PAVES

Public speaking can be the source of significant anxiety for children and for adults. Many adults can relate to the sweaty palms, rapid heartbeat, dry-cotton mouth, shaky knees, and nervous stomach associated with public speaking. Surveys of adult fears have ranked public speaking among the most feared experiences, in some instances above death, heights, and flying [Wallechinsky, Wallace, & Wallace, 1978J. Public speaking can also be problematic for children. "Having to talk in front of my class" is an item in the school/ social
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stress fears components of the American Fear Survey Schedule for Children [Burnham, 2005; see boxes, "What Does the Literature Say About Fear of Public Speaking?" and "What Does the Literature Say About Public Speaking and Students With Educational Risk Indicators and Disabilities?"). Public Speaking Instruction Although public speaking has long been a course of study for high school students {California High School

Speech Association's Curriculum Committee, 2004) and even for some middle school students [Shuster & Meany, 2005), literature on public speaking instruction for elementary schooi students is scarce. Boyce, AlberMorgan, and Riley (2007) note that although speaking is an integral part of language arts, it tends to be a neglected part of the school curriculum. To assist in the advancement of public speaking skills, some states have developed knowledge and skill requirements in language arts that include competencies in public speaking and presentations for students in the fourth and fifth grades (Texas Administrative Code 110.6 & 110.7. 1997). Newcomb (1999) encouraged schools to do more to build public speaking skills and explained that speaking in groups helps students overcome shyness, test ideas with peers, and think on their feet. Elementary school intervention is crucial, especially since apprehension associated with communicating increases at about the age of 10 (McCroskey, Anderson. Richmond, & Wheeless, 1981).

A Presentation Strategy pr Begmning Presenters in Indusive Environments

Bertina H. Combes Michelle Walker Pamela Esprivalo Harrell Tandra lyler-Wood

Background on Development of Presentation Strategy Posture, Attitude, Voice, Eye Contact, Smile (PAVES) is a presentation strategy developed to assist students with disabilities, as well as to assist typically developing fourth- and-fifth-grade students in becoming successful and confident public speakers {Combes & Walker, 2001). Educators designed the strategy for use with girls in Bringing Up Girls in Science [BUGS], a project funded by the National Science Foundation. This 3-year-long afterschool program, which emphasized environmental science, sought also to affect the self-concept and self-efficacy of its participants. Across the three cohort groups, a total of 17 of the 94 participants had learning disabilities, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or behavior disorders. The inclusion of students with diverse learning and behavioral abilities necessitated differentiated instruction. Throughout the project, tbe educators designed instruction to maximize the learning and participation of all stu-

Wbat Does the Literature Say About Fear off Public Speaking? Why do children and adults alike shy away from pubhc speaking? Why do some individuals develop glossophobia, or fear of public speaking? Examining literature in the areas of pubhc speaking and the development of social fears may provide answers to these questions. Reviews (Bippus & Daly, 1999; Pearson, DeWitt, Child, Kahl, & Dandamudi, 2007} of the apprehension surrounding public speaking reveal numerous contributing factors. These include perceived skill deficiency, fear of evaluation, audience scrutiny, lack of experience in public speaking situations, poor preparation, introversion, a low level of self-esteem, and below-average abilities and achievement, and even genetic predisposition. Field, Hamilton, Knowles, and Plews (2003) report that fears about social situations are most pronounced during early adolescence [10-14 years old). Social phobias, such as fear of public speaking, also develop during this age range. Providing information may change fear beliefs and help alleviate the long-term effect of the fear. The degree to which information changes fear beliefs and helps alleviate the effect of the fear depends on who [adult or peer) provides the information and the type of social fear [e.g., public speaking, eating in public, or meeting a new group of children). Imphcations of these findings may lead to the conclusions that myriad events can precipitate fear of public speaking and that the fear is likely to begin during the child's elementary school years. In addition, providing hiformation about public speaking may decrease the likelihood that it becomes a long-term fear.

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WIrat Does tfie Literature Say About Public S|ieaking and Students With Educational Risk Indiccrtors and Disabilities?
Although the literature on public speaking and students with disabilities and those considered at risk for developing learning problems is not new and is scanty, it addresses challenges that these students face, as well as specific interventions. Ayres, Ayres, and Hopf [1995) investigated public speaking among at-risk upper elementary students. Their research explored public speaking anxiety (PSA), a type of communication apprehension (CA). CA is a level of anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with a person or persons (iVicCroskey, 1977). The definition of PSA derives from three dimensions: behavioral, affective, and cognitive [Ayres et al.). The behavioral dimension focuses on specific behaviors (e.g., putting the speech together, researching the topic, and giving the speech). Feelings associated with making the speech, such as fear, are the focus of the affective dimension. The cognitive dimension focuses on the thought processes associated with making a speech [e.g., "1 can't give good speeches") that may lead to PSA. Chesebro et al. [1992) found higher levels of CA and lower-perceived communication competence among at-risk students as compared with their same-age peers. Interventions for PSA of at-risk learners, as well as students with disabilities, reflect the perceived source of the apprehension and often focus on lowering anxiety and increasing perceived competence. Ayres et al. [1995) reported that the PSA of al-risk students lessened after exposure to a videotape intervention designed to reduce speech anxiety. Chesebro et al. [1992) suggested that teachers direct their attention to reducing levels of CA; increasing student self-esteem, especially in the area of self-perceived communication competence; and helping students improve their general communication skills. Hayward (2000) addressed assisting students with dyslexia in preparation for public speaking by modifying the use of notecards, an aid commonly employed in making speeches. Educators generally advise students to write key words and phrases on notecards to prompt them while they deliver a speech. However, the nature of dyslexia may make such a technique challenging. Hayward suggests using one or two words rather than phrases, using large print, and incorporating color. Each researcher cited in previous paragraphs comments on the need for direct instruction of public speaking skills or the need to address communication apprehension.

The PAVES strategy offered BUGS participants a systematic method of reviewing the content of their presentation and ensuring that they were prepared for audience questions. It cued them to attend to their posture, attitude, voice, and facial expressions. The researchers designed the strategy in response to the literature on public speaking, with special attention to decreasing perceived skill deficiency, fear of evaluation, audience scrutiny, and poor preparation.

How BUGS Met MVES

Once a week during the academic year from August to May, BUGS participants attended a 2-hour-long interactive science class that teachers from the local school district taught. Female mentors in nth and 12th grade who were participating in a residential accelerated college-preparation program assisted the BUGS participants in acquiring science concepts. The culminating experience for each of the 3 years was a presentation of a research project by the BUGS participants and their mentors. The experience allowed the girls to share what they had learned and helped them gain confidence in their abilities to talk about what they knew. Parents, teachers, and principals from participating schools; university faculty; and the local community received invitations to hear the BUGS participants share their research. BUGS participants and their mentors received a brief introduction to the PAVES strategy during the first weeks of the program while they learned about the scope and nature of BUGS and about their final product. Knowledge of content received emphasis as an important component in a successful end-of-the-year presentation. Four to 5 weeks before the final presentation, the educators taught students the strategy in detail and encouraged them to use it whiie they finalized their projects and prepared for their presentations.

dents. Working collaboratively with those who had expertise in content enhancement and delivery, content specialists delivered science content. The well-documented success of strategy instruction for students with learning and behavior differences in inclusive environments [Kleinheksel & Summy, 2003; Lenz, Deshler & Kissam, 2004) was the impetus for developing a presentation strategy using the principles of strategy instruction. Lenz et al. define strategy instruction as "instruction in how to leam and perform" (p. 261). Strategies help students by providing them with a consistent sequence of steps for approaching a difficult task.
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in this situation, public speaking. In teaching specific strategies, teachers are able to analyze the task, organize the process, and guide students to successful completion of the task. Strategies also help students by providing them with a mnemonic tool. The use of mnemonic tools has proved to be an effective means for increasing the memory of students with learning disabilities in inclusive environments [Uberti, Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 2003).

In teaching specific strategies, teachers are ahle to analyze the task, organize the process, and guide students to successfully ccmipleting the task.

PrepaniHon MUnES the Ufoy With their mentors, the BUGS students completed the Preparation SelfAssessment Checklist {see Figure 1). Four guiding questions assisted the BUGS students in self-assessment. Three of the four guiding questions required a yes or no response, whereas the fourth question required students to consider how they might better prepare themselves. To answer the first three guiding questions, students used

assistive questions. For example, Guiding Question 1 asked students "Do I know my topic well?" Assistive questions (e.g.. What is the main idea of my presentation? What sources did I use to prepare my presentation? What are my presentation's major topics?] aided the students in answering yes or no to the guiding question. After considering questions 1 through 3, students asked themselves how they might become better prepared to make

a presentation (question 4). Answering "no" to questions 1 through 3 pointed the students back to appropriate guiding questions while they sought ways to become better prepared. Once BUGS students felt prepared, they were ready for instruction in the PAVES strategy. leaching fhe RAVES Strategy With a completed Prepaj-ation SelfAssessment Checklist in hand, the BUGS participants were ready for instruction in the PAVES strategy. Educators taught the strategy to students in large and small groups. The instructors made accommodations, such as teaching the strategy in two short sessions instead of one long session, as appropriate, histructors began by asking the students a series of questions to generate a group discussion about public speaking and presenting (e.g., How do you feel about speaking in public? Do you think everyone feels this way? Why do you suppose that people feel this way? What do you think can help us feel less anxious or nervous?). Instructors and mentors shared their pubhc speaking experiences, both positive ones and challenging ones. In addition to emphasizing the importance of adequate preparation, instructors queried BUGS participants about other factors that may lead to successful presentations. Instructors then shared the PAVES poster (shown in Figure 2) and distributed tbe strategy on individual student cue cards. The instructors told students that they were going to learn a strategy composed of five steps with corresponding prompts. Each step contributes to the formulation of the mnemonic PAVES. BUGS participants committed to learning the strategy and doing their best for tbe invited audience.
PAVES Steps

Figure 1 . Preparation Self-Assessment Checklist Assists Students in Determining Their Levei of Preparedness and the Need for Further Preparation

Preparation Self-Assessment Checklist

Preparation PAVES the way to a successful presentation!

Yes
1. Do I know my topic well? a. What is the main idea of my presentation? b. What sources did I use to prepare my presentation? c. What are my presentation's major topics? 2. Have I organized my materials and discussion so that my audience can understand them? a. Wiil the main idea of my presentation be clear lo my audience? b. Will the major topics in my presentation be clear to my audience? 3. Am I prepared to answer simple and challenging questions? Some questions the audience might ask are a. b. c. 4. Did I answer no to any question (1-3) above? a. If yes, how can I become better prepared?

No

The letter P represents the first step of the PAVES strategy and stands for Posture. The instructors led BUGS participants in a discussion of appropriate presentation posture through examples and nonexamples. Prompts to help students remember techniques for achieving good posture included standing up TEACHING
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straight and facing the audience. Standing up straight helps the audience in focusing on the content of the presentation rather than on the presenter. Further, standing up straight may help alleviate anxiety by allowing the presenter to breathe more easily. The instructors encouraged students to face the audience and gave them tips for doing so. especially when the students used visuals. A, for Attitude, is the second step of PAVES. What is attitude? Can we see it? What would help us have a positive

Experts have suggested several reasons for fearing public speaking; adequate preparation and practice can alleviate most of them.

attitude about our presentation? BUGS participants and instructors discussed how to demonstrate a positive attitude. What does the face look like when a person has a positive attitude? Again, through examples and nonexamples, the instructors showed BUGS participants how a good attitude looks.

Figure 2 . PAVES Pester Teaches Students the PAVES Strategy in Large- or Small-Group Settings

PAVES PRESENTATION STRATEGY

Preparation PAVES the way to an excellent presentation! Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Express a positive and confident disposition Enjoy yourself and the presentation Speak clearly Attend to rate Watch your tone Eye Contact Look at the audience Find several friendly faces Apply the 5-second spotting practice 1 osture Stand up straight Face the audience Attitude Think good thoughts Remind yourself of preparation Voice

Prompts for attitude were to think good thoughts (e.g., I am going to be successful, and I know my information well) and to stay focused on the preparation (e.g., I conducted my experiment, I checked my results, and 1 am prepared for questions). Step 3, V for Voice, initiated a discussion about voice clarity, tone, and rate. The prompts for voice were as follows: speak clearly, attend to rate, and watch the tone. BUGS participants and instructors experimented with different rates and tones of speech by using the students' introductory remarks about their research project. The instructors also gave BUGS participants an opportunity to test whether peers in various parts of the room could hear them. During the discussion about voice, instructors included information about using formal language as compared with informal language. For example, the instructors encouraged students to make such statements as "We conducted an experiment" instead of "We did an experiment" and "Results indicated the mealworms preferred oatmeal over cornflakes" instead of "They hke the oatmeal the best." The letter E represents the fourth step of the strategy and stands for Eye contact. The instructors asked BUGS participants to define eye contact and to explain why it might be important. Prompts for eye contact included the following: look at the audience, find several friendly faces, and apply the 5second spotting practice. With the P. A, and V steps of the strategy in place, students practiced making eye contact with the audience. Fellow BUGS participants role-played being an audience, with some assigned the responsibility of being a "friendly face," that is, a place to look when the speaker needed reassurance. Finally, students were taught the 5-second spotting practice. Spotting the audience prevents the presenter's eyes from becoming fixed on cue cards, a person, a group, or the

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crner of the room. By attempting to survey the audience with their eyes, presenters could assess the audience's understanding of the presentation and alter their information accordingly. The final step of the presentation strategy is S, for Smile. Smiling tells the audience that the presenter is enjoying the presentation and encourages them to do the same. Corresponding prompts for smile included expressing a positive disposition and enjoying oneself and the presentation. As BUGS participants did when learning the other steps of the strategy, they modeled appropriate smiling with their

preparation. The PAVES strategy encompasses components that prompt students' internal and external behaviors toward successful public speaking and presentations. PAVES may be especially helpful for students with disabilities as they are included in general education curriculum and in intervention programs such as BLJGS. References
Ayres, D. M., Ayres, J., & Hopf, T (1995). Reducing communication apprehension among at-risk children. Commanication Reports, 8, 178-184. Bippus, A. M., Daly, J. A. (1999). What do people think causes stage frightNaive attributions about the reasons for public speaking anxiety Communication Education. 48, 63-72. Boyce, J. S., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Riley, J. G. (2007). Fearless public speaking: Oral presentation activitie.s for the elementary classroom. Childhood Education, 83. 142-150. Burnham, J. J. (2005). Fears of children in the United States; An examination of the American fear survey schedule witb 20 new coniemporaiy fear items. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 38(2], 78-91. Califomia High School Speech Association's Curriculum Committee. 12004). Speaking across the curriculum: Practical ideas for incorporating listening and speaking into the classroom. New York: IDEA Press. Cbesebro. J. W., McCroskey, J. C , Atwater, D. R, Bahrenfuss, R. M., Cawelti, G., Gaudino, J, L , et al. (1992). Communication apprebension and self-perceived communication competence of at-risk students. Communication Education, 41, 345-360. Combes, B. H., & Walker, M. (2001). The PAVES presentation strategy. Unpublished manuscript. Field, A. P., Hamilton, S. J., Knowes, K. A., & Plews, E. L. (2003). Fear information and social pbobia beliefs in children: A prospective paradigm and preliminary results. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 113-123. Hayward, R A. (2000). The dyslexic student and the public speaking notecard. Paper presented at tbe 86th Meeting of the National Communication Association, Seattle, WA.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 465977) Kleinheksel, K. A., & Summy, S. E. (2003). Enhancing student learning and social behavior through mnemonic strategies. TEACHING Exceptional ChildTen. 36, 30-35.

Lenz, B, K.. Deshler, D. D., & Kissam, B. R. (2004). Teaching content to all: Evidencebased inclusive practices in middle and secondary schools. Boston: Pearson. McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research, 4, 78-96. McCroskey, J. C , Anderson, J. F., Richmond, V. P., & Wbeeless, L. R. (1981). Communication apprehension of elementary and secondary students and teachers, Commanication Education, 30, 122-132. Newcomb, A. (1999). Finding a voice. Christian Science Monitor. 9i(55), 13. Pearson, J. C , DeWitt, L., Child, J. T., Kahl, D. H., & Dandamudi, V. (2007). Facing the fear: An analysis of speech-anxiety content in pubiic-speaking textbooks. Communication Research Reports, 24, 159-168. Shuster, K., & Meany, J. (2005). Speak oat: Debate and public speaking in the middle grades. New York: International Debate Education Association. Texas Administrative Code, Title 19, Part II. Chapter 110. (1997). Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills UO.6 and %n0.7. Retrieved November 22, 2005, from bttp: //www. tea. sla le.tx.us/ruies/tac/ cbapter 110/i ndex. html Uberti. H. Z., Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2003). Keywords make the difference! TEACHING Exceptional Children, 35(3), 56-61. Wallechinsky, D., Wallace. E.. & Wallace, A. (1978). Book of lists. New York: Bantam Books. Bertina H. Combes (CEC TX Federation). Associate Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, University of North Texas, Dentn. Michelle Walker, Director of Education, Distributive Education Clubs of America (DEA), Reston, Virginia. Pamela Esprivalo Harrell, Associate Professor. Department of Teacher Education and Administration: and Tandra Tyler-Wood (CEC TX Federation). Associate Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, University of North Texas, Dentn. Address correspondence to Bertina H. Combes, Department of Educational Psychology, University of North Texas, RO. Box 311335, Dentn, TX 76203 (e-mail: Combes@unt.edu). TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 42-47 Copyright 2008 CEC. 47

The PAVES strategy encompasses components that will prompt stndents' internal and external hehaviors toward successful pnblic speaking and presentations.
peers. Students enjoyed sharing nonexamples as well as appropriate examples of what a person should look like when she is truly enjoying sharing information. After students worked through all steps of the strategy and were familiar with corresponding prompts, they had an opportunity to practice their presentation with their peers as an audience. Final Tiioughls Public speaking will continue to be an unsettling experience for some students, including those with disabilities. Experts have suggested several reasons for fearing public speaking; adequate preparation and practice can alleviate most of them. Using the PAVES strategy described in this article can provide teachers and students with a systematic plan when preparing for public speaking and presentations. The Preparation Self-Assessment Checklist challenges students to assess their own preparation and then guides them in the right direction if they need further

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