Adi Shankara

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Adi Shankaracharya

Adi Shankara with Disciples, by Raja Ravi Varma (1904) Born Shankara 788 CE[1] Kaladi, Chera Kingdom present day Kerala, India Died 820 CE[1] Kedarnath, Pala Empire present day Uttarakhand, India Guru Philosophy Govinda Bhagavatpada Advaita Vedanta Part of a series on

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Adi Shankara (early 8th century CE[2][note 1]), pronounced [adi k], also known as di akarcri, akara Bhagavatpdcrya and di akarcrya was an Indian philosopher from Kaladi in present day Eranakulam district, Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vednta.[1][5] His works in Sanskrit establish the doctrine of advaita, the unity of the tman and nirguna brahman, brahman without attributes.[6] His works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads. He wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutra, principal upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis.

The main opponent in his work is the Mimamsa school of thought, though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like Samkhya and certain schools of Buddhism.[6][7][8] Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist.[5] Adi Shankara is believed to be the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the Shanmata tradition of worship.

Contents
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1 Biography o 1.1 Sources

o

1.2 Birth

1.2.1 Dates 1.2.2 Caste

o o o o o

1.3 Childhood 1.4 Sannyasa 1.5 Meeting with Mandana Mishra 1.6 Philosophical tour 1.7 Accession to Sarvajnapitha

2 Mathas 3 Philosophy and religious thought 4 Historical and cultural impact 5 Works 6 Film 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources

11 Further reading 12 External links

Biography
Sources
Traditional accounts of Adi Shankara's life can be found in the ankara Vijaya, which are poetic works that contain a mix of biographical and legendary material, written in the epic style. The most important among these biographies are the Mdhavya akara Vijaya (of Mdhava, c. 14th century), the Cidvilsya akara Vijaya (of Cidvilsa, c. between the 15th and 17th centuries), and the Keraya akara Vijaya (of the Kerala region, extant from c. the 17th century).[9][10]

Birth
Dates Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara:

788820 CE: This is the mainstream scholarly opinion, placing Shankara in mid to late 8th century CE. These dates are based on records at the geri rad Pha, which is the only matha to have maintained a relatively unbroken record of its Acharyas; starting with the third Acharya, one can with reasonable confidence date the others from the 8th century to the present.[11] The Sringeri records state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of "VikramAditya", but it is unclear as to which king this name refers. Though some researchers identify the name with Chandragupta II (4th century CE), modern scholarship accepts the VikramAditya as being from the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, most likely Vikramaditya II (733746 CE),[12] which would place him in the middle of the 8th century.[11] Max Muller, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishnan all accept the dates 788820 CE.[3] The date 788820 is also among those considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda, though he raises a number of questions.[13][14] 509477 BCE: This dating, more than a millennium ahead of all others, is based on records of the heads of the Shankara Mahas at Dvaraka Pitha and Govardhana matha and the fifth Peetham at Kanchi.[4] However, the succession of acharyas at these two mathas were often disrupted by geopolitical realities and these records are not considered as reliable as the Sringeri chronology. Also, such an early date would be in conflict with much else in Indian chronology. According to these revisionist models, these are the actual dates, and it is other collateral dates, such as the date of Gautama Buddha (which serves as an anchor for modern academic history of India), that need to be moved back.</ref> However, such an early date is not consistent with the fact that Shankara quotes the Buddhist logician Dharmakirti, who finds mention in Xuanzang (7th century).[11] Also, his near-contemporary Kumrila Bhaa is usually dated c. 8th century CE. Most scholars feel that due to invasions and other discontinuities, the records of the Dwaraka and Govardhana mathas are not as reliable as those of Sringeri.[11] Thus, while considerable debate exists, the pre-Christian Era

dates are usually discounted, and the most likely period for Shankara is during the 8th century CE.

4412 BCE: Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE.[3] 6th century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir R G Bandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE.[3] 805897: A D Venkiteswara not only places Adishankara later than most, but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him, and has him live ninety two years.[3]

Caste Adi Sankara was the son of Sivaguru and hivatrak (Aryamba),[15] who belonged to the Vishwakarma[note 2] and Nambudiri Brahmins.[16][17][note 3] Sankaracharya was a contemporary of the great Tamil saint Kulashekhara Alwar who was also a Chera king.

Childhood

The birthplace of Adi Shankara at Kalady

Adi Sankara Keerthi Sthampa Mandapam, Kalady, Kerala Shankara was born in Kaladi in present day central Kerala, the ancient Tamil kingdom of the Cheras.[note 4] According to lore, it was after his parents, who had been childless for many years, prayed at the Vadakkunnathan temple, Thrissur, that Shiva appeared to both husband and wife in their dreams, and offered them a choice: a mediocre son who would live a long life, or an extraordinary son who would not live long. Both the parents chose the latter; thus a son was born to them. He was named Shankara (Sanskrit, "bestower of happiness"), in honour of Shiva (one of whose epithets is Shankara).[18] His father died while Shankara was very young. Shankara's upanayanam., the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his father, and was then performed by his mother.[19] As a child, Shankara showed remarkable scholarship, mastering the four Vedas by the age of eight.[20]

Sannyasa
At the age of 8, Shankara was inclined towards sannyasa, but it was only after much persuasion that his mother finally gave her consent. He only received her consent in a very interesting manner. While bathing in the river Poorna one day, a crocodile caught hold of his leg. Shankara appealed to his mother, who had arrived at Poorna, asking for permission to become a sanyasi. His mother finally gave consent, only to have the crocodile let go of young Shankara. A crocodile had never been found in Poorna ever since[21] Shankara then left Kerala and travelled towards North India in search of a guru. On the banks of the Narmada River, he met Govinda Bhagavatpada the disciple of Gaudapada at Omkareshwar. When Govinda Bhagavatpada asked Shankara's identity, he replied with an extempore verse that brought out the Advaita Vedanta philosophy. Govinda Bhagavatapada was impressed and took Shankara as his disciple.[22] The guru instructed Shankara to write a commentary on the Brahma Sutras and propagate the Advaita philosophy. Shankara travelled to Kashi, where a young man named Sanandana, hailing from Chola territory in South India, became his first disciple. According to legend, while on his way to the Vishwanath Temple, an untouchable accompanied by four dogs came in the way of Sankara. When asked to move aside by Shankara's disciples, the untouchable replied: "Do you wish that I move my ever lasting tman ("the Self"), or this body made of flesh?" Realizing that the untouchable was none other than god Shiva himself, and his dogs the four Vedas, Shankara prostrated himself before him, composing five shlokas known as Manisha Panchakam.[23][24] At Badari he wrote his famous Bhashyas ("commentaries") and Prakarana granthas ("philosophical treatises").[25][26]

Meeting with Mandana Mishra

Sharada Peeth (Sarvajnapeetha) temple, now in Pakistan-administered Kashmir Main article: Maana Mira One of the most famous debates of Adi Shankara was with the ritualist Maana Mira. Maana Mira held the view that the life of a householder was far superior to that of a monk. This view was widely shared and respected throughout India at that time.[27] Thus it would have been important for Adi Shankara to debate with him. Madana Mishra's guru was the famous Mimamsa philosopher, Kumrila Bhaa. Shankara sought a debate with Kumrila Bhaa and met him in Prayag where he had buried himself in a slow burning pyre to repent for sins committed against his guru: Kumrila Bhaa had learned Buddhist philosophy from his Buddhist guru under false pretenses, in order to be able to refute it. Learning anything without the knowledge of one's guru while still under his authority constitutes a sin according to the Vedas.[28] Kumrila Bhaa thus asked Adi Shankara to proceed to Mahimati to meet Maana Mira and debate with him instead.(Mahishmati is on the banks of the holy river Narmada, in Madhya Pradesh. Mahishmati is now known as Mandala. . Mandala finds mention in Pauranic literature as the capital of Sahasrabahu Kartyaveer Arjun who had obstructed the river by his thousand arms by his frolicking, at his capital Mahishmati), After debating for over fifteen days, with Maana Mira's wife Ubhaya Bhrat acting as referee, Maana Mira accepted defeat.[29] Ubhaya Bhrat then challenged Adi Shankara to have a debate with her in order to 'complete' the victory. She asked him questions related to sexual congress between man and woman a subject in which Shankaracharya had no knowledge, since he was a true celibate and sannyasi. Sri Shankracharya asked for a "recess" of 15 days. As per legend, he used the art of "para-kaya pravesa" (the spirit leaving one's own body and entering another's) and exited his own body, which he asked his disciples to look after, and psychically entered the dead body of a king. The story goes that from the King's two wives, he acquired all knowledge of "art of love". The queens, thrilled at the keen intellect and robust love-making of the "revived" King, deduced that he was not their husband, as of old. The story continues that they sent their factotums to "look for the lifeless body of a young sadhu and to cremate it immediately" so that their "king" (Shankracharya in the king's body) would continue to live with them. Just as the retainers piled Shankracharaya's lifeless corpse upon a pyre and were about to set fire to it, Shankara entered his own body and regained consciousness. Finally, he answered all questions put to him by Ubhaya Bhrat; and she allowed Maana Mira to accept sannyasa with the monastic name Surevarcrya, as per the agreed-upon rules of the debate.[30]

Philosophical tour

Sharada temple at Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Sringeri Adi Shankara then travelled with his disciples to Maharashtra and Srisailam. In Srisailam, he composed Shivanandalahari, a devotional hymn in praise of Shiva. The Madhaviya Shankaravijayam says that when Shankara was about to be sacrificed by a Kapalika, the god Narasimha appeared to save Shankara in response to Padmapadacharya's prayer to him. As a result, Adi Shankara composed the Laksmi-Narasimha stotra.[31]

Sarvajna Peetha, on Kodachadri peak, near Kollur where Adi Shankara is believed to have meditated He then travelled to Gokara, the temple of Hari-Shankara and the Mkambika temple at Kollur. At Kollur, he accepted as his disciple a boy believed to be dumb by his parents. He gave him the name, Hastmalakcrya ("one with the amalaka fruit on his palm", i.e., one who has clearly realised the Self). Next, he visited sringeri to establish the rada Pham and made Surevarcrya his disciple.[32] After this, Adi Shankara began a Dig-vijaya "tour of conquest" for the propagation of the Advaita philosophy by controverting all philosophies opposed to it. He travelled throughout India, from South India to Kashmir and Nepal, preaching to the local populace and debating philosophy with Hindu, Buddhist and other scholars and monks along the way. With the Malayali King Sudhanva as companion, Shankara passed through Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Vidarbha. He then started towards Karnataka where he encountered a band of armed Kapalikas. King Sudhanva, with his Nairs, resisted and defeated the Kapalikas. They safely reached Gokarna where Shankara defeated in debate the Shaiva scholar, Neelakanta.

Proceeding to Saurashtra (the ancient Kambhoja) and having visited the shrines of Girnar, Somnath and Prabhasa and explaining the superiority of Vedanta in all these places, he arrived at Dwarka. Bhaa Bhskara of Ujjayini, the proponent of Bhedbeda philosophy, was humbled. All the scholars of Ujjayini (also known as Avanti) accepted Adi Shankara's philosophy. He then defeated the Jainas in philosophical debates at a place called Bahlika. Thereafter, the Acharya established his victory over several philosophers and ascetics in Kamboja (region of North Kashmir), Darada and many regions situated in the desert and crossing mighty peaks, entered Kashmir. Later, he had an encounter with a tantrik, Navagupta at Kamarupa.[33]

Accession to Sarvajnapitha

Idol of Adi Shankara at his Samadhi Mandir, behind Kedarnath Temple, in Kedarnath, India Adi Shankara visited Sarvajapha (Sharada Peeth) in Kashmir (now in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan).[34] The Madhaviya Shankaravijayam states this temple had four doors for scholars from the four cardinal directions. The southern door (representing South India) had never been opened, indicating that no scholar from South India had entered the Sarvajna Pitha. Adi Shankara opened the southern door by defeating in debate all the scholars there in all the various scholastic disciplines such as Mimamsa, Vedanta and other branches of Hindu philosophy; he ascended the throne of Transcendent wisdom of that temple.[35] Towards the end of his life, Adi Shankara travelled to the Himalayan area of KedarnathBadrinath and attained videha mukti ("freedom from embodiment"). There is a samadhi mandir dedicated to Adi Shankara behind the Kedarnath temple. However, there are variant traditions on the location of his last days. One tradition, expounded by Keraliya Shankaravijaya, places his place of mahasamadhi (leaving the body) as Vadakkunnathan temple in Thrissur, Kerala.[36] The followers of the Kanchi kamakoti pitha claim that he ascended the Sarvajapha and attained videha mukti in Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu).

Mathas

(Vidyashankara temple) at Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Shringeri Adi Shankara founded four Mahas (Sanskrit: ) to guide the Hindu religion. These are at Sringeri in Karnataka in the south, Dwaraka in Gujarat in the west, Puri in Odisha in the east, and Jyotirmath (Joshimath) in Uttarakhand in the north. Hindu tradition states that he put in charge of these mathas his four main disciples: Surevara, Hastamalakacharya, Padmapda, and Totakacharya respectively. The heads of the mathas trace their authority back to these figures. Each of the heads of these four mathas takes the title of Shankaracharya ("the learned Shankara") after the first Shankaracharya. The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya Mathas founded by Adi Shankara and their details.[37] Shishya Hastmalakcrya Surevara Padmapda Toakcrya Direction East South West North Maha Govardhana Pha rada Pha Dvraka Pha Jyotirmaha Pha Mahvkya Prajnam brahma (Brahman is Knowledge) Aham brahmsmi (I am Brahman) Tattvamasi (That thou art) Ayamtm brahma (This Atman is Brahman) Veda Sampradaya

Rig Veda Bhogavala Yajur Veda Sama Veda Atharva Veda Bhrivala Kitavala Nandavala

After establishing these 4 mathas, Adi Shankara himself occupied Sarvajna Peetha -the Throne of Omniscience at Kanchi.[38] According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's samadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.

Philosophy and religious thought

Advaita ("non-dualism") is often called a monistic system of thought. The word "Advaita" essentially refers to the identity of the Self (Atman) and the Whole (Brahman[39]). Advaita Vedanta says the one unchanging entity (Brahman) alone exists, and that changing entities do not have absolute existence, much as the ocean's waves have no existence in separation from the ocean. The key source texts for all schools of Vednta are the Prasthanatrayithe canonical texts consisting of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras.

Adi Shankara was the first in the tradition to consolidate the siddhnta ("doctrine") of Advaita Vedanta. He wrote commentaries on the Prasthana Trayi. A famous quote from Vivekacmai, one of his prakarana granthas that succinctly summarises his philosophy is: Brahma satya jagat mithy, jvo brahmaiva nparah Brahman is the only truth, the spatio-temporal world is an illusion, and there is ultimately no difference between Brahman and Atman(individual self). Advaita Vedanta is based on stra ("scriptures"), yukti ("reason") and anubhava ("experience"), and aided by karmas ("spiritual practices").[40] This philosophy provides a clear-cut way of life to be followed. Starting from childhood, when learning has to start, the philosophy has to be realised in practice throughout one's life, even up to death. This is the reason why this philosophy is called an experiential philosophy-the underlying tenet being "That thou art", meaning that ultimately there is no difference between the experiencer and the experienced (the world) as well as the universal spirit (Brahman). Among the followers of Advaita, as well those of other doctrines, there are believed to have appeared Jivanmuktas, ones liberated while alive. These individuals (commonly called Mahatmas, great souls, among Hindus) are those who realised the oneness of their self and the universal spirit called Brahman. Adi Shankara's Bhashyas (commentaries) on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras are his principal works. Although he mostly adhered to traditional means of commenting on the Brahma Sutra, there are a number of original ideas and arguments to establish that the essence of Upanishads is Advaita. He taught that it was only through direct knowledge that one could realise Brahman. "A perception of the fact that the object seen is a rope will remove the fear and sorrow which result from the illusory idea that it is a serpent". Cited from Shankara's "Vivekachuudaamani"/ verse #12/translated by Mohini M Chatterji. This metaphor was borrowed from Yogacara Buddhist thinkers, who used it in a different context.[41] Adi Shankara's opponents accused him of teaching Buddhism in the garb of Hinduism, because his non-dualistic ideals seemed rather radical to contemporary Hindu philosophy, and so he earned the title "pracchannabauddha". He further praised the Buddha as the "emperor of yogis in the Kali Age."[42] However, although Advaita proposes the theory of Maya, explaining the universe as a "trick of a magician", Adi Shankara and his followers see this as a consequence of their basic premise that Brahman alone is real. Their idea of Maya emerges from their belief in the reality of Brahman, as opposed to Buddhist doctrines of emptiness, which emerge from the empirical Buddhist approach of observing the nature of reality.

Historical and cultural impact

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Because of his unification of two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines, Atman and Brahman, Westerners who know about him perceive him as the "St. Thomas Aquinas of Indian thought"[43] and "the most brilliant personality in the history of Indian thought."[44] At the time of Adi Shankara's life, Hinduism was increasing in influence in India at the expense of Buddhism and Jainism.[45] Hinduism was divided into innumerable sects, each quarrelling with the others. The followers of Mimamsa and Sankhya philosophy were atheists, insomuch that they did not believe in God as a unified being. Besides these atheists there were numerous theistic sects. There were also those who rejected the Vedas, like the Charvakas.[citation needed] Adi Shankara held discourses and debates with the leading scholars of all these sects and schools of philosophy to controvert their doctrines. He unified the theistic sects into a common framework of Shanmata system. In his works, Adi Shankara stressed the importance of the Vedas, and his efforts helped Hinduism regain strength and popularity. Many trace the present worldwide prominence of Vedanta to his works. He travelled on foot to various parts of India to restore the study of the Vedas. Even though he lived for only thirty-two years his impact on India and on Hinduism was striking. He reintroduced a purer form of Vedic thought. His teachings and tradition form the basis of Smartism and have influenced Sant Mat lineages.[46] He is the main figure in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. He was the founder of the Daanmi Sampradya of Hindu monasticism and amata of Smarta tradition. He introduced the Pacyatana form of worship. Adi Shankara, along with Madhva and Ramanuja, was instrumental in the revival of Hinduism. These three teachers formed the doctrines that are followed by their respective sects even today. They have been the most important figures in the recent history of Hindu philosophy. In their writings and debates, they provided polemics against the non-Vedantic schools of Sankhya, Vaisheshika etc. Thus they paved the way for Vedanta to be the dominant and most widely followed tradition among the schools of Hindu philosophy. The Vedanta school stresses most on the Upanishads (which are themselves called Vedanta, End or culmination of the Vedas), unlike the other schools that gave importance to the ritualistic Brahmanas, or to texts authored by their founders. The Vedanta schools hold that the Vedas (which include the Upanishads) are unauthored, forming a continuous tradition of wisdom transmitted orally. Thus the concept of apaurusheyatva ("being unauthored") came to be the guiding force behind the Vedanta schools. However, along with stressing the importance of Vedic tradition, Adi Shankara gave equal importance to the personal experience of the student. Logic, grammar, Mimamsa and allied subjects form main areas of study in all the Vedanta schools. Regarding meditation, Shankara refuted the system of Yoga and its disciplines as a direct means to attain moksha, rebutting the argument that it can be obtained through concentration of the mind. His position is that the mental states discovered through the practices of Yoga can be indirect aids to the gain of knowledge, but cannot themselves give rise to it. According to his philosophy, knowledge of Brahman springs from inquiry into the words of the Upanishads, and the knowledge of Brahman that shruti provides cannot be obtained in any other way.[47] It has to be noted that it is generally considered that for Shankara the Absolute Reality is attributeless and impersonal, while for Madhava and Ramanuja, the Absolute Truth is Vishnu. This has been a subject of debate, interpretation, and controversy since Shankara

himself is attributed to composing the popular 8th-century Hindu devotional composition Bhaja Govindam (literal meaning, "Worship Govinda"). This work of Adi Shankara is considered as a good summary of Advaita Vedanta and underscores the view that devotion to God, Govinda, is not only an important part of general spirituality, but the concluding verse drives through the message of Shankara: "Worship Govinda, worship Govinda, worship Govinda, Oh fool! Other than chanting the Lord's names, there is no other way to cross the life's ocean". Bhaja Govindam invokes the almighty in the aspect of Vishnu; it is therefore very popular not only with Sri Adi Shankaracharya's immediate followers, the Smarthas, but also with Vaishnavas and others. A well known verse, recited in the Smarta tradition, in praise of Adi Shankara is: | || ruti smti purnlaya karulaya| Nammi Bhagavatpdaakara lokaakara|| I salute the compassionate abode of the Vedas, Smritis and Puranas known as Shankara Bhagavatpada, who makes the world auspicious. Adi Shankara begins his Gurustotram or Verses to the Guru with the following Sanskrit Sloka, that has become a widely sung Bhajan: Guru Brahma, Guru Vishnu, Guru Deva Maheshwara. Guru Sakshath Parambrahma, Tasmai Shri Gurave Namaha. Translation: Guru is the creator Brahma, Guru is the preserver Vishnu, Guru is the destroyer Shiva. Guru is directly the supreme spirit I offer my salutations to this Guru. The great Indian Muslim Philosopher Muhammad Iqbal considered him to be one of the greatest thinkers of medieval India and acknowledged influence by him.[48]

Works
For more details on this topic, see Adi Shankara bibliography. Adi Shankara's works deal with logically establishing the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta as he saw it in the Upanishads. He formulates the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta by validating his arguments on the basis of quotations from the Vedas and other Hindu scriptures. He gives a high priority to svnubhava ("personal experience") of the student. His works are largely polemical in nature. He directs his polemics mostly against the Sankhya, Buddha, Jaina, Vaisheshika and other non-vedantic Hindu philosophies. Traditionally, his works are classified under Bhya ("commentary"), Prakaraa grantha ("philosophical treatise") and Stotra ("devotional hymn"). The commentaries serve to provide a consistent interpretation of the scriptural texts from the perspective of Advaita Vedanta. The philosophical treatises provide various methodologies to the student to understand the doctrine. The devotional hymns are rich in poetry and piety, serving to highlight the relationship between the devotee and the deity.

Adi Shankara wrote Bhashyas on the ten major Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. In his works, he quotes from Shveshvatara, Kaushitakai, Mahanarayana and Jabala Upanishads, among others. Bhashyas on Kaushitaki, Nrisimhatapani and Shveshvatara Upanishads are extant but the authenticity is doubtful.[49] Adi Shankara's is the earliest extant commentary on the Brahma Sutras. However, he mentions older commentaries like those of Dravida, Bhartrprapancha and others.[50] In his Brahma Sutra Bhashya, Adi Shankara cites the examples of Dharmavyadha, Vidura and others, who were born with the knowledge of Brahman acquired in previous births. He mentions that the effects cannot be prevented from working on account of their present birth. He states that the knowledge that arises out of the study of the Vedas could be had through the Puranas and the Itihasas. In the Taittiriya Upanishad Bhashya 2.2, he says: {{quoteSarve cdhikro vidyy ca reya kevalay vidyy veti siddha It has been established that everyone has the right to the knowledge (of Brahman) and that the supreme goal is attained by that knowledge alone.[51]}} Adi Shankara, in order to bring unity among various Hindu sects of those times, wrote five pancharathnam stotras for each of the following prime deities. The deities were Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesh and Surya. The idea was that if you believed in Lord Shiva, you would chant Shiva pancharathnam stotra by placing Shiva's idol in the center other four Hindu deities surrounding Him, two on each side. Similarly if you believed in Vishnu, you would place Vishnu in the center. Those five stotras are Ganesha pancharathnam and Lalitha pancharathnam. Some western academics consider only the Upadeashasr as an authentic work of Shankara among the independent philosophical works. There is a difference of opinion among scholars on the authorship of Viveka Chudamani[52][53], though it is "so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider [this work] would be incomplete".[52] Adi Shankara also wrote commentaries on other scriptural works, such as the Vishnu sahasranma and the Snatsujtiya.[54] Like the Bhagavad Gita, both of these are contained in the Mahabhrata.

Film

In 1983 a film directed by G. V. Iyer named Adi Shankaracharya was premiered, the first film ever made entirely in Sanskrit language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya's works were compiled.[55] The movie received the National Film Awards for Best Film, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Best Audiography.
[56][57]

In 2013, a film Sri Jagadguru Aadi Sankara is being directed by J. K. Bharavi in Telugu Language.

See also

Adi Shri Gauapdchrya Advaita

Brahman Jnana Yoga Mandukya Upanishad Sannyasa Shri Gaudapadacharya Mutt Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya Vairagya Vivekachudamani Self-consciousness (Vedanta)

Notes
1. 2. ^ Modern scholarship places Shankara in the earlier part of the 8th century CE (c. 700750).[2] Earlier generations of scholars proposed 788820 CE.[2] Other proposals are 686718 CE[citation needed], 44 BCE,[3] or as early as 509477 BCE.[4] ^ According to the Shankara Vijaya, when Adi Shankara visited Masulipatam, the Devakammalars became angry at his claim of being a Jagatguru believing an impostor was trying to assume a title that was their own exclusive property. Questioning Shankara his right to the distinction, he sang in reply: Acharyo Sankaranama Twashta putro nasansaya Viprakula Gourordiksha Visvakarmantu Brahmana: I am a decendent of Twashter, [...] I am a Brahmin of the Vishwakarma Caste.Andhra Historical Research Society, Rajahmundry, Madras, Andhra Historical Research Society. Journal of the Andhra Historical Society, Volumes 1417. Andhra Historical Research Society, 1953. p. 161. ^ Shankara's gotram (lineage) and sutram (recension familial vedic trend) are known as being of Atreya lineage and of Aswalayana recension. These details are available in ancient hagiographies as well as contemporary write ups on the same.[citation needed] ^ It is also said that he was born at "Piravam" and not Kaladi.[citation needed]

3.

4.

References
1. 2. 3. 4. ^ a b c Sharma 1962, p. vi. ^ a b c Comans 2000, p. 163. ^ a b c d e Y. Keshava Menon, The Mind of Adi Shankaracharya 1976 pp 108 ^ a b "(53) Chronological chart of the history of Bharatvarsh since its origination". Encyclopedia of Authentic Hinduism.This site claims to integrate characters from the epics into a continuous chronology. They present the list of Dwarka and Kanchi Acharyas, along with their putative dates. ^ a b The Seven Spiritual Laws Of Yoga, Deepak Chopra, John Wiley & Sons, 2006, ISBN 81265-0696-2, ISBN 978-81-265-0696-5 ^ a b Sri Adi Shankaracharya, Sringeri Sharada Peetham, India ^ Biography of Sri Adi Shankaracharya, Sringeri Sharada Peetham, India

5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

^ The philosophy of Sankar's Advaita Vedanta, Shyama Kumar Chattopadhyaya, Sarup & Sons, 2000, ISBN 81-7625-222-0, ISBN 978-81-7625-222-5 ^ Vidyasankar, S. "The Sankaravijaya literature". Retrieved 2006-08-23. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. viii. ^ a b c d Vidyasankar, S. "Determining Shankara's Date An overview of ancient sources and modern literature". Archived from the original on 17 June 2006. Retrieved 2006-06-26. ^ K. A. Nilakantha Sastry, A History of South India, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, Madras, 1976. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Shankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. xvxxiv. ^ The dating of 788820 is accepted in Keay, p. 194. ^ Shankara and Indian Philos By N. V. Isaeva ^ "Sankara's Life". Advaita Vedanta Research Center. Retrieved 29 November 2012. ^ "Life of Shankaracharya". www.exoticindia.es. Retrieved 29 November 2012. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. p. 17. ^ Y Keshava Menon 1976, The Mind of Adi Shankara pp109 ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 2829. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 4050. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 5156. ^ Adi Shankara. "Manisha Panchakam". Archived from the original on 26 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-04. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 5762. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 6263. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 7073. ^ Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood (1978) Shankara's Crest-Jewel of Discrimination Timeless Teachings on Nonduality pp4 ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 7780. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 81104.. We have broad notes of this debate recorded in the Madhaviya Shankara Vijaya. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 117129. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 130135. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 136150. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 160185. ^ "Sharada Temple (Neelum Valley), Sharda, PoK". Retrieved 12 August 2012. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 186195. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. xxvxxxv.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

^ "Adi Shankara's four Amnaya Peethams". Archived from the original on 26 June 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-20. ^ http://www.kamakoti.org/peeth/origin.html#Sarvajnapeetharohana ^ Brahman is not to be confused with Brahma, the Creator and one-third of the Trimurti along with Shiva, the Destroyer and Vishnu, the Preserver. ^ See "Study the Vedas daily. Perform diligently the duties ("karmas") ordained by them" from Sadhana Panchakam of Adi Shankara ^ Karel Werner, in Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge, 1995, page 67. ^ P. 187 The Rise of a Folk God: Vihal of Pandharpur By Ramchandra Chintaman Dhere, Anne Feldhaus ^ Benedict Ashley, O.P.. The Way toward Wisdom. p. 395. ASIN 0268020280. OCLC 609421317. ^ N. V. Isaeva (1992). Shankara and Indian Philosophy. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7. OCLC 24953669. ^ "BHAKTI MOVEMENT". karnatakaeducation.org.in. ^ Ron Geaves (March 2002). From Totapuri to Maharaji: Reflections on a Lineage (Parampara). 27th Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions, Oxford. ^ Anantanand Rambachan, The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press, 1994, pages 124, 125: [1]. ^ Iqbal, Muhammad. "Bedil in the Light of Bergson". ^ Vidyasankar, S. "Sankaracarya". Archived from the original on 16 June 2006. Retrieved 2006-07-24. ^ Mishra, Godavarisha. "A Journey through Vedantic History -Advaita in the Pre-Sankara, Sankara and Post- Sankara Periods" (PDF). Archived from the original on 22 June 2006. Retrieved 2006-07-24. ^ Subbarayan, K. "Sankara, the Jagadguru". Archived from the original on 10 March 2005. Retrieved 2006-07-24. ^ a b Shah-Kazemi 2006, p. 4. ^ Singh 2004, p. 1315. ^ Johannes Buitenen (1978). The Mahbhrata (vol. 3). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-84665-1 ^ Adi Shankaracharya at the Internet Movie Database ^ "31st National Film Awards". India International Film Festival, iffi.nic.in. ^ "31st National Film Awards (PDF)". Directorate of Film Festivals, dff.nic.in.

51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

Sources

Comans, Michael (2000), The Method of Early Advaita Vednta: A Study of Gauapda, akara, Surevara, and Padmapda, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Greaves, Ron (March 2002). From Totapuri to Maharaji: Reflections on a Lineage (Parampara). 27th Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions, Oxford.

Isayeva, Natalia (1993). Shankara and Indian Philosophy. Albany: State University of New York Press (SUNY). Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5. Keshava Menon, Y (1976). The Mind of Adi Shankaracharya. India: Jaico. ISBN 978-817224-214-5. Mudgal, S.G. (1975). Advaita of Shankara: A Reappraisal. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. Narayana Sastry, T.S (1916). The Age of Sankara. Pradhavananda; Isherwood, Christopher (1978). Shankara's Crest-Jewel of Discrimination. USA: Vedanta Press. ISBN 978-0-87481-038-7. Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2006), Paths to Transcendence: According to Shankara, Ibn Arabi & Meister Eckhart, World Wisdom Sharma, Chandradhar (1962). Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey. New York: Barnes & Noble. Singh, N.; Barauh, B. (2004), Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Pali Literature, Volume 1, Global Vision Publishing Ho Tapasyananda (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya: The Traditional Life of Sri Sankaracharya by Madhava-Vidyaranya. India: Sri Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 978-81-7120-434-2.

http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?214999 http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3517481? uid=3739592&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=211013722046 93

Further reading

Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (1954). "Sankara's Arguments Against the Buddhists". Philosophy East and West (Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press) 3 (4): 291306. doi:10.2307/1397287. JSTOR 1397287. Mishra, Parameshwar Nath (2003), "Era of Adi Shankaracharya 507 B.C.-475 B.C.", Howrah Samskriti Rakshak Parishad, West Bengal. Mishra, Parameshwar Nath, "Amit Kalrekha", 3 vols. (in Hindi), Howrah Samskriti Rakshak Parishad, West Bengal. Reigle, David, "Original Sankaracarya", www.easterntradition.org/original %20sankaracarya.pdf Tenzin, Kencho (2006). Shankara: A Hindu Revivalist or a Crypto-Buddhist? (Religious Studies). Georgia State University. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=rs_theses.

External links

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Adi Shankara Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Adi Shankara

Adi Shankara at PhilPapers Complete works of Adi Shankara Information on Sri Adi Shankara Biography of Shankara in Exotic India Biography of Shankara in AdvaitaVedanta.org Biography of Shankara in Sringeri.net

Ramakrishna
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Ramakrishna

Ramakrishna at Dakshineswar Born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay 18 February 1836 Kamarpukur, Bengal, British India Died 16 August 1886 (aged 50)

Kolkata, Bengal, British India Nationality Titles/honours Prominent Disciple(s) Quotation He is born in vain, who having attained the human birth, so difficult to get, does not attempt to realise God in this very life.[1] ** Ramakrishna's birthday is observed on Phalgun Shukla Dwitiya as per Hindu lunar calendar. Part of a series on Indian Paramahansa Swami Vivekananda

Hindu philosophy

Schools[show] Personalities[show]

v t e

Ramakrishna (Bengali: Ramkio Promhongo (helpinfo)) (18 February 1836 16 August 1886), born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay[2] (Bengali:

Gdadhor Chopaddhae), was a famous mystic of 19th-century India.[3] His religious school of thought led to the formation of the Ramakrishna Mission by his chief disciple Swami Vivekananda[4][5][6][7] both were influential figures in the Bengali Renaissance[8] as well as the Hindu renaissance during the 19th and 20th centuries.[9][10][11] Many of his disciples and devotees believe he was an Avatar or incarnation of God.[12] He is

also referred to as "Paramahamsa" by his devotees, as such he is popularly known as Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. Ramakrishna was born in a poor Brahmin Vaishnava family in rural Bengal. He became a priest of the Dakshineswar Kali Temple, dedicated to the goddess Kali, which had the influence of the main strands of Bengali bhakti tradition.[2] The most widely known amongst his first spiritual teachers was an ascetic woman, called Bhairavi Brahmani skilled in Tantra and Vaishnava bhakti.[13] Later an Advaita Vedantin ascetic taught him non-dual meditation, and according to Ramakrishna, he experienced nirvikalpa samadhi under his guidance. Ramakrishna also practiced other religions, notably Islam and Christianity, and said that they all lead to the same God.[2] Though he quit conventional education, he attracted the attention of the middle class, upper middle class and numerous Bengali intellectuals.[citation needed]

Contents
[hide]

1 Biography o 1.1 Birth and childhood

o o o

1.2 Priest at Dakshineswar Kali Temple 1.3 Marriage 1.4 Religious practices and teachers

1.4.1 Bhairavi Brahmani and Tantra 1.4.2 Vaishnava Bhakti 1.4.3 Totapuri and Vedanta 1.4.4 Islam and Christianity

1.5 Arrival of followers

1.5.1 Devotees and disciples

o o

1.6 Last days 1.7 Biographical sources

2 Teachings 3 Reception and legacy 4 Views and studies

o o o

4.1 Religious school of thought 4.2 Psychoanalysis and sexuality 4.3 Postcolonial studies

5 Notes

6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

Biography [edit]
Birth and childhood [edit]
Ramakrishna was born on 18 February 1836, in the village of Kamarpukur, in the Hooghly district of West Bengal, into a very poor but pious, orthodox brahmin family.[14]Kamarpukur was untouched by the glamour of the city and contained rice fields, tall palms, royal banyans, a few lakes, and two cremation grounds.[15] His parents were Kshudiram Chattopdhyya and Chandramani Dev. According to his followers, Ramakrishna's parents experienced supernatural incidents, visions before his birth. His father Khudiram had a dream in Gaya in which Lord Gadadhara (a form of Vishnu), said that he would be born as his son. Chandramani Devi is said to have had a vision of light entering her womb from Shiva's temple.[16][17]

The small house at Kamarpukur where Ramakrishna lived (centre). The family shrine is on the left, birthplace temple on the right Ramakrishna attended a village school with some regularity for 12 years,[18] he later rejected the traditional schooling saying that he was not interested in a "bread-winning education".[19] [20][21] Kamarpukur, being a transit-point in well-established pilgrimage routes to Puri, brought him into contact with renunciates and holy men.[22] He became well-versed in the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Bhagavata Purana, hearing them from wandering monks and the Kathaksa class of men in ancient India who preached and sang the Puras.[20][23] He could read and write in Bengali.[20] While the official biographies write that the name Ramakrishna was given by Mathura Biswaschief patron at Dakshineswar Kali Temple, it has also been suggested that this name was given by his own parents.[24] Ramakrishna describes his first spiritual ecstasy at the age of six: while walking along the paddy fields, a flock of white cranes flying against a backdrop of dark thunder clouds caught his vision. He reportedly became so absorbed by this scene that he lost outward consciousness and experienced indescribable joy in that state.[25][26] Ramakrishna reportedly had experiences of similar nature a few other times in his childhoodwhile worshipping the goddess Vishalakshi, and portraying god Shiva in a drama during Shivaratri festival. From

his tenth or eleventh year on, the trances became common, and by the final years of his life, Ramakrishna's samdhi periods occurred almost daily.[26][27] Ramakrishna's father died in 1843, after which time family responsibilities fell on his elder brother Ramkumar. This loss drew him closer to his mother, and he spent his time in household activities and daily worship of the household deities and became more involved in contemplative activities such as reading the sacred epics.[28] When Ramakrishna was in his teens, the family's financial position worsened. Ramkumar started a Sanskrit school in Calcutta and also served as a priest. Ramakrishna moved to Calcutta in 1852 with Ramkumar to assist in the priestly work.[14][20][29]

Priest at Dakshineswar Kali Temple [edit]

Dakshineswar Kli Temple, where Ramakrishna spent a major portion of his adult life. In 1855 Ramkumar was appointed as the priest of Dakshineswar Kali Temple, built by Rani Rashmonia rich woman of Calcutta who belonged to the kaivarta community.[30] Ramakrishna, along with his nephew Hriday, became assistants to Ramkumar, with Ramakrishna given the task of decorating the deity. When Ramkumar died in 1856, Ramakrishna took his place as the priest of the Kali temple.[31] After Ramkumar's death Ramakrishna became more contemplative. He began to look upon the image of the goddess Kali as his mother and the mother of the universe. Ramakrishna reportedly had a vision of the goddess Kali as the universal Mother,[14] which he described as "... houses, doors, temples and everything else vanished altogether; as if there was nothing anywhere! And what I saw was an infinite shoreless sea of light; a sea that was consciousness. However far and in whatever direction I looked, I saw shining waves, one after another, coming towards me."[32]

Marriage [edit]

Sarada Devi (18531920), wife and spiritual counterpart of Ramakrishna Rumors spread to Kamarpukur that Ramakrishna had become unstable as a result of his spiritual practices at Dakshineswar. Ramakrishna's mother and his elder brother Rameswar decided to get Ramakrishna married, thinking that marriage would be a good steadying influence upon himby forcing him to accept responsibility and to keep his attention on normal affairs rather than his spiritual practices and visions.[33] Ramakrishna himself mentioned that they could find the bride at the house of Ramchandra Mukherjee in Jayrambati, three miles to the north-west of Kamarpukur. The five-year-old bride, Saradamani Mukhopadhyaya (later known as Sarada Devi) was found and the marriage was duly solemnised in 1859.[34] Ramakrishna was 23 at this point, but the age difference was typical for 19th century rural Bengal.[35] They later spent three months together in Kamarpukur. Sarada Devi was fourteen while Ramakrishna was thirty-two. Ramakrishna became a very influential figure in Saradas life, and she became a strong follower of his teachings. After the marriage, Sarada stayed at Jayrambati and joined Ramakrishna in Dakshineswar at the age of 18.[36] By the time his bride joined him, Ramakrishna had already embraced the monastic life of a sannyasi; as a result, the marriage was never consummated.[33][37] As a priest Ramakrishna performed the ritual ceremonythe Shodashi Pujawhere Sarada Devi was made to sit in the seat of goddess Kali, and worshiped as the Divine mother.[38] Ramakrishna regarded Sarada as the Divine Mother in person, addressing her as the Holy Mother, and it was by this name that she was known to Ramakrishna's disciples. Sarada Devi outlived Ramakrishna by 34 years and played an important role in the nascent religious movement.[37][39]

Religious practices and teachers [edit]

After his marriage Ramakrishna returned to Calcutta and resumed the charges of the temple again, and continued his sadhana. According to his official biographers, he continued his sadhana under teachers of Tantra, Vedanta and Vaishnava. Bhairavi Brahmani and Tantra [edit] See also: Ramakrishna's views on Tantra Sadhana

In 1861, Ramakrishna accepted Bhairavi Brahmani, an orange-robed, middle-aged female ascetic, as a teacher. She carried with her the Raghuvir Shila, a stone icon representing Ram and all Vaishnava deities.[13] She was thoroughly conversant with the texts of Gaudiya Vaishnavism and practiced Tantra.[13] According to the Bhairavi, Ramakrishna was experiencing phenomena that accompany mahabhavathe supreme attitude of loving devotion towards the divine[40]and quoting from the bhakti shastras, she said that other religious figures like Radha and Chaitanya had similar experiences.[41] The Bhairavi initiated Ramakrishna into Tantra. Tantrism focuses on the worship of shakti and the object of Tantric training is to transcend the barriers between the holy and unholy as a means of achieving liberation and to see all aspects of the natural world as manifestations of the divine shakti.[33][42] Under her guidance, Ramakrishna went through sixty four major tantric sadhanas which were completed in 1863.[40] He began with mantra rituals such as japa and purascarana and many other rituals designed to purify the mind and establish self-control. He later proceeded towards tantric sadhanas, which generally include a set of heterodox practices called vamachara (left-hand path), which utilize as a means of liberation, activities like eating of parched grain, fish and meat along with drinking of wine and sexual intercourse.[40] According to Ramakrishna and his biographers, Ramakrishna did not directly participate in the last two of those activities, all that he needed was a suggestion of them to produce the desired result.[40] Ramakrishna acknowledged the left-hand tantric path, though it had "undesirable features", as one of the "valid roads to God-realization", he consistently cautioned his devotees and disciples against associating with it.[43][44] The Bhairavi also taught Ramakrishna the kumari-puja, a form of ritual in which the Virgin Goddess is worshiped symbolically in the form of a young girl.[34] Under the tutelage of the Bhairavi, Ramakrishna also learnt Kundalini Yoga.[40] The Bhairavi, with the yogic techniques and the tantra played an important part in the initial spiritual development of Ramakrishna.[2][45] Vaishnava Bhakti [edit] The Vaishnava Bhakti traditions speak of five different moods,[46] referred to as bhvas different attitudes that a devotee can take up to express his love for God. They are: nta, the peaceful attitude; dsya, the attitude of a servant; sakhya, the attitude of a friend; vtsalya, the attitude of a mother toward her child; and madhura, the attitude of a woman towards her lover.[47][48] At some point in the period between his vision of Kali and his marriage, Ramakrishna practiced dsya bhva, during which he worshiped Rama with the attitude of Hanuman, the monkey-god, who is considered to be the ideal devotee and servant of Rama. According to Ramakrishna, towards the end of this sadhana, he had a vision of Sita, the consort of Rama, merging into his body.[47][49] In 1864, Ramakrishna practiced vtsalya bhva under a Vaishnava guru Jatadhari.[50] During this period, he worshipped a metal image of Ramll (Rama as a child) in the attitude of a mother. According to Ramakrishna, he could feel the presence of child Rama as a living God in the metal image.[51][52] Ramakrishna later engaged in the practice of madhura bhva the attitude of the Gopis and Radha towards Krishna.[47] During the practise of this bhava, Ramakrishna dressed himself in women's attire for several days and regarded himself as one of the Gopis of Vrindavan. According to Sri Ramakrishna, madhura bhava is practised to root out the idea of sex, which

is seen as an impediment in spiritual life.[53] According to Ramakrishna, towards the end of this sadhana, he attained savikalpa samadhivision and union with Krishna.[54] Ramakrishna visited Nadia, the home of Chaitanya and Nityananda, the 15th-century founders of Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava bhakti. According to Ramakrishna, he had an intense vision of two young boys merging into his body.[54] Earlier, after his vision of Kali, he is said to have cultivated the Santa bhavathe child attitude towards Kali.[47] Totapuri and Vedanta [edit]

The Panchavati and the hut where Ramakrishna performed his advaitic sadhana. The mud hut has been replaced by a brick one. In 1865, Ramakrishna was initiated into sannyasa by Tota Puri, an itinerant monk who trained Ramakrishna in Advaita Vedanta, the Hindu philosophy which emphasizes nondualism.[55][56] Totapuri first guided Ramakrishna through the rites of sannyasarenunciation of all ties to the world. Then he instructed him in the teaching of advaitathat "Brahman alone is real, and the world is illusory; I have no separate existence; I am that Brahman alone."[57] Under the guidance of Totapuri, Ramakrishna reportedly experienced nirvikalpa samadhi, which is considered to be the highest state in spiritual realisation.[58] Totapuri stayed with Ramakrishna for nearly eleven months and instructed him further in the teachings of advaita. Ramakrishna said that this period of nirvikalpa samadhi came to an end when he received a command from the Mother Kali to "remain in Bhavamukha; for the enlightenment of the people". Bhavamukha being a state of existence intermediate between samdhi and normal consciousness.[59] Islam and Christianity [edit] In 1866, Govinda Roy, a Hindu guru who practiced Sufism, initiated Ramakrishna into Islam. Ramakrishna said that he "devoutly repeated the name of Allah, wore a cloth like the Arab Moslems, said their prayer five times daily, and felt disinclined even to see images of the Hindu gods and goddesses, much less worship themfor the Hindu way of thinking had disappeared altogether from my mind."[60] According to Ramakrishna, after three days of practice he had a vision of a "radiant personage with grave countenance and white beard resembling the Prophet and merging with his body".[61]

At the end of 1873 he started the practice of Christianity, when his devotee Shambu Charan Mallik read the Bible to him. Ramakrishna said that for several days he was filled with Christian thoughts and no longer thought of going to the Kali temple. Ramakrishna describes of a vision in which the picture of Madonna and Child Jesus became alive and had a vision in which Jesus merged with his body. In his own room amongst other divine pictures was one of Christ, and he burnt incense before it morning and evening. There was also a picture showing Jesus Christ saving St Peter from drowning in the water.[54][62]

Arrival of followers [edit]

Ramakrishna in bhava samadhi at the house of Keshab Chandra Sen. He is seen supported by his nephew Hriday and surrounded by brahmo devotees. In 1875, Ramakrishna met the influential Brahmo Samaj leader Keshab Chandra Sen.[63][64] Keshab had accepted Christianity, and had separated from the Adi Brahmo Samaj. Formerly, Keshab had rejected idolatry, but under the influence of Ramakrishna he accepted Hindu polytheism and established the "New Dispensation" (Nava Vidhan) religious movement, based on Ramakrishna's principles"Worship of God as Mother", "All religions as true" and "Assimilation of Hindu polytheism into Brahmoism".[65] Keshab also publicized Ramakrishna's teachings in the journals of New Dispensation over a period of several years, [66] which was instrumental in bringing Ramakrishna to the attention of a wider audience, especially the Bhadralok (English-educated classes of Bengal) and the Europeans residing in India.[67][68] Following Keshab, other Brahmos such as Vijaykrishna Goswami started to admire Ramakrishna, propagate his ideals and reorient their socio-religious outlook. Many prominent people of CalcuttaPratap Chandra Mazumdar, Shivanath Shastri and Trailokyanath Sanyal began visiting him during this time (18711885). Mozoomdar wrote the first English biography of Ramakrishna, entitled The Hindu Saint in the Theistic Quarterly Review (1879), which played a vital role in introducing Ramakrishna to Westerners like the German

indologist Max Mller.[66] Newspapers reported that Ramakrishna was spreading "Love" and "Devotion" among the educated classes of Calcutta and that he had succeeded in reforming the character of some youths whose morals had been corrupt.[66] Ramakrishna also had interactions with Debendranath Tagore, the father of Rabindranath Tagore, and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, a renowned social worker. He had also met Swami Dayananda.[63] Ramakrishna is considered as one of the main contributors to the Bengali Renaissance.[8][9] Mukherjee, Dr. Jayasree (May 2004). "Sri Ramakrishnas Impact on Contemporary Indian Society". Prabuddha Bharata. Retrieved 2008-09-22. "Another contemporary scholar described Ramakrishna as "an illiterate priest, crude, raw, unmodern and the commonest of the common. ... He respected women, in the only way open to Indians, by calling them mother, and avoiding them.... He would allow non-Brahmins to be initiated. ... Yet, and this is the tragedy of the situation, with all the help of the dynamic personality of Swami Vivekananda, Paramahamsa Debs influence has not succeeded in shaking our social foundations. A number of people have been inspired, no doubt, but the masses have not trembled in their sleep.""</ref> Among the Europeans who were influenced by Ramakrishna was Principal Dr. W.W. Hastie of the Scottish Church College, Calcutta.[69] In the course of explaining the word trance in the poem The Excursion by William Wordsworth, Hastie told his students that if they wanted to know its "real meaning", they should go to "Ramakrishna of Dakshineswar." This prompted some of his students, including Narendranath Dutta (later Swami Vivekananda), to visit Ramakrishna.[66] Devotees and disciples [edit] Main articles: Disciples of Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda

Some Monastic Disciples (L to R): Trigunatitananda, Shivananda, Vivekananda, Turiyananda, Brahmananda. Below Saradananda.

Mahendranath Gupta, a householder devotee and the author of Sri-Sri-Ramakrisnakathamrta. Most of Ramakrishna's prominent disciples came between 18791885, and were influenced by his style of preaching and instruction.[39] His chief disciples consisted of:[52]

Grihastas or The householdersMahendranath Gupta, Girish Chandra Ghosh, Akshay Kumar Sen and others. Monastic disciples who renounced their family and became the earliest monks of the Ramakrishna orderNarendranath Dutta (Swami Vivekananda), Rakhal Chandra Ghosh (Swami Brahmananda), Kaliprasad Chandra (Swami Abhedananda), Taraknath Ghoshal (Swami Shivananda), Sashibhushan Chakravarty (Swami Ramakrishnananda), Saratchandra Chakravarty (Swami Saradananda), Tulasi Charan Dutta (Swami Nirmalananda), Gangadhar Ghatak (Swami Akhandananda), Hari Prasana (Swami Vijnanananda) and others. A small group of women disciples including Gauri Ma and Yogin Ma. A few of them were initiated into sanyasa through mantra deeksha. Among the women, Ramakrishna emphasized service to other women rather than tapasya (practice of austerities).[70] Gauri Ma founded the Saradesvari Ashrama at Barrackpur, which was dedicated to the education and uplift of women.[71]

As his name spread, an ever-shifting crowd of all classes and castes visited Ramakrishna. According to Kathamrita it included, childless widows, young school-boys, aged pensioners, Hindu scholars and religious figures, men betrayed by lovers, people with suicidal tendencies, small-time businessmen, and people "dreading the grind of samsaric life".[72] Ramakrishna's primary biographers, describe him as talkative. According to the biographers, for hours Ramakrishna would reminisce about his own eventful spiritual life, tell tales, explain Vedantic doctrines with extremely mundane illustrations, raise questions and answer them himself, crack jokes, sing songs, and mimic the ways of all types of worldly people, keeping the visitors enthralled.[73][74] In preparation for monastic life, Ramakrishna ordered his monastic disciples to beg their food from door to door without distinction of caste. He gave them the saffron robe, the sign of the Sanyasi, and initiated them with Mantra Deeksha.[74]

Last days [edit]

The disciples and devotees at Ramakrishna's funeral In the beginning of 1885 Ramakrishna suffered from clergyman's throat, which gradually developed into throat cancer. He was moved to Shyampukur near Calcutta, where some of the best physicians of the time, including Dr. Mahendralal Sarkar, were engaged. When his condition aggravated he was relocated to a large garden house at Cossipore on December 11, 1885.[75] During his last days, he was looked after by his monastic disciples and Sarada Devi. Ramakrishna was advised by the doctors to keep the strictest silence, but ignoring their advice, he incessantly conversed with visitors.[67] According to traditional accounts, before his death, Ramakrishna transferred his spiritual powers to Vivekananda[75] and reassured Vivekananda of his avataric status.[75][76] Ramakrishna asked Vivekananda to look after the welfare of the disciples, saying, "keep my boys together"[77] and asked him to "teach them".[77] Ramakrishna also asked other monastic disciples to look upon Vivekananda as their leader.[75] Ramakrishna's condition gradually worsened and he expired in the early morning hours of August 16, 1886 at the Cossipore garden house. According to his disciples, this was mahasamadhi.[75] After the death of their master, the monastic disciples led by Vivekananda formed a fellowship at a half-ruined house at Baranagar near the river Ganges, with the financial assistance of the householder disciples. This became the first Math or monastery of the disciples who constituted the first Ramakrishna Order.[39]

Biographical sources [edit]

Main article: Books on Ramakrishna The principal source for Ramakrishna's teaching is Mahendranath Gupta's Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita and is regarded as a Bengali classic.[78][79] Kripal calls it "the central text of the tradition". The text was published in five volumes from 1902 to 1932. Based on Gupta's diary notes, each of the five volumes purports to document Ramakrishna's life from 18821886.[80] The most popular translation of the Kathamrita is The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna by Swami Nikhilananda. Nikhilananda's translation rearranged the scenes in the five volumes of the Kathamrita into a linear sequence.[81] Malcolm Mclean[82] and Jeffrey Kripal argue that the translation is unreliable.[81] Philosopher Lex Hixon writes that the Gospel is "spiritually authentic" and "powerful rendering of the Kathamrita"[83]

Teachings [edit]

Main article: Teachings of Ramakrishna Ramakrishna's teachings were imparted in rustic Bengali, using stories and parables.[2] These teachings made a powerful impact on Calcutta's intellectuals, despite the fact that his preachings were far removed from issues of modernism or national independence.[84] His spiritual movement indirectly aided nationalism, as it rejected caste distinctions and religious prejudices.[84] In the Calcutta scene of the mid to late nineteenth century, Ramakrishna was opinionated on the subject of Chakri. Chakri can be described as a type of low-paying servitude done by educated mentypically government or commerce-related clerical positions. On a basic level, Ramakrishna saw this system as a corrupt form of European social organization that forced educated men to be servants not only to their bosses at the office but also to their wives at home. What Ramakrishna saw as the primary detriment of Chakri, however, was that it forced workers into a rigid, impersonal clock-based time structure. He saw the imposition of strict adherence to each second on the watch as a roadblock to spirituality. Despite this, however, Ramakrishna demonstrated that Bhakti could be practiced as an inner retreat to experience solace in the face of Western-style discipline and often discrimination in the workplace.[85] Ramakrishna emphasised God-realisation as the supreme goal of all living beings.[1] Ramakrishna taught that kamini-kanchana is an obstacle to God-realization. Kamini-kanchan literally translates to "woman and gold." Partha Chatterjee wrote that figure of a woman stands for concepts or entities that have "little to do with women in actuality" and "the figure of woman-and-gold signified the enemy within: that part of one's own self which was susceptible to the temptations of ever-unreliable worldly success."[86] Carl T. Jackson interprets kamini-kanchana to refer to the idea of sex and the idea of money as delusions which prevent people from realizing God.[87] Jeffrey Kripal translates the phrase as "loverand-gold" and associates it with Ramakrishna's alleged disgust for women as lovers.[88] Kripal's translation is disputed by Swami Tyagananda, who argues this to be a "linguistic misconstruction."[89] Ramakrishna also cautioned his women disciples against purusakanchana ("man and gold") and Tyagananda writes that Ramakrishna used KaminiKanchana as "cautionary words" instructing his disciples to conquer the "lust inside the mind."[90] Ramakrishna looked upon the world as Maya and he explained that avidya maya represents dark forces of creation (e.g. sensual desire,selfish actions, evil passions, greed, lust and cruelty), which keep people on lower planes of consciousness. These forces are responsible for human entrapment in the cycle of birth and death, and they must be fought and vanquished. Vidya maya, on the other hand, represents higher forces of creation (e.g. spiritual virtues, selfless action, enlightening qualities, kindness, purity, love, and devotion), which elevate human beings to the higher planes of consciousness.[91] Ramakrishna practised several religions, including Islam and Christianity, and taught that in spite of the differences, all religions are valid and true and they lead to the same ultimate goal God.[92] Ramakrishna's taught that jatra jiv tatra Shiv (wherever there is a living being, there is Shiva). His teaching, "Jive daya noy, Shiv gyane jiv seba" (not kindness to living beings, but serving the living being as Shiva Himself) is considered as the inspiration for the philanthropic work carried out by his chief disciple Vivekananda.[93]

Ramakrishna used rustic colloquial Bengali in his conversations. According to contemporary reports, Ramakrishna's linguistic style was unique, even to those who spoke Bengali. It contained obscure local words and idioms from village Bengali, interspersed with philosophical Sanskrit terms and references to the Vedas, Puranas, Tantras. For that reason, according to philosopher Lex Hixon, his speeches cannot be literally translated into English or any other language.[94] Scholar Amiya P. Sen argued that certain terms that Ramakrishna may have used only in a metaphysical sense are being improperly invested with new, contemporaneous meanings.[95] Ramakrishna was skilled with words and had an extraordinary style of preaching and instructing, which may have helped convey his ideas to even the most skeptical temple visitors.[39] His speeches reportedly revealed a sense of joy and fun, but he was not at a loss when debating with intellectual philosophers.[96] Philosopher Arindam Chakrabarti contrasted Ramakrishna's talkativeness with Buddha's legendary reticence, and compared his teaching style to that of Socrates.[97]

Reception and legacy [edit]

Main articles: Ramakrishna's influence and Ramakrishna Mission

The marble statue of Ramakrishna at Belur Math, the headquarters of the Ramakrishna Mission Several organizations have been established in the name of Ramakrishna.[98] The Ramakrishna Math and Mission is one of the main organizations founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897. The Mission conducts extensive work in health care, disaster relief, rural management, tribal welfare, elementary and higher education. The movement is considered as one of the revitalization movements of India.[11][98] Other organizations include the Ramakrishna Vedanta Society founded by Swami Abhedananda in 1923, the Ramakrishna Sarada Math founded by a rebel group in 1929,the Ramakrishna Vivekananda Mission formed by Swami Nityananda in 1976, and the Sri Sarada Math and Ramakrishna Sarada Mission founded in 1959 as a sister organization by the Ramakrishna Math and Mission.[98] Ramakrishna is considered as an important figure in Bengali Renaissance of 19th20th Century.[8][9] Max Mller, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sri Aurobindo, and Leo

Tolstoy have acknowledged Ramakrishna's contribution to humanity. Ramakrishna's influence is also seen in the works of artists such as Franz Dvorak (18621927) and Philip Glass. On Swami Vivekananda's guru, Ramakrishna, Rabindranath Tagore wrote a poem: "To the Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Ramakrishna Deva".[99]

Diverse courses of worship from varied springs of fulfillment have mingled in your meditation. The manifold revelation of the joy of the Infinite has given form to a shrine of unity in your life where from far and near arrive salutations to which I join my own.

Tagore was the chief guest on the occasion of birth centenary celebration of Ramakrishna by the Ramakrishna Mission and paid rich tribute to Ramakrishna. During the 1937 Parliament of Religions, which was held at the Ramakrishna Mission in Calcutta, Tagore acknowledged Ramakrishna, whose birth centenary was being celebrated, as a great saint because the largeness of his spirit could comprehend seemingly antagonistic modes of sadhana, and because the simplicity of his soul shames for all time the pomp and pedantry of pontiffs and pundits.[100]

Views and studies [edit]

Main article: Views on Ramakrishna

Photograph of Ramakrishna, taken on 10 December 1881 at the studio of "The Bengal Photographers" in Radhabazar, Calcutta (Kolkata).

Religious school of thought [edit]

Several scholars have tried to associate Ramakrishna with a particular religious school of thoughtBhakti, Tantra and Vedanta.

In his influential[101] 1896 essay "A real mahatma: Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa Dev" and his 1899 book Rmakrishna: His Life and Sayings, the German philologist and Orientalist Max Mller portrayed Ramakrishna as "a wonderful mixture of God and man" and as "...a Bhakta, a worshipper or lover of the deity, much more than a Gnin or a knower."[102][103] In London and New York in 1896, Swami Vivekananda delivered his famous address on Ramakrishna entitled "My Master." He said of his master: "this great intellect never learnt even to write his own name, but the most brilliant graduates of our university found in him an intellectual giant."[104] Vivekananda criticized his followers for "brazenly" projecting Ramakrishna as an avatara and miracle-worker.[105][106] Narasingha Sil has argued that Vivekananda revised and mythologized Ramakrishna's image after Ramakrishna's death.[107] In a 1997 book review of a book by Jeffrey Kripal, Malcolm McLean of Otago University supported Kripal's view and argued that the Movement presents "a particular kind of explanation of Ramakrishna, that he was some kind of neo-Vedantist who taught that all religions are the same".[108] Carl Olson argued that in his presentation of his master, Vivekananda had hid much of Ramakrishnas embarrassing sexual oddities from the public, because he feared that Ramakrishna would be misunderstood.[109] Tyagananda and Vrajaprana argue that Oslon makes his "astonishing claim" based on Kripal's speculations in Kali's Child, which are unsupported by any of the source texts.[110] Amiya Sen writes that that Vivekananda's "social service gospel" stemmed from direct inspiration from Ramakrishna and rests substantially on the "liminal quality" of the Master's message.[111] Indologist Heinrich Zimmer was the first Western scholar to interpret Ramakrishna's worship of the Divine Mother as containing specifically Tantric elements.[112][113] Neeval also argued that tantra played a main role in Ramakrishna's spiritual development.[112] Philosopher Lex Hixon writes Ramakrishna was an Advaita Vedantin.[114] Postcolonial literary theorist Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak wrote that Ramakrishna was a "Bengali bhakta visionary" and that as a bhakta, "he turned chiefly towards Kali."[115] Amiya Prosad Sen writes that "it is really difficult to separate the Tantrik Ramakrishna from the Vedantic", since Vedanta and Tantra "may appear to be differ in some respects", but they also "share some important postulates between them".[116]

Psychoanalysis and sexuality [edit]

The dialogue on psychoanalysis and Ramakrishna began in 1927 when Sigmund Freud's friend Romain Rolland wrote to him that he should consider spiritual experiences, or "the oceanic feeling," in his psychological works.[117][118] Romain Rolland described the mystical states achieved by Ramakrishna and other mystics as an "'oceanic' sentiment", one which Rolland had also experienced.[119] Rolland believed that the universal human religious emotion resembled this "oceanic sense."[120] In his 1929 book La vie de Ramakrishna, Rolland distinguished between the feelings of unity and eternity which Ramakrishna experienced in his mystical states and Ramakrishna's interpretation of those feelings as the goddess Kali.[121] In 1995, Jeffrey J. Kripal argued in Kali's Child that the Ramakrishna Movement had manipulated Ramakrishna's biographical documents, that the Movement had published them in incomplete and bowdlerized editions (claiming among other things, hiding Ramakrishna's homoerotic tendencies), and that the Movement had suppressed Ram Chandra Datta's Srisriramakrsna Paramahamsadever Jivanavrttanta.[122] These views were disputed by

Swami Atmajnanananda, who wrote that Jivanavrttanta had been reprinted nine times in Bengali as of 1995.[123] Christopher Isherwood who wrote the book Ramakrishna and his Disciples (1965) said in a late interview, "Ramakrishna was completely simple and guileless. He told people whatever came into his mind, like a child. If he had ever been troubled by homosexual desires, if that had ever been a problem he'd have told everybody about them.(...) His thoughts transcended physical love-making. He saw even the mating of two dogs on the street as an expression of the eternal male-female principle in the universe. I think that is always a sign of great spiritual enlightenment."[124][125] In addition, Isherwood wrote in his autobiographical book, My Guru and his Disciple, "I couldn't honestly claim him as a homosexual, even a sublimated one, much as I would have liked to be able to do so"[126] In 1998, Kripal wrote that he had "overplayed" the suppression of Jivanavrttanta and "the Ramakrishna Order reprinted Datta's text the very same summer Kali's Child appeared, rendering my original claims of a conscious concealment untenable."[127] The charges of censorship are disputed by Tyagananda.[128] Goldman,[129] Narasingha Sil,[130] Jeffrey Kripal,[131] and Sudhir Kakar,[132] analyze Ramakrishna's mysticism and religious practices using psychoanalysis,[133] arguing that his mystical visions, refusal to comply with ritual copulation in Tantra, Madhura Bhava, and criticism of Kamini-Kanchana (women and gold) reflect homosexuality. Jeffrey Kripal's controversial[134] Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna (1995) argued that Ramakrishna rejected Advaita Vedanta in favor of Shakti Tantra.[135] In this psychoanalytic study of Ramakrishna's life, Kripal argued that Ramakrishnas mystical experiences were symptoms of repressed homoeroticism.[136] Other scholars and psychoanalysts including Romain Rolland,[74] Alan Roland,[117][137] Kelly Aan Raab,[138] Somnath Bhattacharyya,[139] J.S. Hawley[140] and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak[141] argue that psychoanalysis is unreliable and Ramakrishna's religious practices were in line with Bengali tradition.[138] The application of psychoanalysis has further been disputed by Tyagananda and Vrajaprana as being unreliable in understanding Tantra and interpreting cross-cultural contexts in Interpreting Ramakrishna: Kali's Child Revisited (2010).[142] In his 1991 book The Analyst and the Mystic, Indian psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar saw in Ramakrishna's visions a spontaneous capacity for creative experiencing.[143] Kakar also argued that culturally relative concepts of eroticism and gender have contributed to the Western difficulty in comprehending Ramakrishna.[144] Kakar saw Ramakrishna's seemingly bizarre acts as part of a bhakti path to God.[143]

Postcolonial studies [edit]

This section requires expansion. (March 2009) Postcolonial studies try to locate Ramakrishna in the historical background of Calcutta during the mid-19th Century. In 1999, postcolonial historian Sumit Sarkar argued that he found in the Kathamrita traces of a binary opposition between unlearned oral wisdom and learned literate knowledge. He

argues that all of our information about Ramakrishna, a rustic near-illiterate Brahmin, comes from urban bhadralok devotees, "...whose texts simultaneously illuminate and transform."[145] Other postcolonial studies have been done by Partha Chaterjee, Amiya P. Sen.[146]

Notes [edit]
1. 2. 3. 4. ^ a b "The Art of God-Realisation". Times of India. Retrieved 2008-10-09.[dead link][dead link] ^ a b c d e Smart, Ninian The Worlds Religions (1998) p.409, Cambridge ^ Georg, Feuerstein (2002). The Yoga Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 600. ^ Clarke, Peter Bernard (2006). New Religions in Global Perspective. Routledge. p. 209. "The first Hindu to teach in the West and founder of the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897, Swami Vivekananda, [...] is also credited with raising Hinduism to the status of a world religion." ^ Jeffrey Brodd; Gregory Sobolewski (2003). World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery. Saint Mary's Press. p. 275. "In 1897 Swami Vivekananda returned to India, where he founded the Ramakrishna Mission, and influential Hindu organization devoted to education, social welfare, and publication of religious texts." ^ Smith, Bardwell L. (1976). Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions. Brill Archive. p. 93. ^ Jackson, p. 35. ^ a b c Miller, Timothy (1995). America's Alternative Religions. SUNY Press. pp. 174175. ISBN 978-0-7914-2397-4. "...Bengalis played a leading role in the wider Hindu renaissance, producing what can be termed the Bengali "Neo-Vedantic renaissance"" ^ a b c Pelinka, Anton; Rene Schell (2003). Democracy Indian Style. Transaction Publishers. pp. 4041. ISBN 978-0-7658-0186-9. "The Bengali Renaissance had numerous facets including the spiritual (Hindu) renaissance, represented by the names of Sri Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda, the combination of spiritual, intellectual, and political aspects..." ^ Bhattacharyya, Haridas (1978). "Part IV: Sri Ramakrishna and Spiritual Renaissance". The Cultural Heritage of India. University of Michigan: Ramakrishna Mission, Institute of Culture. p. 650. ^ a b Cyrus R. Pangborn. "The Ramakrishna Math and Mission". Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions. p. 98. ^ Jackson 1994, p. 78 ^ a b c Sen 2001, p.101 ^ a b c Heehs 2002, p. 430 ^ "Introduction". The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. 1942. p. 3. ^ Chatterjee 1993, pp. 4647 ^ Harding 1998, pp. 243244 ^ Jackson 1994, p.17 ^ Hindu Revivalism in Bengal, 18721905: Some Essays in Interpretation. Oxford University Press. 1993. p. 307. ^ a b c d Jackson 1994, p.17.

5.

6. 7. 8.

9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

^ Harding 1998, p. 248 ^ Sen 2001, p.92 ^ Mller, Max (1898). "Rmakrishna's Life". Rmakrishna his Life and Sayings. p. 33. ^ Sen, Amiya (2010). "The Early life of Gadhadhar". Ramakrishna Paramahamsa: The Sadhaka of Dakshineswar. Penguin Viking. pp. 4041. ^ Zaleski, Philip (2006). "The Ecstatic". Prayer: A History. Mariner Books. pp. 162163. ^ a b Bhawuk, Dharm P.S. (February 2003). "Cultures influence on creativity: the case of Indian spirituality". International Journal of Intercultural Relations (Elsevier) 27 (1): 8. doi:10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00059-7. ^ Neevel, Transformation of Sri Ramakrishna, p.70 ^ Neevel, Transformation of Sri Ramakrishna, p.68 ^ Harding 1998, p. 250 ^ Sen 2006, p. 176 ^ Harding 1998, p. 251 ^ Isherwood, Christopher (1965). Ramakrishna and his Disciples. p. 65. ^ a b c Jackson 1994, p.18 ^ a b Sil, Divine Dowager, p. 42 ^ Jackson 1994, p. 18 "Such child marriages were still widespread in nineteenth-century India, despite vehement condemnations by both English authorities and Hindu reformers. Analogous to the Western betrothal, child marriage committed the partners to one another, with the actual of living together and assuming family responsibilities delayed until puberty." ^ Spivak 2007, "Moving Devi", pp.207208 ^ a b Spivak 2007, p. 207 ^ Rolland, Romain (1929). "The Return to Man". The Life of Ramakrishna. p. 59. ^ a b c d Leo Schneiderman (Spring, 1969). "Ramakrishna: Personality and Social Factors in the Growth of a Religious Movement". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (London: Blackwell Publishing) 8 (1): 6071. doi:10.2307/1385254. JSTOR 1385254. ^ a b c d e Neevel, pp. 7477 ^ Jestice, Phyllis G. (2004). Holy People of the World: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia. ABCCLIO. p. 723. ^ Jean Varenne; Derek Coltman (1977). Yoga and the Hindu Tradition. University of Chicago Press. p. 151. "we know that certain Tantric practices, condemned as shockingly immoral, are aimed solely at enabling the adept to make use of the energy required for their realization in order to destroy desire within himself root and branch" ^ Sen 2001, p. 99 ^ Hixon 2002, p. xliii ^ Richards, Glyn (1985). A Source-book of modern Hinduism. Routledge. p. 63. "[Ramakrishna] received instructions in yogic techniques which enabled him to control his spiritual energy."

27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

36. 37. 38. 39.

40. 41. 42.

43. 44. 45.

46. 47. 48. 180. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53.

^ Spivak 2007, p.197 ^ a b c d Neevel, Walter G; Bardwell L. Smith (1976). "The Transformation of Ramakrishna". Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions. pp. 7283. ^ Allport, Gordon W. (1999). "Its meaning for the West". Hindu Psychology. Routledge. p. ^ Isherwood, pp. 7073 ^ Sen 2001, p. 138 ^ Isherwood, p. 197198. ^ a b Nikhilananda, Swami. "Introduction". The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. ^ Sharma, Arvind (1977). "Ramakrishna Paramahamsa: A Study in a Mystic's Attitudes towards Women". In Rita M. Gross. Beyond Androcentrism. Scholars Press ( American Academy of Religion ). pp. 118119, p.122, p.124. ^ a b c Parama Roy, Indian Traffic: Identities in Question in Colonial and Post-Colonial India Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998[page needed] ^ Jackson 1994, p.19 ^ Harding 1998, p. 263 ^ The Great Master, p. 255. ^ Roland, Romain The Life of Ramakrishna (1984), Advaita Ashram ^ Isherwood, Christopher. "Tota Puri". Ramakrishna and his Disciples. p. 123. ^ Isherwood, Christopher. Ramakrishna and his Disciples. p. 124. ^ Rolland, Romain (1929). "The Return to Man". The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 4962. ^ Ramakrishna Mission Singapore (April 2007). "Lay Disciples of Ramakrishna". Nirvana (Ramakrishna Mission, Singapore). ^ a b Rolland, Romain (1929). "Ramakrishna and the Great Shepherds of India". The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 110130. ^ Farquhar, John Nicol (1915). Modern Religious Movements in India. Macmillan Co. p. 194. "About 1875, Keshab Chandra Sen made his acquaintance and became very interested in him (Ramakrishna)." ^ Y. Masih (2000). A Comparative Study of Religions. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 198199. ^ a b c d Mukherjee, Dr. Jayasree (May 2004). "Sri Ramakrishnas Impact on Contemporary Indian Society". Prabuddha Bharatha. Retrieved 2008-09-04. ^ a b Mller, Max (1898). "Rmakrishna's Life". Rmakrishna his Life and Sayings. pp. 5657. ^ Debarry, William Theodore; Ainslie Thomas Embree (1988). Sources of Indian Tradition: From the Beginning to 1800. Stephen N. Hay. Columbia University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-23106415-6. ^ Joseph, Jaiboy (2002-06-23). "Master visionary". The Hindu. Retrieved 2008-10-09.[dead link] ^ Chetanananda, Swami (1989). They Lived with God. St. Louis: Vedanta Society of St. Louis. p. 163.

54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.

65. 66. 67. 68.

69. 70.

71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92.

^ Beckerlegge (2006), Swami Vivekananda's Legacy of Service, p.27 ^ Sen 2006, p. 172 ^ Chakrabarti, Arindam (November 1994). "The dark mother flying kites : Sri ramakrishna's metaphysic of morals". Sophia (Springer Netherlands) 33 (3): 1429. doi:10.1007/BF02800488. ^ a b c Rolland, Romain (1929). "The Master and his Children". The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 143168. ^ a b c d e Rolland, Romain (1929). "The River Re-Enters the Sea". The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 201214. ^ Sen 2006, p. 168 ^ a b Williams, George M. (1989). ""Swami Vivekananda: Archetypal Hero or Doubting Saint?"". In Robert D. Baird. Religion in Modern India. p. 325. ^ Malcolm Maclean, A Translation of the sri-sri-ramakrisna-kathamrita with explanatory notes and critical introduction. University of Otago. Dunedin, New Zealand. September, 1983. p vi ^ Sen 2001, p. 32 ^ Kripal 1998, p.3 ^ a b Kripal 1998, p. 4 ^ Malcolm Maclean, A Translation of the sri-sri-ramakrisna-kathamrita with explanatory notes and critical introduction. University of Otago. Dunedin, New Zealand. September, 1983. p iiv ^ Hixon 2002, p. xiv ^ a b Menon, Parvathi (November 1, 1996). "A History of Modern India: Revivalist Movements and Early Nationalism". India Abroad.[dead link] ^ Sumit Sarkar, Kaliyuga, Chakri and Bhakti: Ramakrishna and His Times, Economic and Political Weekly 27, 29 (Jul 18, 1992): 15481550. ^ Chaterjee 1993, pp. 6869 ^ Carl T. Jackson (1994), pp. 2021. ^ Kali's Child p 281; 277287 passim ^ Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, p. 243 ^ Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, pp. 256257 ^ Neevel, p. 82. ^ Cohen, Martin (2008). "Spiritual Improvisations: Ramakrishna, Aurobindo, and the Freedom of Tradition". Religion and the Arts (BRILL) 12 (13): 277293. doi:10.1163/156852908X271079. ^ Y. Masih (2000). A Comparative Study of Religions. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 207. ^ Hixon, Lex (1997). "Introduction". Great Swan. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xi. ISBN 978-0943914-80-0. ^ Sen, Amiya P. (June 2006). "Sri Ramakrishna, the Kathamrita and the Calcutta middle classes: an old problematic revisited". Postcolonial Studies 9 (2): 165177. doi:10.1080/13688790600657835.

93. 94. 95.

96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102.

^ Isherwood, Christopher (1945). Vedanta for the Western World: A Symposium on Vedanta. Vedanta Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-87481-000-4. ^ Arindam Chakrabarti, "The Dark Mother Flying Kites: Sri Ramakrishna's Metaphysic of Morals" Sophia, 33 (3), 1994 ^ a b c Beckerlegge,Swami Vivekananda's Legacy of Service pp.13 ^ Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center of New York. (1996). Sri Ramakrishna Tributes. ^ Katheleen M O'Connell. Utsav-Celebration: Tagores Approach to Cultivating the Human Spirit and the Study of Religion. ^ John Rosselli, "Sri Ramakrishna and the educated elite of late nineteenth century" Contributions to Indian Sociology 1978; 12; 195 [1] ^ Friedrich Max Mller, Rmakrishna: His Life and Sayings, pp.9394, Longmans, Green, 1898 ^ Neevel, Transformation of Sri Ramakrishna, p.85 ^ Sil 1993, p. 56 ^ Sen 2006, p. 173 ^ John Wolffe (2004). "The Hindu Renaissance and notions of Universal Religion". Religion in History. Manchester University Press. p. 153. ^ Narasingha P. Sil "Viveknanda's Rmaka: An Untold Story of Mythmaking and Propaganda" Numen, Vol. 40, No. 1, (Jan., 1993), pp. 3862 BRILL http://www.jstor.org/stable/3270397 ^ McLean, Malcolm, "Kali's Child: The Mystical and Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna."[dead link] The Journal of the American Oriental Society Tuesday, July 1, 1997 ^ "Vivekananda and Ramakrisha Face to Face: An Essay on the Alterity of a Saint" Carl Olson International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Apr., 1998), pp. 43-66 Springer ^ Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, p. 172 ^ Sen 2006, p. 165 ^ a b Carl T. Jackson (1994), p.154 ^ Neeval and Hatcher, "Ramakrishna" in Encyclopedia of Religion, 2005 p 7613 ^ Hixon 2002, p. xv. "My study of Sanskrit and my doctoral dissertation at Columbia University on the Advaita Vedanta of Gaudapada, has enabled me to appreciate more deeply the Master's universal Vedantic approach." ^ Spivak 2007, p. 197 ^ Sen 2001, p. 22 ^ a b Roland, Alan (October 2004). "Ramakrishna: Mystical, Erotic, or Both?". Journal of Religion and Health 37: 3136. doi:10.1023/A:1022956932676. ^ "Oceanic Feeling" by Henri Vermorel and Madeleline Vermoral in International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis [2] ^ The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Revisioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism By William Barclay Parsons, Oxford University Press US, 1999 ISBN 0-19-511508-2, p 37

103. 104. 105. 106. 107.

108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114.

115. 116. 117. 118. 119.

120. 121. 122. 123.

^ page 12 Primitive Passions: Men, Women, and the Quest for Ecstasy By Marianna Torgovnick University of Chicago Press, 1998 ^ Parsons 1999, 14 ^ Kripal(1995) Kali's Child 1 edition[page needed] ^ name="atma" Atmajnanananda, Swami (August 1997). "Scandals, cover-ups, and other imagined occurrences in the life of Ramakrishna: An examination of Jeffrey Kripal's Kali's child". International Journal of Hindu Studies (Netherlands: Springer) 1 (2): pp.401420. doi:10.1007/s11407-997-0007-8. ^ "Christopher Isherwood: An Interview" Carolyn G. Heilbrun and Christopher Isherwood Twentieth Century Literature, Vol. 22, No. 3, Christopher Isherwood Issue (Oct., 1976), pp. 253263 Published by: Hofstra University ^ Christopher Isherwood, James J. Berg, Chris Freeman (2001). Conversations with Christopher Isherwood. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-57806-408-3. ^ My Guru and His Disciple, page 249 ^ Kripal(1998) Kali's Child 2 edition[page needed] ^ Tyagananda, S.; Vrajaprana, P. (2010), pp 2345 ^ "Transsexualism, Gender, and Anxiety in Traditional India" Robert P. Goldman Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 113, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1993), pp. 374-401 American Oriental Society ^ Ramakrishna Revisited (1998)[page needed] ^ Kali's Child (1998)[page needed] ^ The Analyst and the Mystic (1991)[page needed] ^ Jonte-Pace, Diane Elizabeth (2003). "Freud as interpreter of religious texts and practices". Teaching Freud. Oxford University Press US. p. 94. ^ Balagangadhara, S. N.; Sarah Claerhout (2008). "Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples from Hinduism Studies". Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies 7 (19): 118143. ^ Parsons 1999, 135136 ^ Parsons, William B., "Psychology" in Encyclopedia of Religion, 2005 p. 7479 ^ Roland, Alan. (2007) The Uses (and Misuses) Of Psychoanalysis in South Asian Studies: Mysticism and Child Development . Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America. Delhi, India: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-81-291-1182-1 ^ a b Kelley Ann Raab (Summer, 1995). "Is There Anything Transcendent about Transcendence? A Philosophical and Psychological Study of Sri Ramakrishna". Journal of the American Academy of Religion (London: Oxford University Press) 63 (2): 321341. JSTOR 1465404. ^ Invading the Sacred, p.152-168 ^ Hawley, John Stratton (June 2004). "The Damage of Separation: Krishna's Loves and Kali's Child". Journal of the American Academy of Religion 72 (2): 369393. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfh034. PMID 20681099. ^ Spivak (2007), "Moving Devi", Other Asias, pp.195197

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125. 126. 127. 128. 129.

130. 131. 132. 133. 134.

135. 136. 137.

138.

139. 140.

141.

142. 2010 143. 144. p.34 145. 293 146.

^ See:p.127 and "Interpretation in Cross-Cultural Contexts". In Tyagananda & Vrajaprana ^ a b Parsons, 1999 p 133 ^ Kakar, Sudhir, The Analyst and the Mystic, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), ^ Sumit Sarkar, "Post-modernism and the Writing of History" Studies in History 1999; 15; ^ Sen 2001

References [edit]

Beckerlegge, Gwilym (March 2006). Swami Vivekananda's Legacy of Service. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-567388-3 Bhattacharyya, Somnath. "Kali's Child: Psychological And Hermeneutical Problems". Infinity Foundation. Archived from the original on 2007-10-04. Retrieved 2008-03-15. Chatterjee, Partha (1993). The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton University Press. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-691-01943-7. Gupta, Mahendranath ("M."); Swami Nikhilananda (1942). The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center. ISBN 0-911206-01-9 Gupta, Mahendranath ("M."); Dharm Pal Gupta (2001). Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita. Sri Ma Trust. ISBN 978-81-88343-00-3 Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). Kali, the Dark Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1450-9 Heehs, Peter (2002). "Ramakrishna Paramahamsa". Indian Religions. Orient Blackswan Hixon, Lex (2002). Great Swan: Meetings With Ramakrishna. Burdett, N.Y.: Larson Publications. ISBN 0-943914-80-9 Isherwood, Christopher (1980). Ramakrishna and His Disciples. Hollywood, Calif: Vedanta Press. ISBN 0-87481-037-X(reprint, orig. 1965) Jackson, Carl T. (1994). Vedanta for the West. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33098X Kripal, Jeffery J. (1995). Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna. University of Chicago Press Mller, Max (1898). Ramakrishna: His Life and Sayings. Great Britain: LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. ISBN 81-7505-060-8 Neevel, Walter G.; Bardwell L. Smith (1976). "The Transformation of Ramakrishna". Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions. Brill Archive. pp. 5397 Rajagopalachari, Chakravarti (1973). Sri Ramakrishna Upanishad. Vedanta Press. ASIN B0007J1DQ4 Ramaswamy, Krishnan; Antonio de Nicolas (2007). Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America. Delhi, India: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-81-291-1182-1

Rolland, Romain (1929). Life of Ramakrishna. Vedanta Press. ISBN 978-81-85301-44-0 Saradananda, Swami; Swami Chetanananda (2003). Sri Ramakrishna and His Divine Play. St. Louis: Vedanta Society. ISBN 978-0-916356-81-1 Saradananda, Swami; Swami Jagadananda (1952). Sri Ramakrishna The Great Master. Sri Ramakrishna Math. ASIN B000LPWMJQ Sen, Amiya P. (June 2006). "Sri Ramakrishna, the Kathamrita and the Calcutta middle classes: an old problematic revisited". Postcolonial Studies 9 (2): 165177. doi:10.1080/13688790600657835 Sen, Amiya P. (2001). Three essays on Sri Ramakrishna and his times. Indian Institute of Advanced Study Sil, Narasingha P. "Kali's child and Krishna's lover: An anatomy of Ramakrishna's Caritas Divina," Religion, 39,3 (2009), 289-298. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (December 28, 2007). Other Asias. Wiley-Blackwell Tyagananda; Vrajaprana (2010). Interpreting Ramakrishna: Kali's Child Revisited. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 410. ISBN 978-81-208-3499-6.

Further reading [edit]

Further information: Bibliography of Ramakrishna

Ananyananda, Swami (1981). Ramakrishna: a biography in pictures. Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta. ISBN 978-81-85843-97-1. Chetanananda, Swami (1990). Ramakrishna As We Saw Him. St. Louis: Vedanta Society of St Louis. ISBN 978-0-916356-64-4. Hourihan, Paul (2002). Ramakrishna & Christ, the Supermystics: New Interpretations. Vedantic Shores Press. ISBN 1-931816-00-X. Olson, Carl (1990). The Mysterious Play of Kl: An Interpretive Study of Rmakrishna. American Academy of Religion (Scholars Press). ISBN 1-55540-3395. Prosser, Lee. (2001) Isherwood, Bowles, Vedanta, Wicca, and Me. Writers Club: Lincoln, Nebraska. ISBN 0-595-20284-5 Satyananda, Saraswati. Ramakrishna: The Nectar of Eternal Bliss. Devi Mandir Publications. ISBN 1-877795-66-6. Torwesten, Hans (1999). Ramakrishna and Christ, or, The paradox of the incarnation. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. ISBN 978-81-85843-971.

External links [edit]

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