Marine Productivity

By Dr. Nita Rukminasari

Outlined Lectured
Productivity vs biomass Food chain Food web and trophic dynamic Transfer energy between trophic level Ocean food web Primary productivity Regional productivity Measuring primary productivity Geographic variation of productivity

Productivity vs biomass
Biomass the mass of living material present at any time, expressed as grams per unit area or volume

Productivity is the rate of production of living material per unit time per unit area or volume

Productivity

Primary productivity - productivity due to Photosynthesis Secondary productivity - productivity due to consumers of primary producers

Food Chain

Food chain - linear sequence showing which organisms consume which other organisms, making a series of trophic leve

Food web - more complex diagram showin feeding relationships among organisms, n restricted to a linear hierarchy

Food Chain Abstraction

Food chain Herring
Young herring arrowworm sand eel Larger copepod amphipod

Food Web
Adult herring

Copepod
Barnacle Mollusk larvae larvae

cladocerans tunicate

Small euphausid copepods

Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton

Food Webs and Trophic Dynamics

Trophic dynamics is the study of the nutritional interconnections among organisms within an ecosystem. Trophic level is the position of an organism within the trophic dynamics. Autotrophs form the first trophic level. Herbivores are the second trophic level. Carnivores occupy the third and higher trophic levels. Decomposers form the terminal level. A food chain is the succession of organisms within an ecosystem based upon trophic dynamics. (Who is eaten by whom.)

The word trophic refers to nutrition.

Transfer Between Trophic Levels

Transfer from one trophic level to the next is not complete: 1. Some material not eaten 2. Not all eaten is converted with 100% efficiency

Transfer Between Trophic Levels 2

I=E+R+G I amount ingested E amount egested R amount respired G growth (partitioned between somatic growth and reproduction)

Budget for ingested food (use energy units

Transfer Between Trophic Levels 3

Incomplete transfer up a food chain:

Measure by food chain efficiency:

E = amount extracted from a trophic level amount of energy supplied to that level Often in range of as little as 10%

Transfer Between Trophic Levels 4

Use food chain efficiency to calculate energy available to highest trophic level: P = BEn

B = primary production P = production at highest level E = food chain efficiency N = number of links between trophic levels

Transfer Between Trophic Levels 4

Use food chain efficiency to calculate energy available to highest trophic level: P = BEn

Let E = .1, B = 1, n = 2,3,4 If n = 2, P = ?

Transfer Between Trophic Levels 4

Use food chain efficiency to calculate energy available to highest trophic level: P = BEn

Let E = .1, B = 1, n = 2,3,4 If n = 2, P = ? P = 1 x (0.1)2 = 1 x 0.01 = 0.01

Transfer Between Trophic Levels 4

Use food chain efficiency to calculate energy available to highest trophic level: P = BEn

Let E = .1, B = 1, n = 2,3,4 If n = 3, P = ? P = 1 x (0.1)3 = 1 x 0.1 x 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.001

Transfer Between Trophic Levels 5

Use food chain efficiency to calculate energy available to highest trophic level: P = BEn

With 5 trophic levels, a change of E from 0.1 to 0.2 magnifies P by a factor of 16

Oceanic Food Webs

Food webs in the oceans vary systematically in food chain efficiency, number of trophic levels, primary production

Oceanic Food Webs

Food Chain Type Primary Trophic Food Potential Productivit Levels Chain Fish y Efficiency Production gCm-2y-1 mgCm-2y-1 50 5 10 0.5 100 300 3 1.2 15 20 340 36,000

Oceanic
Shelf Upwelling

Oceanic Food Webs

Food Chain Type Primary Trophic Food Potential Productivit Levels Chain Fish y Efficiency Production gCm-2y-1 mgCm-2y-1 50 5 10 0.5 100 300 3 1.2 15 20 340 36,000

Oceanic
Shelf Upwelling

Oceanic Food Webs

Food Chain Type Primary Trophic Food Potential Productivit Levels Chain Fish y Efficiency Production gCm-2y-1 mgCm-2y-1 50 5 10 0.5 100 300 3 1.2 15 20 340 36,000

Oceanic
Shelf Upwelling

Oceanic Food Webs

Food Chain Type Primary Trophic Food Potential Productivit Levels Chain Fish y Efficiency Production gCm-2y-1 mgCm-2y-1 50 5 10 0.5 100 300 3 1.2 15 20 340 36,000

Oceanic
Shelf Upwelling

Oceanic Food Webs

Note: Great potential of upwelling areas due to combination of high primary production, higher food chain efficiency, lower number of trophic levels

Open ocean, gyre centers

Oceanic Food Webs

Shelf, upwelling

Many trophic levels

Few trophic levels

Stable, low nutrient

Turbulent, high nutrient

Primary productivity
Primary productivity is the amount of carbon (organic matter) produced by organisms
Mostly through photosynthesis
Energy source = solar radiation

Also includes chemosynthesis

Energy source = chemical reactions

Photosynthetic productivity

Figure 13-1

Oceanic photosynthetic productivity

Controlling factors affecting photosynthetic productivity:
Availability of nutrients
Nitrates Phosphates Iron

Amount of sunlight
Varies daily and seasonally Sunlight strong enough to support photosynthesis occurs only to a depth of 100 meters (euphotic zone)

Locations of maximum photosynthetic productivity

Margins of the oceans
Abundant supply of nutrients from land Water shallow enough for light to penetrate all the way to the sea floor

Upwelling areas
Currents hoist cool, nutrient-rich deep water to the sunlit surface

Coastal upwelling

Figure 13-3

The electromagnetic spectrum and light penetration in seawater

Figure 13-4

Water color and life in the ocean

Ocean color is influenced by:
The amount of turbidity from runoff The amount of photosynthetic pigment, which corresponds to the amount of productivity

Yellow-green = highly productive water

Found in coastal and upwelling areas (eutrophic)

Clear indigo blue = low productivity water

Found in the tropics and open ocean (oligotrophic)

Satellite view of world productivity

Figure 13-6

Photosynthetic marine organisms: Plants

Seed-bearing plants
Eelgrass (Zostera) Surf grass (Phyllospadix)
Surf grass
Figure 13-7

Photosynthetic marine organisms: Macroscopic algae

Brown algae
Sargassum (top left) Macrocystis (top right)

Green algae
Codium (bottom left)

Red algae
Lithothamnion (bottom right)
Figure 13-8

Photosynthetic marine organisms: Microscopic algae

Microscopic algae include:
Golden algae
Diatoms (silica test resembles a pillbox) Coccolithophores (calcite plates form a spherical test)

Dinoflagellates
Produce a test made of keratin Posses a whip-like flagella Bioluminescence Exist in great abundance, creating red tides (harmful algae blooms)

Dinoflagellates and red tides

Figure 13C

Regional productivity
Photosynthetic productivity varies due to:
Amount of sunlight Availability of nutrients
Thermocline (a layer of rapidly changing temperature) limits nutrient supply

Examine three open ocean regions:

1. Polar oceans (>60 latitude) 2. Tropical oceans (<30 latitude) 3. Temperate oceans (30-60 latitude)

Productivity in polar oceans

Sunlight peaks in summer Nutrients available nearly year-round (only weak seasonal thermocline develops) Productivity:
Peaks in spring

Figure 13-10a

Productivity in tropical oceans

Sunlight strong year-round Nutrients limited by strong, permanent thermocline Productivity:
Steady, low rate Limited by nutrients Exceptions:
Figure 13-11

Productivity in temperate oceans

Sunlight varies seasonally Nutrients limited by thermocline Productivity:

Spring bloom limited by nutrients Fall bloom limited by sunlight

Figure 13-12

Productivity in tropical, temperate, and polar oceans

Figure 13-13

Measuring Primary Productivity

Gross primary productivity - total carbon fixe during photosynthesis

Net primary productivity - total carbon fixed during photosynthesis minus that part which is respired.

Measuring Primary Productivity 2

Net Primary productivity most interesting: gives that part of the production available to higher trophic levels

Measuring Primary Productivity 3

Oxygen technique Principle - relies upon fact that oxygen is released during photosynthesis CO2 + 2H2O ---> (CH2O)n + H2O + O2

Measuring Primary Productivity 4

Oxygen technique 2 - there is an addition fro photosynthesis and a subtraction from respiration

Measuring Primary Productivity 5

Oxygen technique 3 Measurement of oxygen: Winkler technique - chemical titration of Oxygen Polarographic oxygen electrode -

Measuring Primary Productivity 6

Oxygen technique 4 Light-Dark bottle technique:

Light bottle gives oxygen from photosynthe minus oxygen consumed in respiration Dark bottle gives oxygen consumed from Respiration

Measuring Primary Productivity 7

Oxygen technique 5 Light-Dark bottle technique:

Start light and dark bottles with water sample, w a short amount of time

At end of experiment: oxygen in light minus tha dark bottle gives you gross photosynthesis

Measuring Primary Production: light/dark bottle technique

Take water samples at different depths. Place one subsample in a transparent (light) bottle, another in an opaque (dark) bottle. Resubmerge bottles to original depth. Retrieve after a similar, specified time (hours) Measure oxygen, in both Dark bottle: respiratory oxygen consumption (should be same in both bottles). Difference in oxygen conc between bottles:

Oxygen technique - effect of depth

Measuring Primary Production Cont.

Problem: if zooplankton present, they will consume oxygen, even in dark bottle (they are not primary producers). Other method: inject water samples with radioactively-labeled bicarbonate (has C14). After incubation period, filter phytoplankton onto filter and measure radioactivity. Method is very sensitive, measures CO2 taken up; problem: because it is so sensitive, there can be a high margin of error.

Measuring Primary Productivity-Cont.

Radiocarbon technique Principle: carbon is taken up by cells During photosynthesis, so if you label that carbon you can trace it as it is incorporated into cells during photosynthesis. Method: add bicarbonate to solution With phytoplankton that is labeled with 14C Incubate phytoplankton in the radiocarbon Solution Then filter phytoplankton and count radiocarbon Taken up by phytoplankton, using a scintillation counter

Radiocarbon technique Cont. Calculation: 1. Know the amount of bicarbonate that was in container 2. Know the amount of radiolabeled bicarbonate you added and the amount that was taken up by Phytoplankton allows calculation of amount of bicarbonate taken up in photosynthesis Correction: 14C is taken up more slowly than much more common stable isotope 12C. Therefore, need to multiply results by 1.05 to get amount in photosynthesis What you get with this measure: Carbon incorporation into phytoplankton (net photosynthesis)

 Oxygen technique - used where primary production is high in estuaries, shelf Radiocarbon technique - useful where primary production is low such as open ocean Oxygen technique tends to give higher estimates of primary production, perhaps because cells are leaking sugars during photosynthesis, resulting in loss of radiocarbon when cells are filtered and counted

Compare Oxygen technique with radiocarbon

Other Methods: Chl a

Chlorophyll a measurements. Chl a concentration only roughly approximates primary productivity. Better used as an indicator of standing crop (i.e., you are measuring a population, not an activity, not all the population is involved in the activity). If your population doesnt change, does that mean no primary production is occurring? Nope Balanced turnover rate: rate at which new production replaces that lost to grazing, settling, etc. (typically rapid: daily doubling).

Satellite Approaches:
Satellites can use photometers specific to wavelength to measure chlorophyll,Seawater temperature Need ground truthing to get relationship Between chlorophyll concentration and primary production; varies with region

sun

Satellite
Color scanner Irradiance Radiance

Phytoplankton

Ship-based vs. Satellite Sampling

Obviously, you miss a lot between widelybased sampling stations. Scientists resorted to averaging between stations and periods: oops! A lot was missed or lost. Problem solved by remote satellite sensing using a coastal zone color scanner (black/white converted to color, color represents level of phytoplankton standing crops). Calibrated via ship-based measurements.

Geographic Variation of Productivity

1. Continental shelf and open-ocean upwellin Areas are most productive 2. Convergences and fronts often are sites o rise of nutrient rich deep waters (e.g., shallow water seaward of slope 3. Central ocean, gyre centers are nutrient po low primary production

North Atlantic Indian Ocean South Atlantic Antarctic

North Pacific

South Pacific

Satellite image of world productivity, from SeaWiFS satellite

Major Factors Affecting Primary Productivity

Depends on both abiotic and biotic factors/ conditions. Phytoplankton standing crop would increase exponentially if nothing was limited. Populations regulated by tolerance to limiting factors. Major ones: light, nutrient availability, grazing by consumers. Each major group responds differently to a different set of conditions.

Factors Affecting Primary Productivity

Solar radiation
Uppermost surface seawater and shallow seafloor Compensation depth net photosynthesis becomes zero Euphotic zonefrom surface to about 100 meters (330 feet)

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Light Transmission in Ocean Water

Visible light of the electromagnetic spectrum Blue wavelengths penetrate deepest Longer wavelengths (red, orange) absorbed first

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Transmission of Light in Seawater

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Color in the Ocean

Color of ocean ranges from deep blue to yellow-green Factors
Turbidity from runoff Photosynthetic pigment (chlorophyll)
Eutrophic Oligotrophic Secchi Disk measures water transparency
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upwelling and Nutrient Supply

Cooler, deeper seawater is nutrientrich. Areas of coastal upwelling are sites of high productivity.

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upwelling and Nutrient Supply

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thank you