Disc brakes offer more consistent performance and superior fade resistance.

This has led to their widespread adoption. They have exposed rotors allowing better heat dissipation and reducing the effects of water, dirt, brake dust and friction material gasses. Using small running clearances (typically 0.3mm per pad and no pull-off springs, means the threshold force is negligible. Disc brakes have a brake factor of 1 so produce less torque than drum brakes. In order to retain the torque requirement actuation systems have to produce more line pressure. Open Caliper Types There are two main principles for open disc brake calipers; opposed piston and sliding. An opposed piston caliper has pistons opposing each other either side of the disc whereas a sliding caliper has pistons on the inboard side only. The frame then slides on a carrier to load the outboard pad into the disc using the equal reaction force. For a given application both types will produce similar forces and use similar amounts of fluid. Benefits of Each Type Opposed Piston (or Fixed) caliper has one or more hydraulic pistons bearing directly on the pad back plate, either side of rotor. For:- Best equalisation of forces on pads Against:- Package dictates large rotor offset which can preclude optimum positioning of suspension lower joint. - Risk of fluid vaporisation in transfer port - Not suitable for mechanical actuation Benefits of Each Type Sliding (or Fist or Floating) caliper has direct hydraulic or mechanical actuation for inboard pad only, the reaction force applies the outboard pad. For:- Overcomes suspension package and fluid vaporisation issues. - Not limited to hydraulic actuation Against:- Slide friction affects equalization Caliper Orientation In side view, the caliper may be located forward or rearward of the axle centre line. IMAGINE When mounted behind the axle, forward braking loads help to reduce the load increase on the wheel bearing caused by weight transfer. Caliper Orientation However any stick slip on the pads may cause an annoying rattle at low speed as the pad moves up to its abutment stop and then fall back repeatedly. Also a rearward location is seldom possible on FWD cars due to steering packaging. When turning, the inboard wheel turns through a greater angle and the caliper comes into contact with the driveshaft joint or suspension arms. Caliper Orientation Why not locate the caliper at the top or bottom? IMAGINE Deflections during cornering will knock back the pads, so its better to mount on the neutral axis. But any brake is better than none! Sliding Caliper Adaptability Caliper actuation force can be generated - hydraulically - mechanically from pneumatics - mechanically by cable - by a combination of cable operation for

parking with hydraulic service brake - by electric motor with an electronically controlled wedge mechanism - by electric motor with high ratio gearing Cable Disc Brake Widely used in construction and defence applications as a transmission parking brake Combination Service and Park Disc Brake Widely used on small cars as a rear brake. Infamous for roll away incidents. As the disc cools and shrinks the parking load reduces Dry Brakes Hydraulic calipers will be superseded by electric motorcalipers at some point, giving faster response and easier recycling. This could simplify electronic aids such as ABS, TC, ESP. but: - high peak forces need very high current motors (momentarily) meaning heavy conductors, high voltage systems will help. -increased unsprung mass Electronic Wedge Brake The electronic wedge brake has a high brake factor like a duoservo drum brake to minimize motor forces and uses electronic positioning to reduce stability issues. Electric Parking Brakes There is a desire to remove the handbrake lever: - It occupies valuable package space in the cabin. - It may be responsible for roll away incidents, (where rear disc brakes are specified). There are two system types, one retains conventional cables but applies the force by an under-floor motor through a non-reversible screw mechanism. The second uses electric calipers which avoid the need for cables but increase the unsprung mass slightly. Electronic control permits high (or variable) static clamping loads, modulated dynamic application and automatic drive away. Disc Brake Rotors A brake disc has two main functions, firstly to transmit the braking force and secondly to dissipate the heat generated. It must do this consistently over a wide range of temperatures and under all environmental conditions. A disc must not transmit noise or vibration and must wear out slowly whilst keeping the braking face smooth and flat. Rotor Materials Theoretically many materials would be suitable for this however when considering performance stability, material cost and processing the obvious material is cast iron. Where selection requirements vary, other materials may be used. Stainless steel discs are widely used on motorcycles for aesthetic reasons. Carbon fibre reinforced ceramic (CFRC) which can run at extremely high temperatures are used for aircraft or high performance cars (a few road going sports cars are now using CFRC discs) and aluminium metal matrix composite (MMC) have been used in low energy applications where weight is important (Lotus Elise is the only one to date). Rotor Shape Generally the shape of a disc can be split into three sections, the braking surface, the mounting face and the hat / bell. Discs are very rarely flat because they must not cone dramatically as they warm up.

Rotor Shape If flat discs dont cone then hoop stresses may become a problem? Rotor Shape Flat ventilated discs are possible by opening the vents on the back. Disc Brake Rotors Solid rotors rely on their thermal mass to limit instop peak temperatures. Ventilated rotors have internal cooling ducts to reduce mean temperatures, but require extra package space. Ventilated rotors are more costly because internal surfaces are usually as cast, making an additional balancing operation necessary. Disc Brake Rotors Floating rotors reduce thermal distortion but may interrupt conduction cooling. Galfer patented Wave disc. Designed to clear mud on off road bikes. Other uses are as fashion accessories! (Patent EP 0971 147 A2) Disc Brake RotorsCross-drilling or surface grooving of rotors and transverse slots across pads provide escape space for braking debris, improving performance in high speed stops. Oil Immersed Brakes Oil immersed disc brakes are widely used for low speed off highway applications, tractors, backhoes, telehandlers etc. They consist of a stack of plates keyed alternately to a rotating part and a static part. The rotating plate has a thin friction material coating. The stack is clamped using a hydraulic piston or by a mechanical ball ramp actuator. They are often mounted in the transmission of inboard of any hub reduction. The main benefit is they are almost designed for life and are isolated from the environment but churning losses in the cooling oil can be very significant. Thermal Characteristics of Disc and Drum Brakes Brake Fade is the reduction in brake torque that usually accompanies increasing brake temperatures. Primary cause: Friction Coefficient, reduces at elevated temperatures. This effect is magnified on high factor brakes such as drum brake leading shoes due to high gain. Drum brakes are also more difficult to cool. Thermal Characteristics of Disc and Drum Brakes Thermal expansion changes the brake geometry. - drum expansion may reduce shoe factor due to crown contact and will give greater shoe-to-drum clearance. -Drums tend to bell mouth and disc brake rotors may suffer from coning, causing uneven contact force distribution and potential thermal damage to components. -As a disc cools it gets thinner, leading to reduced clamp load on parking brakes resulting in roll away. Thermal Characteristics of Disc and Drum Brakes Slow dissipation of thermal energy can lead to temperature build up. - The hottest surface of a brake drum is on the inside, so it has inherently poor cooling. - The hottest surface of a disc rotor is on the outside allowing better radiation and convection, but this cooling may be inhibited by mud shields, wheels and vehicle aerodynamics. - Open alloy road wheels improve cooling by greater conduction through the hub and better convection (less restricted air flow). Calculating Disc Brake Torque Brake Force at the wheel become Brake Torque when multiplied by the tyre radius. This figure is given as Static Laden Radius (SLR) in tyre catalogues.

Brake force * rolling radius = Brake torque Brake torque becomes a pad drag force when divided by the effective radius of the disc. 41 Calculating Disc Brake Torque The pad drag force is the clamping force multiplied by the pad m. Remember there are two opposing pads and the clamp load is the same whether the caliper is sliding or opposing. For a hydraulic caliper the clamp load is the line pressure multiplied by the piston area (sum all pistons areas on one side). If you feel keen subtract the threshold pressure but in reality the pad m varies by 10% or so, so its not important. 42 Calculating Disc Brake Torque Axle Brake force = 2*2(p - pt)A*m*Re / SLR Where: p = line pressure pt = threshold pressure A = total piston area on one side of the disc m = pad friction Re = disc effective radius SLR = tyre static laden radius 43 Calculating Drum Brake Torque Axle Brake force = 2*(p - pt)A*BF*R / SLR Where: p = line pressure pt = threshold pressure A = wheel cylinder area BF = brake factor R = drum radius SLR = tyre static laden radius149105 Brake NVH Low frequency noise caused by friction material excitation usually solved by material change. Low frequency squeal caused by modal excitation, may be solved by component change, increased system damping. High frequency noise caused by rotor circumferential resonance. Can be solved by disc stiffness change or friction material shims