply that not only water and soil weathering / pedogenesis extended
over the entire surface of Mars, but a vegetation cover as well. The far too general
connotation of ‘soil’ should then be reconsidered as a true soil concept inferring both
water and vegetation in its development.
Hence, the relationship between soil development and vegetation/bacterial life on the
surface of Mars opens up new broad possibilities for studies in astrobiology. Soils in
Space and their related cyanobacterial content should become the genuine research for
all evidences of real soil development outside planet Earth in our Solar System.
Chapter 6: Viking and the Resources of Mars
Additional automated missions will most cer-
tainly occur, but the ultimate scientific study of
Mars will be realized only with the coming of
man—man who can conduct seismic and elec-
tromagnetic sounding surveys; who can launch
balloons, drive rovers, establish geologic field
relations, select rock samples and dissect them
under the microscope; who can track clouds and
witness other meteorological transients; who
can drill for permafrost, examine core tubes,
and insert heat-flow probes; and who, with his
inimitable capacity for application of scientific
insight and methodology, can pursue the quest
for indigenous life forms and perhaps discover
the fossilized remains of an earlier biosphere.
(Benton Clark, 1978)1
The New Mars
In the 1960s, most automated missions beyond low-
Earth orbit—the Rangers, Surveyors, and Lunar
Orbiters—supported the piloted Apollo program. In the
1970s, as NASA’s piloted program contracted to low-
Earth orbit, its automated program expanded beyond
the Moon. Sophisticated robots flew by Mercury,
Jupiter, and Saturn, and orbited and landed on Venus
and Mars.
Though they were not tailored to serve as precursors to
human expeditions in the manner of the Rangers,
Surveyors, and Lunar Orbiters, the automated missions
to Mars in the 1970s shaped the second period of piloted
Mars mission planning, which began in about 1981. The
first of these missions, Mariner 9, took advantage of the
favorable Earth-Mars transfer opportunity associated
with the August 1971 opposition to carry enough pro-
pellant to enter Mars orbit. It was launched from Cape
Kennedy on 30 May 1971.
In September, as Mariner 9 made its way toward Mars,
Earth-based astronomers observing the planet through
telescopes saw a bright cloud denoting the onset of a
dust storm. By mid-October it had become the largest
on record. Wind-blown dust obscured the entire sur-
face, raising fears that Mariner 9 might not be able to
map the planet from orbit as planned.2
On 14 November 1971, after a 167-day Earth-Mars
transfer, Mariner 9 fired its engine for just over 15 min-
Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000
utes to slow down and become Mars’ first artificial
satellite. Dust still veiled the planet, so mission con-
trollers pointed the spacecraft’s cameras at the small
Martian moons Phobos and Deimos. In Earth-based
telescopes they were mere dots nearly lost in Mars’ red
glare. In Mariner 9 images, Phobos was marked by par-
allel cracks extending from a large crater. Apparently
the impact that gouged the crater had nearly smashed
the little moon. Deimos, Mars’ more distant satellite,
had a less dramatic, dustier landscape.
The giant dust storm subsided during December,
theatrically unveiling a surprising world. Mars was
neither the dying red Earth espoused by Percival
Lowell nor the dead red moon glimpsed by the flyby
Mariners.3 From its long-term orbital vantage point,
Mariner 9 found Mars to be two-faced, with smooth
northern lowlands and cratered southern highlands.
The missions to the Moon confirmed that a relation-
ship exists between crater density and age—the
more densely cratered a region, the older it is. Hence,
Mars has an ancient hemisphere and a relatively
young hemisphere.
Mars is a small world—half Earth’s diameter—with
large features. The Valles Marineris canyons, for
example, span more than 4,000 kilometers along
Mars’ equator. Nix Olympica, imaged by Mariner 6
and Mariner 7 from afar and widely interpreted as a
bright crater, turned out to be a shield volcano 25 kilo-
meters tall and 600 kilometers wide at its base.
Renamed Olympus Mons (“Mount Olympus”), it
stands at one edge of the Tharsis Plateau, a continent-
sized tectonic bulge dominating half the planet. Three
other shield volcanoes on the scale of Olympus Mons
form a line across Tharsis’ center.
Most exciting for those interested in Martian life were
signs of water. Mariner 9 charted channels tens of kilo-
meters wide. Some contain streamlined “islands”
apparently carved by enormous rushing floods. Many of
the giant channels originate in the southern highlands
and open out onto the smooth northern plains. The
northern plains preserve rampart craters—also called
“splosh” craters—which scientists believe were formed
by asteroid impacts in permafrost. The heat of impact
apparently melted subsurface ice, which flowed out-
ward from the impact as a slurry of red mud, then
refroze.4
53
Chapter 6: Viking and the Resources of Mars
Mariner 9 depleted its nitrogen attitude-control propel-
lant on 27 October 1972, after returning more than
7,200 images to Earth. Controllers quickly lost radio
contact as it tumbled out of control. A week later, on 6
November 1972, mission planners using Mariner 9
images announced five candidate Viking landing sites.5
Viking 1 left Earth on 20 August 1975 and arrived in
Mars orbit on 19 June 1976. Its twin, Viking 2, left
Earth on 9 September 1975 and arrived at Mars on 7
August 1976. The spacecraft consisted of a nuclear-
powered lander and a solar-powered orbiter. The Viking
1 lander separated from its orbiter and touched down
successfully in eastern Chryse Planitia on 20 July
1976. Viking 2 alighted near the crater Mie in Utopia
Planitia on 3 September 1976.
The first color images from the Viking 1 lander showed
cinnamon-red dirt, gray rocks, and a blue sky. The sky
color turned out to be a processing error based on pre-
conceived notions of what a sky should look like. When
the images were corrected, Mars’ sky turned dusky
pink with wind-borne dust.6
The Vikings confirmed the old notion that Mars is the
solar system planet most like Earth, but only because
the other planets are even more alien and hostile. A
human dropped unprotected on Mars’ red sands would
gasp painfully in the thin carbon dioxide atmosphere,
lose consciousness in seconds, and perish within two
minutes. Unattenuated solar ultraviolet radiation
would blacken the corpse, for Mars has no ozone layer.
The body would freeze rapidly, then mummify as the
thin, parched atmosphere leeched away its moisture.
By the time the Vikings landed, almost no one believed
any longer that multicellular living things could exist
on Mars. They held out hope, however, for hardy single-
celled bacteria. On 28 July 1976, the Viking 1 lander
scooped dirt from the top few centimeters of Mars’ sur-
face and distributed it among three exobiology detec-
tors and two spectrometers. The instruments returned
identical equivocal readings—strong positive responses
that tailed off, weak positive responses that could not
be duplicated in the same sample, and, most puzzling,
an absence of any organic compounds the instruments
were designed to detect.
Viking 1 and Viking 2 each scooped additional samples—
even pushing aside a rock to sample underneath—and
54 Monographs in Aerospace History
repeated the tests several times with similar equivocal
results. Most scientists interpreted the Viking results
as indicative of reactive soil chemistry produced by
ultraviolet radiation interactions with Martian dirt,
not of life. The reactive chemistry probably destroys any
organic molecules.7
Improved cameras on the Viking orbiters, meanwhile,
added detail to Mariner 9’s Mars map. They imaged
polygonal patterns on the smooth northern plains
resembling those formed by permafrost in Earth’s
Arctic regions. Some craters—Gusev, for example—
looked to be filled in by sediments and had walls
breached by sinuous channels. Perhaps they once held
ice-clad lakes.
The Viking images also revealed hundreds of river-size
branching channels—called “valley networks”—in
addition to the large outflow channels seen in Mariner
9 images. Though some were probably shaped by slow-
ly melting subsurface ice, others appeared too finely
branched to be the result of anything other than sur-
face runoff from rain or melting snow. Ironically, most
of the finely branched channels occurred in the south-
ern hemisphere, the area that reminded people in the
1960s of Earth’s dead Moon. The flyby Mariners might
have glimpsed channels among the Moonlike craters
had their cameras had better resolution.
Low pressure and temperature make free-standing
water impossible on Mars today. The channels in the
oldest part of Mars, the cratered southern highlands,
seem to point to a time long ago when Mars had a
dense, warm atmosphere. Perhaps Mars was clement
enough for a sufficiently long period of time for life to
form and leave fossils.8
The Viking landers and orbiters were gratifyingly long-
lived. The Viking 1 orbiter functioned until 7 August
1980. Together with the Viking 2 orbiter, it returned
more than 51,500 images, mapping 97 percent of the
surface at 300-meter resolution. Though required to
operate for only 90 days, the Viking 1 lander, the last
survivor of the four vehicles, returned data for more
than six years. The durable robot explorer finally broke
contact with Earth on 13 November 1982.9
Viking was a tremendous success, but it had been wide-
ly billed as a mission to seek Martian life. The incon-
clusive Viking exobiology results and negative inter-

pretation placed on them helped dampen public enthu-
siasm for Mars exploration for a decade. Yet Viking
showed Mars to be eminently worth exploring.
Moreover, Viking revealed abundant resources that
might be used to explore it.
Living off the Land
During the period that Mariner 9 and the Vikings
revealed Mars to be a rich destination for explorers,
almost no Mars expedition planning occurred inside
or outside NASA. The Agency was preoccupied with
developing the Space Shuttle, and Mars planners
independent of NASA—who would make many con-
tributions during the 1980s—were not yet active in
significant numbers.
Papers on In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) were
among the first signs of re-awakening interest in pilot-
ed Mars mission planning. ISRU is an old concept, dat-
ing on Earth to prehistory. ISRU can be defined as
using the resources of a place to assist in its explo-
ration—the phrase “living off the land” is essentially
synonymous. In the context of space exploration, ISRU
enables spacecraft weight minimization. If a spacecraft
can, for example, collect propellants at its destination,
those propellants need not be transported at great
expense from Earth’s surface. In the 1960s, ISRU was
studied largely in hopes of providing life-support con-
sumables. By the 1980s, the propellant production
potential of ISRU predominated.
NASA first formally considered ISRU in 1962, when it
set up the Working Group on Extraterrestrial
Resources (WGER). The WGER, which met throughout
the 1960s, focused on lunar resources, not Martian.
This was because more data were available on lunar
resource potential, and because lunar resource use
was, in the Apollo era, potentially more relevant to
NASA’s activities.10
The UMPIRE study (1963-1964) recommended apply-
ing ISRU to establish and maintain a Mars base dur-
ing long conjunction-class surface stays. Doing this
would, of course, demand more data on what resources
were available on Mars. NASA Marshall’s UMPIRE
summary report stated that “[t]his information,
whether it is obtained by unmanned probes or by
manned [flyby or orbiter] reconnaissance missions, would
Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000
Chapter 6: Viking and the Resources of Mars
make such a base possible,” making the “ ‘cost effective-
ness’ of Mars exploration . . . much more reasonable
than [for] the short excursions.”11
Fifteen years after UMPIRE, the Vikings at last pro-
duced the in-situ data set required for serious consid-
eration of Mars ISRU. The first effort to assess the
potential of Martian propellant production based on
Viking data spun off a 1977-78 NASA JPL study of an
automated Mars sample-return mission proposed as a
follow-on to the Viking program. Louis Friedman
headed the study, which was initially inspired by
President Gerald Ford’s apparently casual mention of
a possible “Viking 3” mission soon after the successful
Viking 1 landing.12 Robert Ash, an Old Dominion
University professor working at JPL, and JPL staffers
William Dowler and Giulio Varsi published their
results in the July-August 1978 issue of the refereed
journal Acta Astronautica.13
They examined three propellant combinations. Liquid
carbon monoxide and liquid oxygen, they found, were
easy to produce from Martian atmospheric carbon
dioxide, but they rejected this combination because it
produced only 30 percent as much thrust as liquid
hydrogen/liquid oxygen. Electrolysis (splitting) of
Martian water could produce hydrogen/oxygen, but
they rejected this combination because heavy, energy-
hungry cooling systems were necessary to keep the
hydrogen liquid, thus negating the weight-reduction
advantage of in-situ propellant manufacture.
Liquid methane/liquid oxygen constituted a good com-
promise, they found, because it yields 80 percent of
hydrogen/oxygen’s thrust, yet methane remains liquid
at higher temperatures, and thus is easier to store. The
Martian propellant factory would manufacture
methane using a chemical reaction discovered in 1897
by French chemist Paul Sabatier. In the Sabatier re-
action, carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen in the
presence of a nickel or ruthenium catalyst to produce
water and methane. The manufacture of methane and
oxygen on Mars would begin with electrolysis of
Martian water. The resultant oxygen would be stored
and the hydrogen reacted with carbon dioxide from
Mars’ atmosphere using the Sabatier process. The
methane would be stored and the water electrolyzed to
continue the propellant production process.
55
Chapter 6: Viking and the Resources of Mars
Ash, Dowler, and Varsi estimated that launching a one-
kilogram sample of Martian soil direct to Earth would
need 3.8 metric tons of methane/oxygen, while launch-
ing a piloted ascent vehicle into Mars orbit would need
13.9 metric tons. These are large quantities of propel-
lant, so conjunction-class trajectories with Mars sur-
face stay-times of at least 400 days would be necessary
to provide enough time for propellant manufacture.
Benton Clark, with Martin Marietta (Viking’s prime
contractor) in Denver, published the first papers
exploring the life-support implications of the Viking
results. His 1978 paper entitled “The Viking Results—
The Case for Man on Mars” pointed out that every kilo-
gram of food, water, or oxygen that had to be shipped
from Earth meant that a kilogram of science equip-
ment, shelter structure, or ascent rocket propellant
could not be sent.14 Clark estimated that supplies for a
10-person, 1,000-day conjunction-class Mars expedition
would weigh 58 metric tons, or about “one hundred
times the mass of the crew-members themselves.” The
expedition could, however, reduce supply weight, there-
by either reducing spacecraft weight or increasing
weight available for other items, by extracting water
from Martian dirt and splitting oxygen from Martian
atmospheric carbon dioxide during its 400-day Mars
surface stay.
Clark wrote that Mars offered many other ISRU possi-
bilities, but that they probably could not be exploited
until a long-term Mars base was established. This was
because they required structures, processing equip-
ment, or quantities of power unlikely to be available to
early expeditions. Crop growth using the “extremely
56 Monographs in Aerospace History
salty” Martian soil, for example, would probably have to
await availability of equipment for “pre-processing . . . to
eliminate toxic components.”15
The Vikings’ robotic scoops barely scratched the
Martian surface, yet they found useful materials such
as silicon, calcium, chlorine, iron, and titanium. Clark
pointed out that these could supply a Mars base with
cement, glass, metals, halides, and sulfuric acid.
Carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide could serve
clever Martians as a foundation for building organic
compounds, the basis of plastics, paper, and elastomers.
Hydrogen peroxide made from water could serve as
powerful fuel for rockets, rovers, and powered equip-
ment such as drills.
During the 1980s, the Mars ISRU concept generated
papers by many authors, as well as initial experimen-
tation.16 Robert Ash, for example, developed experimen-
tal Mars ISRU hardware at Old Dominion University
with modest funding support from NASA Langley17 and
from a non-government space advocacy group, The
Planetary Society.18 That a private organization would
fund such work was significant.
Before ISRU could make a major impact, piloted Mars
mission planning had to awaken more fully from its
decade-long post-Apollo slumber. Post-Apollo Mars
planning occurred initially outside official NASA aus-
pices. This constituted a sea-change in Mars plan-
ning—up to the 1970s, virtually all Mars planning was
government-originated. In the 1980s, as will be seen in
the coming chapters, individuals and organizations
outside the government took on a central, shaping role.