Table of content

1 2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 2 The myth....................................................................................................... 3 2.1 Historical background ............................................................................... 3 2.2 The myth ................................................................................................ 5 The romantic story: Morte dArthur (Sir Thomas Malory) ..................................... 5 The story of battles: Historia Regum Brittaniae (Geoffrey of Monmouth)................ 7 Arthur: A king from the past into the present ............................................. 11 3.1 King Arthur............................................................................................ 11 3.2 Merlin ................................................................................................... 13 3.3 Morgan le Fay ........................................................................................ 16 3.4 The lady of the lake ................................................................................ 18 3.5 Excalibur ............................................................................................... 20 3.6 The Round Table, his knights and Camelot ................................................ 22 The principal knights ...................................................................................... 22 Camelot and the Round Table .......................................................................... 23 3.7 Guinevere and Lancelot........................................................................... 25 3.8 The search for the Holy Grail ................................................................... 27 3.9 Avalon .................................................................................................. 29 Separating facts from fiction....................................................................... 31 4.1 Evidence of (non)existence...................................................................... 31 A poem by Nennius ........................................................................................ 31 The birthplace ............................................................................................... 32 The grave ..................................................................................................... 33 4.2 The three candidates .............................................................................. 34 The Roman ................................................................................................... 34 The high king ................................................................................................ 34 The bear ....................................................................................................... 35 Bringing Arthur and his knights into the classroom .................................... 36 5.1 Choosing King Arthur and his knights........................................................ 36 The Why? .................................................................................................... 36 Values for youngsters ..................................................................................... 36 5.2 From legend to lesson............................................................................. 38 Drama .......................................................................................................... 38 Warming-up exercises .................................................................................... 38 The How? .................................................................................................... 39 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 42 Bibliography................................................................................................ 43 Enclosures .................................................................................................. 45

6 7 8

Introduction

The quest for the truth about King Arthur is still alive and happening. Characters, objects and places may transform depending the spirit of the times, but Arthur himself still exists today. Disney, Warner bros. and even Monty Python should be thankful for the myth and the mystery concerning it. In the magical world of Arthur, nothing is sure and everything changes. As an historical person, King Arthur seems too legendary and for an imaginary figure, he had too much impact on the history of Britain. So who was King Arthur? Before one should read the actual myth, it is my opinion that one should know the historical background. Once this has been done, perhaps part of the mystery can be discovered. I have chosen to bring both the romantic version as the war version to the attention. Not only do I feel obligated towards the two writers; Sir Thomas Malory and Geoffrey of Monmouth, who had such an impact on the legend, but as one shall read, both versions can be used in the classroom. But let us not stay on the surface. I invite the reader to join me in my search for historical proof that King Arthur existed. I will also try to describe how and why the characters of the Arthurian legend have evolved. And finally, I will bring this great king and his knights into the classroom. Who knows, one might get swept away by this Superman from the Dark Ages.

The myth

To know anything about the phenomenon Arthur, it is essential to know something of the beginning of it all. It is necessary to examine all the historical evidence found and to go back in time. Therefore, I think that there are two main subjects one should look at before revealing the truth concerning King Arthur. The first one is the historical background on which the myth is based on. The second one is the original myth, the blueprint if you like.

2.1

Historical background
Woe to the red dragon, for his banishment hastened on. Its mountains be levelled as the valleys, and the rivers of the valleys shall run with blood.

(The prophecy of Merlin Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Brittaniae)1

During the fifth century, the West of Europe was undergoing a rapid change. As a result of the decline of the Western Roman Empire (WRE) in 476, the Dark Ages, together with the Gallic conquers, entered. Before this, Britain was under the reign of the Roman Empire. Up till 410, Gallic tribes tried to invade Roman Celtic Britain, but never succeeded. However, because of the fact that the WRE was not able to send legions overseas, it needed all its manpower in the Empire itself, Britain had to rely on itself.2 Saxons, Anglos and Jutes were now able to invade the country from the east and settled there. As a consequence, these three tribes drove the Roman Celtic Brits to the west, especially to Devon, Cornwall and Wales. Apart from these three tribes, the country was invaded from the west by the Irish. In a desperate attempt to protect themselves from the cruel attacks, the Britons made a pact with the Anglos. The Anglos, under command of Hengist and Horsa, drove the other Gallic tribes back, but the price was high. Not only did they get the south-east of Essex and a part of Kent, but they also turned against the Britons.3

The people of the Red Dragon; the Britons were driven back and finally ended up in the mountains of Wales.4

1 (red), Geoffrey of Monmouth Historia Regum Brittaniae The prophecy of Merlin, internet, 2007-11-01, (http://www.caerleon.net/history/geoffrey/prophecy1.htm). 2 BEJCZY, I., Een kennismaking met de middeleeuwse wereld, Uitgeverij Coutinho, Bussum, 2001, 224 paginas. 3 4 DAY, D., Koning Arthur, het ontstaan van een mythe, Atrium in opdracht van ICOB B.V., Alphen, 1995, 176 paginas.

All hope was gone now, and when the Anglos made a new pact with the Picts, the armies of the Brits were swept away. The people of Britain were often robbed and mistreated, but the Anglos and Picts were not numerous enough to occupy the whole country. One of the consequences of the robberies was that many Brits moved to Armorica from 450 on. Nowadays, this part of Europe is know as Bretagne.5 Its during these battles of the Britons against the Anglos, that we can find the legendary King Arthur. This is not abnormal, since this was a time when the Britons needed a hero. Also, from this moment on, the Britons and Anglos were known as respectively the red dragon and the white dragon. Today, we still see the image of the red dragon as an emblem of the Welsh people, the true ancestors of the Roman Celtic Britons. De Welsh prefer to call themselves the Cymry, because Welsh is actually the Anglo-Sax word for slave. Knowing this, one should know which of the two dragons won. The Britons lost the battle and had no choice but to move to the mountains of Wales.

MICHIELS, K., Wat u nog niet wist van koning Arthur en de graal, eindwerk KHLeuven (onuitg.), 81 paginas.

2.2

The myth
Arthur gathered all the warriors on the British island And where he came, there was great fear and trembling. (The Mabinogion Anonymous)6

Many books and manuscripts telling the story of King Arthur, have been written throughout centuries. To give you the whole myth of the life and heroic actions of King Arthur, I have chosen to tell two different stories. The first one will be the romantic version, the myth according to Sir Thomas Malory. He was the first to really bring all the interpretations of the story into one whole. His book Morte dArthur, written in 1485 begins and ends with the birth and death of Arthur. After all, the myth of King Arthur would not have lasted as long, if it had not been one of a great love story. The second version is the story of war. Based on Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Brittaniae written in the 12th century, I will try to tell the myth from a combat point of view. Here, the story of Arthur is woven into the story of many others. This in comparison with the book Morte dArthur, where the whole book is about Arthur and his life.

The romantic story: Morte dArthur (Sir Thomas Malory)

A detail from Le Morte Darthur, with 'Galahad' and 'Sankgreall' (Holy Grail) shown in red ink. The British Library Board7

It all begins with Uther Pendragon, the father of Arthur. Uther, just being victorious over the Saxons, throws a court ball. The duke of Cornwall Gorlois, together with his wife Igraine are some of the many who come. When Uther first lays eyes on Igraine, he immediately falls in love with her. Knowing he cannot have her since she is married to Gorlois, Igraine is compelled to battle Gorlois. With the help of Merlin, he conceives a child with Igraine. That same night, Gorlois dies in battle. The newborn is named Arhur.

DAY, D., Koning Arthur, het ontstaan van een mythe, Atrium in opdracht van ICOB B.V., Alphen, 1995, 176 paginas. (red), Thomas Malorys Le morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-07, (http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/themes/englishlit/morte.html).
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After the birth, Arthur is brought to Ector by Merlin. There, he and Ectors son Kay grow up together. When Uther dies, Arthur is 15 years old. This causes conflict between the remaining nobles, who all want to be king. After all, nobody knows that Uther has a son. This is the time when Merlin decides that he who can pull a sword out of an anvil standing on a big rock, will be the rightful king of Britain. During a tournament, to celebrate this occasion, Kay asks Arthur if he would bring him a sword. Arthur starts looking, sees the sword in the anvil and pulls it out. He gives the sword to Kay, who recognizes it. Kay asks his father if he is the king of Britain, but Ector sees through the lie and starts to question Kay. In the end, Kay has no choice but to admit that not he, but Arthur has pulled the sword out of the anvil. The remaining nobles do not agree with the idea of a 15-year-old king and Arthur suggests to put the sword back, so others can try. Even now, it is only Arthur who succeeds, and finally, he is acknowledged as king of Britain. Years pass and Arthur grows up. During a battle against King Pellinore, his sword breaks. Merlin takes Arthur with him to Nimue, the lady of the lake. Arthur receives a new sword from her, Excalibur. With this sword, Arthur would be invincible. He also receives a sheath, which makes sure that Arthur cannot be wounded anymore. Arthur conceives a child with Morgan le Faye, not knowing it is his half-sister. She is the child of Gorlois and Igraine. A child is born, named Mordred. Morgan wants to bring Arthur and his kingdom down and only wanted a child with Arthur as a weapon against Arthur. She brings her son up in hate with his father to make sure he would kill his father. Merlin predicts that Arthur will be killed by the one born on the first of May. As a consequence, Arthur makes sure that every newborn on the first of May is killed. However, not to the knowledge of Arthur, Mordred is spared. After being informed by Merlin about the fact that Morgan is his half-sister, Arthur marries Guinevere, daughter of King Leodegrance. Arthur and Guinevere settle in Camelot, the ideal kingdom. Arthur receives a round table as dowry from Leodegrance. Leodegrance passes this on, after he got it from Arthurs father. Around this table, the knights of King Arthur can be seated. Merlin makes sure that the name of every knight is written on the chairs, but two remain empty. Lancelot du Lac is one of those knights of the Round Table. He and queen Guinevere fall in love and have a secret affaire. Some of the knights of the Round Table find out and try to warn Arthur, but he does not want to know the truth. Mordred however, finds more and more proof of the affaire and forces Arthur to convict Guinevere. She is sentenced to burn at the stake. Lancelot can save her at the last moment, but doing so, kills Gareth and Gaheris, two brothers of another knight of the Round Table; Sir Gawain. Lancelot and Guinevere flee and go to the castle Joyeuse-Garde. Arthur however, follows and tries to fight Lancelot. The latter refuses to turn on his Lord, which moves Arthur. A compromise is made. Arthur takes back his wife, Guinevere, and Lancelot is compelled to move to France. This would be a fine plan, was it not for Sir Gawain. He wants revenge for the death of his brothers and convinces Arthur to fight Lancelot in France. After their departure to France, Mordred, also a knight of the Round Table, takes over the power of Britain. In France, Lancelot is victor in the battle between him and Gawain. Wounded in the head, Gawain has no choice but to go back to Britain with Arthur, who has just heard about the betrayal of Mordred. Although the dying Gauvain tries to convince Arthur to take Lancelot with them to Britain for he can help, Arthur refuses.

Mordred and Arthur with his knights go head to head in the battle of Camlann. Every knight, except for Sir Bedivere, dies in this battle. Arthur is able to kill Mordred, but in doing so, gets wounded himself. The dying Arthur gives Sir Bedivere Excalibur and asks him to bring it back to the lady of the lake. Trying to keep Excalibur for himself, Bedivere lies two times by telling Arthur that he has brought it back. Arthur sees through his lies and demands him to take it back a third time. Finally, Bedivere does what he is asked to do. As a final wish, Arthur asks Bedivere to bring him to the lake. There, a small boat appears. Both Nimue and Morgan le Faye are some of the passengers and take the dying Arthur with them. Before leaving, Arthur states that he will come back, when Britain truly needs him.8

The story of battles: Historia Regum Brittaniae (Geoffrey of Monmouth)

Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Brittaniae (History of the Kings of Britain) is written in Latin and starts in the world of the Greek and Roman epos. It is written in 1135, the final year that king Henry I reigned. Geoffrey of Monmouth claimed that the stories were a true chronicle of the British kings. In reality it was a bizarre mix of facts and fiction.

Pages from Historia Regum Brittaniae, Geoffrey of Monmouth, 12th century.9

In his story, the history of Britain begins with the fall of Troy. One of the Trojan princes, Aeneas leaves Italy, together with other refugees. One of Aeneas grandchildren, Brutus, will lead the Trojans to an island called Albion. Nobody, accept for giants, lived here. After killing the giants, Brutus and his people occupy the land. The island is given a new name, after the leader Brutus: Britain. Brutus is now the new king and settles a capital city by the river Thames. The city is called New Troy, later known as London. Geoffrey of Monmouth tells the tale of the reign of seventy-five kings, but almost every story is a product of his imagination. After this, Geoffrey of Monmouth tells the tale of the conquest of Britain by the Romans. However, Geoffrey of Monmouth doesnt call it a conquest since the British kings were able to keep on reigning because of an agreement between the Britons and the Romans. When the Roman rule ends, Britain has to face the raid of the Picts, a Scottish tribe. At first, the Romans try to help, but refuse any kind of help later on. The Britons could not defend themselves against the Picts. The archbishop
8 9

MICHIELS, K., Wat u nog niet wist van koning Arthur en de graal, eindwerk KHLeuven (onuitg.), 81 paginas. UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, The World of Gloriana, internet, 2008-06-04, (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/specialcollections/exhibits/past/Gloriana.htm).

of London goes to Bretagne and offers the British crown to Aldroenus, the local leader, if he wants to defend Britain. Aldroenus refuses the offer but sends his brother, Constantine. Constantine gathers an army and together with the Britons, he is able to chase away any kind of enemy. He is crowned, gets married and had three sons. The firstborn is called Constans. Later on, he becomes a monk. The second son was Aurelius Ambrosius and the youngest son was Uther, later known as Arthurs father. It is the 5th century and Britain is independent. Constantine reigns for ten years before he gets killed by an assassin from the Picts. There is a quarrel concerning the succession and a noble named Vortigern offers a solution. Geoffrey of Monmouth portrays Vortigern as the cause of all tragedy. After all, it is Vortigern who goes to the monastery to advise the eldest son, Constans to take over the throne. Constans takes Vortigerns advice and becomes the puppet of Vortigern because of this. Now, Vortigern has the power to control the treasury, to place his own men on important political posts and even to recruit Pictic soldiers. Constans gets killed by these soldiers and Vortigern hunts them down. He sentences the men to death and is crowned as king of Britain. The guardians of the two youngest princes, Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther, send the two to Bretagne. The Picts revolt again, as a consequence of the death penalty of the soldiers who killed Constans. At the same moment, two Saxon leaders arrive in Kent with their three manned ships. These two Saxon leaders; Horsa and Hengist, offer their help to Vortigern. Together, they beat the Picts. As gratitude, Hengist is offered the land of Lincolnshire, where he invites other Saxons to come and live. During a feast, organised by Vortigern to meet all the Saxon leaders, Vortigern sees the daughter of Hengist; Renwein. He immediately falls in love with her and wants to marry her. Hengist agrees, but only if he gets Kent. Vortigern agrees, much to the discontent of his sons from a previous marriage. The oldest son, Vortimer, takes action. Meanwhile, the Britons are repelled by the fact that more and more heathen Saxons are marrying the British women. The British leaders go to Vortigern to make a change, because they do not want the Saxons to get the upper hand. Vortigern, however, refuses to listen to them, since he himself is married to a Saxon woman. As a result, the Britons name Vortimer their new king. He attacks the Saxons in Kent and defeats them in four battles. Many of the Saxons flee, but Vortimers stepmother stays and poisons Vortimer. Vortigern is restored as king and the Saxons return. Hestings returns with a great army and states that there should be peace between the Saxons and the Britons. During the gathering to make a truce, the Saxons kill the Britons who are unarmed. Hestings now has power over Vortigern and takes over cities such as London and York. Vortigern flees to Wales where he tries to build a fortress to defend himself against the Saxons. Unfortunately, every wall he builds, sinks into the soil. His spiritual guiders claim that the only solution is to sprinkle the stones of the fortress with the blood of a certain boy. Messengers search the country to find the human offer. Finally, in Carmarthen, they find a boy whose mother claims to have had intercourse with a man who is immortal. The boy has the name Merlin. Merlin is able to save his life, by showing the king that his walls are sinking into the soil because there is an underground lake. The lake is drained and then something happens. As Vortigern sits upon the bank of the drained pond, two dragons, one of which is white, the other red, appear. Approaching one another, the dragons begin a terrible fight, and 8

cast forth fire with their breath. But the white dragon has the advantage, and makes the other fly to the end of the lake. And he, for grief of his flight, renews the assault upon his pursuer, and forces him to retire. After this battle of the dragons, the king commands Ambrose Merlin to tell him what it portrays. Upon which he, bursting into tears, delivers what his prophetical spirit suggested to him, as follows:

The fighting dragons at Dinas Emrys, Lambeth Palace Library, London. 10

Woe to the red dragon, for his banishment hasteneth on. His lurking holes shall be seized by the white dragon, which signifies the Saxons whom you invited over; but the red denotes the British nation, which shall be oppressed by the white. Therefore shall its mountains be levelled as the valleys, and the rivers of the valleys shall run with blood. The exercise of religion shall be destroyed, and churches be laid open to ruin. At last the oppressed shall prevail, and oppose the cruelty of foreigners. For a boar of Cornwall shall give his assistance, and trample their necks under his feet. The islands of the ocean shall be subject to his power, and he shall possess the forests of Gaul. The house of Romulus shall dread his courage, and his end shall be doubtful. He shall he celebrated in the mouths of the people and his exploits shall be food to those that relate them. Six of his posterity shall sway the sceptre, but after them shall arise a German worm. He shall be advanced by a sea-wolf, whom the woods of Africa shall accompany. Religion shall be again abolished, and there shall be a translation of the metropolitan sees. The dignity of London shall adorn Dorobernia, and the seventh pastor of York shall be resorted to in the kingdom of Armorica. Menevia shall put on the pall of the City of Legions, and a preacher of Ireland shall be dumb on account of an infant growing in the womb. It shall rain a shower of blood, and a raging famine shall afflict mankind."11 The above is known as Merlins prophecy and actually states that because of Vertigerns actions in the past, the Saxons have the upper hand in the battle. However, times will change in favour of the Britons. Merlin also says to Vortigern that his end is near, since the rightful princes of Britain, Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther are on their way to Britain. After their arrival, Aurelius is crowned king. Vortigern and his army entrench in a castle in Mommouth. Aurelius goes after him and sets fire to the castle, with Vortigern in it. Aurelius is also able to defeat the Saxons, take capture of Hengist and sentences him to death. In the end, Aurelius is poisoned by one of Vortigerns sons.

10 11

GRAHAM, P., Merlin, the man behind the myth, internet, 2008-06-07, (http://www.grahamphillips.net/Merlin/merlin2.htm). X., Geoffrey of Monmouth Historia Regum Brittaniae The prophecy of Merlin, internet, 2007-11-01, (http://www.caerleon.net/history/geoffrey/prophecy1.htm).

Uther Pendragon, his brother, takes over the throne. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Pendragon means either dragonhead or most important leader. It is in this period, that the history of Arthur takes start. Uther falls in love with Ygerna, the beautiful wife of Gorlois, duke of Cornwall. Gorlois notices the love of Uther for his wife, and leaves the royal court together with his wife. Uther feels offended and demands Gorlois and his wife to come back. They refuse and Uther marches with his army up to the land of Cornwall. Meanwhile, Gorlois sends his wife to Tentagel Castle. Uther is able to surround Gorlois and his troupes. With the magical help of Merlin, Uther transforms himself into Gorlois and goes up to Tentagel Castle. Here, Ygerna gets pregnant and after retaining his own appearance, Uther marries Ygerna. A child is born; Arthur. After Arthurs birth, Uther reigns for another fifteen years, but it is clear that the Saxons are still a danger for Britain. Yet again, they poison the king of Britain. Even though Arthur is only fifteen years old, he is crowned the new king of Britain. He starts a new offensive against the Saxons. Eventually, this leads to their destruction. Their field artillery was the most difficult to defeat, but after three battles, one by the river Douglas, one near Lincoln and one in Caledon Wood in Scotland, the Saxons surrender. They promise to leave Britain, but do not keep word and try to deceive Arthur by landing in Devon. Here, Arthur fights them once more on a hill near the city of Bath. Arthur takes away all power from the remaining Saxons in Britain and he goes after the Picts and the Scots. They flee to the islands of Loch Lomond, where there are starved until they vow submission. Arthur restores peace in Britain, makes sure that there is a stable government and takes measures to give the Britons back what they have lost during battle. For this, he is loved by the people. He marries Guinevere, a woman from Roman origin. Now, Arthur is ready to expand his land. He starts to go on foreign expeditions. Ireland is one of his conquests, since it has helped the Picts and the Scots. Twelve peaceful years follow. Arthur not only wants to expand his land, he also wants to expand his kingdom. Men from other kingdoms are invited to the royal court. Here, the idea of the knights of the Round Table takes form. In Caerlion, Arthur holds a juristic court. Here, a lot of sport manifestations and tournaments take place. During one of these festivities, Roman descanters come with the complaint that the British did not pay their contribution and that they had conquered Roman land in Gallia. The Roman procurator, Lucius Hiberius, now demands his immediate submission. Arthur decides to defend himself, together with his knights. He leaves his nephew, Mordred in charge of Britain, and goes to Gallia with an enormous army. After a vicious battle, Arthur defeats Lucius and sends his body to Rome; as a sign that Britain will never make a contribution again. Now, Arthur wants to go further and conquer the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, he is told that Mordred has betrayed him and that he has tried to convince the queen to commit adultery. Arthur returns home, only to find that in his absence, Mordred has made a agreement with the Saxon leader Cheldric. As a result, Arthur and Mordred find themselves in a battle. Eventually, Mordred gets killed, but the price is high; Arthur has a fatal wound. He is brought to the island Avalon where his wounds will be taken care off. His nephew, Gawain is now crowned king.12 Geoffrey of Monmouth never gave an answer to where the island Avalon, where Arthur died of in injuries, is situated.

12

SCHOLLEN, E., VALVEKENS, M., Koning Arthur: Legende of werkelijkheid, eindwerk KHLeuven (onuitg.), 91 paginas.

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3 Arthur: A king from the past into the present

King Arthur and the myth concerning it has changed throughout centuries. Although the legend begins in the 5th century, it was not until the 12th century that someone wrote it down. That someone was Geoffrey of Monmouth, who told about King Arthur and his knights in one of the many stories in his Historia Regum Brittaniae. In the 15th century, Sir Thomas Malory decided to write down Morte dArthur, a book where the (romantic) story of King Arthur and his knights was told. And now, in the 21st century, we are still talking about this great king thanks to movies such as Indiana Jones, Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Camelot and even The sword in the stone by Disney. Years and decades have past and the legend still exists. Or does it? Sure, the basic elements of the legend stayed, but what about the characters and some of the magical objects? Female characters of the myth, such as Morgan le Fay and the Lady of the Lake have undergone a change, thanks to the Cistercians. These Christian monks did not only transform these women into real vixens, but they also brought some extras into the legend; the quest for the Holy Grail is just one of them. It is my belief that the legend has been moulded by whoever had some kind of benefit from it. Ancient British kings, the Cistercians and even the Nazis have tried, and succeeded most of the times, to use the legend for their own benefit. I feel that one must know the evolution which the characters and magical objects have undergone, before one can investigate if and where King Arthur existed. Here, I have discussed the evolution of Merlin, queen Guinevere, the Holy Grail, Excalibur and so on.13

3.1

King Arthur
we will have Arthur unto our king, for we all see that it is Gods will that he shall be our king, and who that holdeth against it, we will slay him (Morte dArtur Sir Thomas Malory)14

Medieval French tapestry; King Arthur and knights

How to explain the promotion of the obscure army man Arthur to one of the greatest heroes in literature of all time? Although one can connect the dominant role of the Arthurian stories in the Dark Ages with the craft and imagination of storytellers and
13 14

DAY, D., Koning Arthur, het ontstaan van een mythe, Atrium in opdracht van ICOB B.V., Alphen, 1995, 176 paginas. MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/le-mort-darthur.php).

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poets, it has a lot more to do with the political and social circumstances of that time. The story of King Arthur underwent a drastic transformation in order to adjust it to the political needs of the time it was written in. To understand how and why this happened, one must go back to the eldest documents concerning King Arthur. In the 9th century, the adventures of King Arthur were spread throughout Europe by bards. It was only until the 12th century that the first biography of King Arthur was written down. The tale of Arthur was just one of the many stories written down in Historia Regum Brittaniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Nowadays, the Historia Regum Brittaniae seems to be an astonishing fantasy story; which source was used for example to justify the bizarre invasion in Britain by the 160000 men of the African king Gormund? What is even more bizarre is the fact that Historia Regum Brittaniae is one of the most influential books in European history. The content was used to justify wars, while the biography of King Arthur was used by practically every British king as a proof for his or her right for the throne. Moreover, during 5 centuries, it has also been the legal base for the battle between France and England. Arthur seems to be a cyclone that constantly changes shape. The figure Arthur, if he ever existed, is practically never doubted. To many people he still exists and that will never change. However, I have chosen to take a closer look and to investigate whether Arthur really existed and which elements of the legend are true. My findings can be found in chapter 4; Separating facts from fiction.

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3.2

Merlin
and Merlin came unto Arthur, and counselled him to follow them no further (Morte dArtur Sir Thomas Malory)15

Merlin and Vivien, by Gustave Dor 19th century16

The presence of Merlin can be felt throughout Arthurian literature. He is said to be the greatest of all magicians and fortune tellers and to King Arthur, he was the main counsellor and strategist on all fields; from love to war. He was the founder of the Round Table and the builder and protector of Camelot. He was half human and half devil. Even though he was immortal, he could feel and fail just as mortals. He could do magic, change appearance, fly, be invisible and call out monsters. With time, poets from Brython used the word Clas Myrdin or Merlins garden as a synonym for Britain. Knowing this, it is not strange that Merlin eventually is associated with the place that holds the history of the ancient Britons; Stonehenge. This legend takes place shortly before Arthur is born. According to Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Brittaniae, the building of Stonehenge happened during the reign of Aurelius Ambrosius. Aurelius wanted to build a monument in memory of the massacre of the Britons during the historic gathering with the Saxons. Merlin told him about an Irish hill where, in ancient times, gigantic stones from Africa were brought and put in a circle. The king wanted to transfer these stones to Britain, with the purpose of becoming the monument. The labourers were not able to lift the stones. It was Merlin who was able to break up the circle and ship the stones to Britain, thanks to his magic. In Britain, he built the same formation as on Salisbury Plain and that is how Stonehenge was created.

Stonehenge
15 16

MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/le-mort-darthur.php). GRAHAM, P., Merlin, the man behind the myth, internet, 2008-06-07, (http://www.grahamphillips.net/Merlin/merlin2.htm).

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This is just one of the stories about Merlin, which still lives on today. But did this figure of the imagination had anything to do with the warlord, the historic Arthur? Was there ever an historic person who could be identified with Merlin? Unfortunately, the answer is both yes and no. In many perspectives, Merlin is a creation of Geoffrey of Monmouth. His first book Prophetiae Merlini or Prophecies of Merlin was written in 1130. The big success of this book made Geoffrey of Monmouth write these stories in his Historia Regum Brittaniae. In this book, Merlin is some kind of deus ex machine in the lives of Vortigern Aurelius and Uther Pendragon. At the end of his life, Geoffrey of Monmouth writes a Latin poem about the life of the magician; Vita Merlini or The life of Merlin. This poem is full of fantasy, but it is not all a product of the imagination. Geoffrey of Monmouth used a lot of sources, some of which are very ancient Welsh stories. At least two Welsh characters can be the base of Merlin. The first one is the legendary Myrddin Emrys or Merlin Ambrosius, who was the supernatural fortune teller Vortigern counselled in the story of The Red Dragon and the White Dragon. The second one is the historic Myrddin ap Morfyn or Merlin Celidonius (also known as Merlin the Wild); a bard who became insane and fled to the forest where he lived together with the wild animals. One must know that neither of them were a magician, since this concept is typical for the Dark Ages. We do not know much about Merlin Ambrosius, except that he was present during the fight between the Red Dragon and the White dragon. Some claim that this figure does not have any kind of historical base, since he is often identified with the young Ambrosius Aurelianus, an amalgamation that makes the whole story a bit dubious. Merlin the Wild, however, is a figure of which is known a lot more about. Together with Taliesin and Aneirin, he was one of the three famous bards of the ancient Britons. Unfortunately, it can not be the historic Merlin the Wild (ca. 540-630) who is talked about in the stories of King Arthur (ca. 470-540), but it is the legendary Merlin Ambrosius (ca. 450-540) who makes a chance. One must keep this in mind, together with the fact that Merlin and Arthur were not put together in one story before the 12th century. When Sir Thomas Malory wrote this Morte dArthur in the 15th century, Merlin had taken on his role of supernatural magician-mentor, and he has never left it. The publication of Idylls of the King by Alfred Lord Tennyson during the 19th century affirmed Merlins status as archetypical wizard. During the 20th century, thousands of variations on Merlin appeared, both in books, movies and TV-productions. The more original ones are the Merlins from The Once and Future King by T.H. White and from The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien. The Merlin in Whites movie is some kind of eccentric, scattered Oxford-professor. It is a comical fool who lives both back- and forwards in time, but most of the time does not know where he is. As a consequence, there are many anachronisms. This character was the ideal base for the Disney-adaptation in the cartoon The Sword in the Stone.

Merlin in The Sword in the Stone, Disney

14

Tolkiens wizard has the name Gandalf and seems to resemble Odin, more than he resembles the Merlin of White. At first, he appears as Gandalf the Grey, an amusing and wise wizard, who has strong human characteristics. However, during the story, Gandalf the Grey dies and relives as Gandalf the White, who has the allure of a god. He does not have his human side anymore, but seems to be a supernatural power. In the world of movies, Merlin truly lives for- and backwards; on the one hand he is a 5th century-old druid in Excalibur by John Boormans, and on the other hand he is the base for the most famous Merlin-figure of our days: the intergalactic magician Obi-wan Konobe from Star Wars by George Lucas. Here, Obi-wan Konobe takes on the role as mentor for the young Luke Skywalker and he teaches him how to work with the Force. He also guides him to his destiny as heroic battler and eventually reveals Lukes history. However, he cannot be there all the time; to defeat the evil Darth Vadar, it is necessary for Obi-wan to sacrifice himself. Physically he is not there any more, but he is never really gone because he lives on in Luke. The same happens with Merlin. In some versions of the story, he just disappears. But in most stories, he is victim of his own magic because he lets himself get seduced by the Lady of the Lake or by Morgan le Fay. Captured, but never dead, he lives on in another dimension where he can watch and steer the events on earth, but he cannot participate. Mortals are able to hear him, but not to see him. His wise guidance is available for whoever asks for it.

15

3.3

Morgan le Fay
and Morgan le Fay sent it me yesterday by a dwarf, to this intent, that I should slay King Arthur, her brother. King Arthur is the man in the world that she most hated. (Morte dArthur Sir Thomas Malory)17

Morgan le Fay, by Anthony Frederick Sandys 1864 (Birmingham Art Gallery)18

Maybe Merlin was the greatest supernatural power behind Arthur, in the Arthurian world there were also other mystic powers with important impact on the myth. Merlins power was based on the tradition of male spirits, but the tradition of female spirits goes further back in time. These spirits were able to enchant and to play with illusions, as well as a great magician could. In the Arthurian world, the most dangerous enemies had the most incredible appearances. The brave knights who had killed giants, wizards and even dragons, became prey to the weak maidens. These maidens who looked weak and vulnerable at first sight, became the downfall of the knights; they were sorceresses who practiced black magic. They seduced the knights with their almost unnatural beauty and they loved keeping the knights from their duties and corrupting them. Few knights were able to fight of the temptations. For most knights the temptation of a fair maiden meant imprisonment, humiliation, torture, madness and in some cases even death. The greatest and most famous female wizard of all was Morgan le Fay, the half-sister of Arthur, daughter of Gorlois and Igraine. Where Merlin was the protector and counsellor of King Arthur, Morgan le Fay was the goddess of revenge and a real tormentor of Arthur. Her main goal was to destroy and bring down the kingdom of Arthur. Morgan le Fay first appears in the myth written in the 12th century by Geoffrey of Monmouth. When one takes a look at Historia Regum Britaniae, it is remarkable that she is not portrayed as a wicked witch, but rather as a healer, who had nothing to do with black magic. In fact, she was the leader of the Nine Magical Sisters from Avalaon,
17 18

MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/le-mort-darthur.php). X., Morgan le Fay, internet, 2008-05-06, (http://www.answers.com/topic/morgan-le-fay).

16

who took care of Arthurs wounds after the fatal battle of Camlann. In this story, she is not the sister of Arthur, but a woman who falls in love with him. Towards the end of the 12th century, authors of the Arthur-novels transformed Morgan in the sister of Arthur, but she still remained good-hearted. However, not even one hundred years later, she is the epiphany of an evil woman. So where does this transformation come from? Monks, and to be more precise, the Cistercians, were the main cause of her downfall. The monks of this order did not just pray and study. They were also determined to reform every novel into religious allegories and by doing so, showing the superiority of the spirit over any earthly action of mankind. The one thing that surely had to disappear, was any sign of the fleshly sins. Unfortunately, the Cistercians saw healing or prophetic powers in the hands of a woman, not being a member of a religious order, as a blasphemy. In their Prose-Lancelot, Morgan le Fay became a woman possessed by the devil, adultery and incest. However, the Cistercians and especially the authors of the Prose-Lancelot were not the only reason for the bad characteristics of Morgan. Much older sources helped creat the evil side of Morgan le Fay. Almost every woman in Camelot was based on the heathen queens, sibyls, goddesses and priestesses who, in pre-Christian times, had supernatural powers. This did not mean, however that these powers were all healing and prophetic. Especially the Celts and the Germans were familiar with priestesses that practiced black magic and wanted human sacrifice. They were known as the Angels of Death.19 Apart from these mythical predecessors, one can also find clues when taking a look at her name. Many languages know a fata Morgana as an illusion for men at sea or in the desert, to lure them into their downfall. Welsh people know a fata Morgana as an illusion of a palace that is seen in the air by the island Anglesey. Knowing this, one can link the name Morgan le Fay with the Welsh word for sea; mor. Sea nymphs are mor-forwynm and mermaids are morgans. Maybe, in the old ages, Morgan le Fay was seen as some kind of sea nymph who seduced men at sea to draw them to the bottom of the ocean. The character and personality of Morgan le Fay has undergone a lot of transformations; goddess, healer, sister, lover, intriguer, seducer and goddess of vengeance. There is no doubt that the Cistercians have blemished her in an evil and irreparable way. However, it is one way to look at the Cistercians as destroyers of the real Morgan, but maybe it is not impossible to be grateful in a way for the way they brought her down. Now, one can really get to know the paranoid, medieval world where men had the power to change literature. And apart from the fact that it is interesting to look at it from a historical point of view, let us not forget that they created maybe one of the most complex and fascinating women of medieval literature.

19

MACHIELS, M., VALGAERTS, E., De Keltische erfenis, Stichting Mens en Kultuur Gent, 1998, 317 paginas.

17

3.4

The lady of the lake

and this is why I sojourn here Alone and palely loitering, Though the sedge is withered from the lake, And no birds sing (La Belle Dame Sans Merci 19th century poet John Keats)20

Lady of the Lake, by Lancelot Speed 21st century21

Among the dozen enchantresses of Camelot, there was only one who could take on Morgan le Fay: the Lady of the Lake. This elusive seductress is also known as Vivien, Viviane, Niniane or Nimue. She is also the one who gave Excalibur to King Arthur. She was born in the magical world beneath her beloved lake and she was a wild, but beautiful spirit who later became Merlins most loved pupil. Later on, she would entrap her master in an enchantment which robbed Camelot from his mightiest protector. After the disappearance of Merlin, she became King Arthurs most important advisor and protector of Camelot. Her role as advisor of Arthur varies from story to story. In some tales, she is more like a fulltime bodyguard of Arthur, rather than a protector. In other stories, she spends most of her time keeping off Morgan le Fays black magic and evil spells, including some direct attacks on Arthurs life. The Lady of the Lake is, just as Morgan le Fay, a complex figure that has elements from all kinds of traditions. One can find references to the ancient Celtic goddesses of the water who lived in holy sources, lakes, rivers and caves. To reach their domain, one was bound to go through or over water. Their palaces, magical buildings made from ivory and gold, were to be found in a deep lake or river, or sometimes even in the waves of the sea. The Welsh folklore knows two main spirits of the water; the Tylwyth Teg and the Gwagged Annwn. Both spirits have a pale skin and an unnatural beauty. On the outside, there is one main difference: the Tylwyth Teg have dark hair, the Gwagged Annwyn have
20 20

DAY, D., Koning Arthur, het ontstaan van een mythe, Atrium in opdracht van ICOB B.V., Alphen, 1995, 176 paginas.

18

blond hair. Beautiful as they were, the Tylwyth Teg were to be avoided because they kidnapped babies and adults for what could be seven to one hundred years long. The Gwagged Annwyn were good-natured and often married human men, which had as a consequence that their children were often gifted with magical powers. Knowing this, one can link Morgan le Fay with the Tylwyth Teg and the Lady of the Lake with the Gwagged Annwyn. However, good in the magical world does not necessarily mean good in the human world. Even the good spirits showed behaviour that was a bit hard to follow from time to time. The Lady of the Lake may have given Excalibur to Arthur and she may have protected Camelot and the King, but she also was part of Arthurs downfall by letting Merlin disappear. One had to be very careful with spirits such as the Lady of the Lake; what they gave with one hand, they took back with the other.

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3.5

Excalibur
and then he threw the sword as far into the water as he might; and there came an arm and an hand above the water and met it, and caught it (Morte dArthur Sir Thomas Malory)22

Sir Bedivere returns Excalibur to the Lake by Aubrey Beardsley23

The sword Excalibur was a gift from the Lady of the Lake to King Arthur. The blade was unbreakable and could slay through steel and stone without becoming blunt. During battle, it shone like a torch and whenever Arthur wore it, he was invincible. The sheath had jewels all over it and possessed a magical power that prevented the knight, that had the sword, to become wounded. Many people think Arthur drew Excalibur out of the anvil, but this is untrue. According to the legend, this sword got broken in half during a duel with King Pellinore. Only because Merlin intervened by freezing King Pellinore, was Arthur able to get away alive. After this, Merlin took Arthur with him to see the Lady of the Lake, where Arthur would get Excalibur. The odd thing is that there is no recollection of a sword, that King Arthur received from the Lady of the Lake, in the oldest legends and myths of Camelot and King Arthur. In these versions of the story, Arthur has a sword named Caliburn (Caledfwich in Welsh). This name means flashing sword. The name Excalibur comes from the first French versions of the Arthurian legend where authors changed the Celtic name Caliburn to Excalibur, which had a more French sound to it. It was only in the Arthurian novels of the 12th century that Excalibur became a gift from the Lady of the Lake. It is very likely that this legend had his origin in myths and traditions, much older than the Arthurian stories. Of course Arthur was not the only hero with an invincible sword. In the time of French romances of chivalry, almost every king had a sword with magical powers; the sword of Charlemagne was Joyeuse, the Spanish epic hero El Cid had a sword named Tizona, Holger Dansk, Denmarks national hero had Courtain and the east gothic hero Dietrich

22 23

MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/le-mort-darthur.php). HUNT, P., Celtic Iron Age Sword Deposit and Arthurs Lady of the Lake, internet, 2008-06-06, (http://traumwerk.stanford.edu/archaeolog/2008/02/celtic_swords_and_arthurs_lady.html).

20

von Berne fought with Mimung. All these swords had the same source as Excalibur; a blacksmith that is also some kind of fairy, who has as many names as there are legends. In the beginning of the 13th century Excalibur, as gift from the Lady of the Lake, was considered common. The story about Excaliburs restoration after the final battle also appears during these years. In the oldest versions of the myth, King Arthur asks the knight Girflet to throw Excalibur into an enchanted puddle. This knight will later be identified with Galahad, Parsifal and even Lancelot, but the most common will be Sir Bedivere (as is written in Morte dArthur by Sir Thomas Mallory). The restoration of the sword usually is explained as a symbol for acknowledging defeat and it is also an emblem for death. The value that Arthur links with the restoration of Excalibur however, is very specific. It is some kind of offer or votive gift that is part of an ancient ritual; the offering of the sword to a goddess of a holy source of a holy lake.

21

3.6

The Round Table, his knights and Camelot

and then the king established all his knights, and to them that there were lands not rich, he gave them land Unto this were all the knights sworn of the Round Table, both old and young (Morte dArthur Sir Thomas Malory)24

The Round Table and the Holy Grail, by Gaultier Bridgeman Art Library25

The principal knights26

SIR KAY: He grew up with Arthur and is one of his earliest and most loyal companions. During a tournament, Kay asks Arthur to bring him a sword. Because of this demand, Arthur pulls the sword out of the anvil, what will make him the rightful king of Britain. SIR LANCELOT: Lancelot helped Arthur to achieve a lot of victories, but he is also one of the reasons of Arthurs downfall since he has an affair with queen Guinevere. This love will eventually destroy the fellowship of the Round Table. SIR BEDIVERE: He is the only knight to survive the battle of Camlann, the final battle between King Arthur and his knights, and Sir Mordred. In the end, Arthur asks Bedivere to throw the sword Excalibur back into the lake, to give it back to the Lady of the Lake. The first two times, Bedivere lies about having it thrown back, but Arthur sees through these lies. The third time, Bedivere does what he is asked to do. SIR BORS: One of the most important knights during the quest for the Holy Grail. SIR GAWAIN: He is King Arthurs nephew. In Historia Regum Brittaniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth, Sir Gawain is crowned king after the departure of King Arthur to the island Avalon. In Morte dArthur by Sir Thomas Mallory, he dies in the battle of Camlann.

24

25 25

MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/le-mort-darthur.php). PITKIN GUIDES (red.), King Arthur, Pitkin, Hampshire, 2004, 29 paginas.

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SIR GALAHAD: He represents the perfect knight; his courtesy, purity and strength are legendary. Together with Sir Bors, he is one of the most important knights during the quest for the Holy Grail. SIR PERCEVAL: He is the hero of the Grail quest. SIR MORDRED: According to the Historia Regum Brittaniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth, he is the illegitimate son of King Arthur and his half-sister, Morgan le Fay. Sir Mordred destroyed the fellowship of the Round Table at the battle of Camlann. During this battle, he himself gets killed by King Arthur, but not without wounding Arthur. Whatever the story is of whoever tells it; Mordred always represents the figure of evil.

Camelot and the Round Table

Where Excalibur was the ideal sword, the ideal place was Camelot; the kingdom of Arthur. This medieval Utopia was a place where King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table had complete control. The impressive walls and the white towers of Camelot, were a beacon of light in the barbaric countries who were at war. Camelot was an idyllic domain where rightful laws and strong, devote knights had the upper hand. However, most of the Arthurian adventures happened outside Camelot. The kingdom itself is barely talked about in the Arthurian texts. If Camelot really was a Utopia, then we should also take into account that the Greek word Utopia actually means no place. As for many things from the Arthurian myth, the character and location of Camelot changes depending on the time in which the author lived. The Camelot we know, seems to be invented by the French romancers at the end of the 12th century, while there is no British region of that time that could claim this mythical kingdom. Carlisle in Cumbria, Camelon in Scotland, Chester in the Midlands, Caerleon in Wales, Camelford in Cornwall, Cadbury Castle in Somerset, none can measure up. At the end of the 13th century, Winchester Castle in Wessex was acknowledged as the place where the real Camelon had been. And the castle had a strong argument for this acknowledgment; the Round Table itself, which one can still find on the wall of the Great Hall. This oak table is the most famous of the Arthurian relics. Unfortunately, it is a medieval forgery. Forensic investigation proved that the wood, which the table is made of, has been cut around the year 1250. In other words; seven centuries too late.

The Round Table on the wall of the Great Hall of Winchester Castle. Early 14th century, repainted in 1522. 27

27

PITKIN GUIDES (red.), King Arthur, Pitkin, Hampshire, 2004, 29 paginas.

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It was originally made for Edward I (1239-1307) to prove the connection between the British royal family and King Arthur. Nowadays, it is still a symbol for the monarchy. So what about the motive for the Round Table? The Round Table itself is first mentioned in literature of French translators and poets from the second half of the 12th century. In these days, fifty people were able to sit around it and the differences in rank and influence between the knights did not exist anymore. It stimulated equality between the knights. However, the Round Table is also a perfect literary steppingstone. Each story, each lesson with his morals, can be put into the Arthurian cycle, as long as the narrator chooses or creates a knight for his story. Because of this, many knights became part of the Round Table and, inevitably, part of Arthurian literature to illustrate a certain story. Knights such as Sir Lancelot, Sir Galahad and Sir Bors were invented to portray lessons in chivalry or to personalise the quest for the Holy Grail. Other knights, such as Sir Kay, Sir Bedivere and Sir Gawain, descended from old Celtic heroes. Kay, Bedivere and Gawain respectively came from the Celtic rivergod Kai, the god of war Bedwyr and the Hercules figure Gwalchmai. The stories of the knights of the Round Table had one great purpose: to show the goodness of chivalry. The knights were living examples of the code; the obligation of chivalrous behaviour during times of war and peace. It was a sincere attempt of Christian warriors to use their power and privileges for the benefit of the people. The fall of Camelot could be blamed on several conspiracies, but it is because of this downfall that the memory of Camelot is still so very much alive.

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3.7

Guinevere and Lancelot

Then came forth a lady that hight Dame Brisen, and she said unto the king: Sir, wit ye well Sir Launcelot loveth no lady in the world but all only Queen Guenever (Morte dArthur Sir Thomas Malory)28

Illustration from a manuscript, 15th century29

Sir Lancelot is also known as Lancelot du Lac or Launcelot. He is one of the knights of the Round Table. Although Lancelot has a great part in most victories of King Arthur, he is also the main reason for Arthurs downfall; he and queen Guinevere have an affair which not only destroys the unity of the court, but also makes Arthur sentence his wife to death. For the modern public, Camelot is the decor for one of the worlds most beautiful love stories; the love triangle between King Arthur, queen Guinevere and Sir Lancelot. Nowadays, it seems that the tormented lovers always have been a crucial element in the story of King Arthur and Camelot, but this is not true. In fact, this element appears rather late in the development of the story. The 15th century epos in prose by Sir Thomas Malory; Morte dArthur made sure that this aspect had a central position in the Arthurian tradition that we know today. Here, all themes that are typical for Arthurian romances are present; unstoppable love, loyalty and fear for betrayal. The theme of love that destroys does not belong to the core of ancient Arthurian tradition, but originates from a series of (incompatible) historic traditions. In Historia Regum Brittaniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth, Arthur is married to queen Ganhumara, the beautiful daughter of a rich Roman family. Ganhumaras main contribution to the story is her adulterous affair with the nephew of her husband; the treacherous Mordred. The name Guinevere first appears at the end of the 12th century in the French novel Lancelot by Chrtien de Troyes. Here, she evolves from a minor character to one of the main characters. Chrtien de Troyes portrays queen Guinevere as
28 29

MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/le-mort-darthur.php). X., Lancelot and Guinevere, internet, 2008-06-05, (http://www.digischool.nl/ckv1/ckvdol/germaans/kelten.htm).

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a complicated woman, who often has a central role in the adventures of the knights of the Round Table. The more important his wifes role becomes, the less one can find King Arthur in the adventures. How and why queen Guinevere became more important than King Arthur is significant for the way authors projected their image of Camelot on their own society. From the middle of the 12th century, under the reign of king Henry II and queen Eleanor of Aquitania, the power of noble women increased. The European courts were controlled by strong, independent women and these women propagated literature, music, arts and romantic devotion of young knights. The medieval courts in the late 12th century and the 13th century were overall populated with well educated women, with knowledge of the Greek and Roman culture and full with medieval romantic ideals. The origin of many of the Arthurian novels can be traced back to Eleanor of Aquitania, her daughters and the other ladies of her court. And these women made sure that the female figures in the works that they financed had an important place in it. The literary tradition that Eleanor and her maids loved the most, was the tradition of the troubadours in the South-French Provence. These singers created the tradition of the romantic love; an irresistible force that made the lover more tender and noble and that made him do great actions. The romantic lover was to adore his lady and by doing so, make his love more admirable. The rules for the ideal romantic love were secured, just as the rules for a tournament and because of the romantic stories about the knights of the Round Table, one had the chance to admire the knightly actions and the courtly love. The Arthurian romantic literature promoted a new kind of knight: well-mannered, friendly, eloquent, reputable, brave, a gifted poet and musician, courteous and undefeated. In short; Lancelot. Just as the dangers of the love got a great part, Lancelot became the most popular of all the Arthurian characters. Indeed, he had betrayed his king by having an adulterous relationship with the queen, but this he had done without wanting to; he was driven by his passion. His dedication for Guinevere was absolute and for life. Each time it was Sir Lancelot who saved the queen. The character of queen Guinevere undergoes an amazing change after the French novels, such as the one written by Chrtien de Troyes. It took the clergy one century to take the popular story and make it their own. The Prose Lancelot was created by the Cistercians, who were hostile towards women. (These are the same monks that changed Morgan le Fay) In their hands, Guinevere became a frivolous queen who destroyed knights and betrayed her king and her country. The Cistercians also changed the character of Lancelot. He became a tormented adulterer who never got to find the Holy Grail because of his sins. Guinevere and Lancelot were destined to be each others greatest love, but they never got their happy ending, thanks to the Cistercians. In the Prose Lancelot right after their night together, Guinevere begins to sum up the consequences; the destruction of Camelot, the death of all noble knights, the death of the king and damnation of their own souls. The lovers separate for the rest of their lives. Guinevere goes into a monastery and Lancelot goes into solitary life. Years later, Lancelot has a dream where he sees Guinevere dying. Later, it is clear that the dream was real, since Guinevere died. In her last words, she asks the Lord never to see Lancelot again with her earthly eyes. The story of Lancelot and Guinevere had an impact on all of us, on our ideas about what love and romance should be.

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3.8

The search for the Holy Grail

And I will that ye wit that this same day shall the adventures of the Sangreal, that is called the Holy Vessel, begin (Morte dArthur Sir Thomas Malory)30

The Achievement of the Grail, by Edward Burne-Jones, 1894 (Museum and Art Gallery Birmingham)

In the Arthurian adventures, there is one assignment that is more important than any other: the quest for the Holy Grail (Sangreal) . The stories of the quest reached their height during the holy wars and the crusades. The Holy Grail changed over time; a dish, a cup, a vessel, a rock, a plate, a goblet or a cornucopia, but the status of the object was set during the 13th century. All kinds of powers have been assigned to the Holy Grail: healing and recovering powers the ability to communicate with God the ability to supply food immortality the ability to be visible for those who are worthy and to be invisible for those that are not.31

Some of the elements of the quest for the Holy Grail, can be traced back to the ancient Celtic stories. One of these tales is one of the oldest Celtic myths; the cryptic Welsh poem The treasures of Britain. Here, Arthur and his men go to the land Annwn. They discover a big castle of glass, that magically turns around on an island. In the heart of the castle they found the goal of their quest; a cornucopia which also seems to be a vessel of prophecy and inspiration. Arthur and his men try to take the vessel with them, but the risks are too high. Their quest fails. The search for a holy vessel has also been a motive in the Old-Irish legend of Dagda, a godlike giant. Dagdas vessel holds an inexhaustible supply of food, both in the mental and the physical meaning of the word. These vessels are, just as the cornucopia, symbols for the fertility rituals that almost every agrarian society had. At first, these heathen symbols had just a slight touch of Christianity in the early Arthurian myth. Later on, the

30 31

MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/le-mort-darthur.php). X., De geschiedenis van de Heilige Graal, internet, 2008-06-05, (http://www.geschiedenis.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=648&Itemid=17).

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Holy Grail became a Christian allegory. The Grail itself became a real Christian relic; it was always associated with the blood of Christ, but it could take on many shapes. The Cistercians already changed the character of Morgan le Fay, Sir Lancelot and queen Guinevere, but this is nothing in comparison with what they did for the quest for the Holy Grail. They were the ones who turned it around to an allegory about the Christian doctrine about mercy and redemption. The base for it all, were the theories of the Cistercian philosopher Bernardus of Clairvaux. The Cistercians used the legend of the quest for the Holy Grail as a way to propagate the ideals of the Templar Knights. These knights emphasized that the knights of the Round Table, as well as other knights, had the duty to wage war in the name of God, so they could prove their loyalty.

A Nazi gathering32

In the 20th century, even the Nazis searched for the Holy Grail. The German scientist Otto Rahn had a big part in all this. At some time, Hitler hired this man to integrate the story of the quest for the Holy Grail into the doctrine of the Nazis. Hitler and Himmler, the leader of the SS, had a passion for the occult. The castle Wewelsburg was transformed to become the centre of the occult world of the Nazis. After a while, Rahn refused to go any further since he felt that the quest for the Holy Grail was misused. For this, he died in a concentration camp. Nowadays, the mystery of the Holy Grail is still present. It seems to be a popular theme when seeing movies such as Indiana Jones, The Da Vinci code and even Monty Python and the Holy Grail. One must conclude that the search, the quest for the Holy Grail will never end.

32

X., De geschiedenis van de Heilige Graal, internet, 2008-06-05, (http://www.geschiedenis.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=648&Itemid=17).

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3.9

Avalon
comfort thyself, said the king, for in me is no further help; for I will to the Isle of Avalon, to heal me of my grievous wounds (Morte dArthur Sir Thomas Malory)33

The last sleep of Arthur in Avalon, by Edward Burne-Jones 1898 (Museum and Art Gallery Birmingham)

When King Arthur was fatally wounded in the battle of Camlan, he ordered his only surviving knight; Sir Bedivere, to throw the sword Excalibur into the lake again; in order to give it back to the Lady of the Lake. When Excalibur was caught and disappeared into the water, King Arthur knew that he had fulfilled his task. He knew that the end of his earthly grief was near. In the story by Sir Thomas Malory, Arthur leaves in a boat for his final resting-place; Avalon. The island Avalon has become an enchanted place; somewhere anything mysterious or magical can be found. Avalon is the source of ones inspiration and dreams. The name Avalon, Island of apples in Celtic, reveals something about her origin. It is an earthly paradise, a second Garden of Eden, but the main inspiration lies in Greek mythology. One can recognise a variant of the blessed islands, where the gardens of the Hesperidins were. The Hesperidins were the nine daughters of the Titan Atlas, who had to carry the arch of heaven. In their gardens were two main miracles to be found; a tree with golden apples and a source of nectar. These objects represented the universal wish of a married couple to live with good health and wealth. The tree and the source were so precious, that Zeus decided to keep it away from mortals. During the Renaissance many believed that islands such as the blessed islands really existed. Many adventurers tried to locate it. The Spanish discovered the cultures of Middle- and South-America, which was so full of gold, that some were convinced that they would also find the tree with the golden apples there. Geoffrey of Monmouths Life of Merlin contains one of the earliest descriptions of the island Avalon. It is said to be a island where the locals lived in peace, without any illness
33

MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/le-mort-darthur.php).

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and they all reached an age older than a hundred. Here, Arthur was taken to after the battle of Camlan. Geoffrey of Monmouth even gives the exact geographic location of Avalon; west of the Pillars of Hercules and through the Strait of Gibraltar. With this description, scientist claim that Avalon had to be one of the Canary Islands, and in particular the biggest; Gran Canaria. But of course, this is what just one magician claims. There have always been many suggestions on where Avalon is to be found. Names such as Anglesey, Tory Island, The island Man, Bardsey Island, Puffin Island, Iona Island, Gresholm, Aberystwyth, Gower, the Scilly Islands and the tower of Avallon have come up. One of the most popular locations is Glastonbury Tor, that once was an island of rocks surrounded by swamps before the land was made dry. It is said that is was an island full of apple trees and that is why it is called Inis Avalon by some. However, there is no real proof that Glastonbury Tor ever had the name Avalon. The discovery in 1190 of the grave and bones of King Arthur and queen Guinevere in Glastonbury Abbey, was some medieval publicity stunt by the monks of the abbey to lure pilgrims. By doing so, the monks got money, which they used to rebuild the abbey after a massive fire. The other historical documents that ever linked Glastonbury with the island of Avalon, were later on all unmasked as fake. In short; any connection between Glastonbury Tor and Avalon seems to be missing.

Glastonbury Abbey34

It is important to know that, in most legends, it is told that Arthur never died, but fell asleep. In Morte dArthur, Malory describes an ending that can be seen from two perspectives; the one where Arthur dies and the one where Arthur lives on. In Morte dArtur Arthur lives for eternity in Avalon and his body is buried in the mortal world. Arthur goes on a boat to Avalon, so his fatal wound can heal. But the same night Bedivere meets a hermit that mourns by a recently dug grave. The hermit tells him that by midnight, a few women came and paid him to burry a corpse. Bedivere assumes it is Arthur, but this is not sure. Wherever Avalon lies, popular belief is that there still is a kingdom of isles where King Arthur reigns. While we live in a world of chaos and rapid change, Arthur is said to be in a world where complete harmony and peace is. And whenever England will need him, Arthur will rise again.
34 GLASTONBURY TOWN COUNCIL, Glastonbury Abbey, internet, 2008-05-06, (http://www.glastonbury.gov.uk/g_gov/mod.php?mod=userpage&menu=3700&page_id=32&side_month=1201744800&PHPSE SSID=f2b3c73bea5cd185c3beefcb41e9c90b).

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Separating facts from fiction

At the end of the 5th century, strife and chaos was common in Britain. Civilisation was on the verge of collapse. The Romans began to leave and the Britons were on their own. Their world was falling apart and the people needed a hero. According to legend, the got one; King Arthur. He swept through the land as a Dark Age Superman. He was adored by his people and feared by his enemies. With the help of Merlin, he ruled his land from the legendary castle Camelot. Arthur had a 5th century blond bombshell at his side; queen Guinevere. He gathered his best knights and started the society of the Round Table. Together, they protected the land and they searched for the Holy Grail. Sounds a bit too good to be true? That is probably because it is. Decades have past and scientists are still searching for the truth. Many elements that seem to be mythology, have some kernel of truth. Here, I have summed up the evidence of existence and the three possible candidates for the historical person of King Arthur.

4.1

Evidence of (non)existence

A poem by Nennius
In the 9th century, it was the Welsh monk Nennius who wrote a poem (Historia Brittonum) about a band of tragic warriors. One of these warriors was Arthur. According to the words of Nennius Arthur meant leader of battle or Dux Bellorum. The most important battle in the poem was the battle of Mons Badonicus in the beginning of the 6th century. Arthur has a prominent role in this battle. Because of the fact that this battle really happened and had the consequence that the Saxons retrieved, there is a historical frame of reference one can base the Arthurian legend on.35

A page from Historia Brittonum by Nennius, 9th century36

However, based on this poem, one can make objections to some historical elements of the Arthurian myth.
35 36

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC (red.), Is it real? King Arthur, video, National Geographic Channel, Washington, 1996-2008. X., King Arthur, a man for the ages, internet, 2008-06-11, (http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/4186/Arthur/htmlpages/kingarthurfaq1.html).

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First of all, Arthur is only named in passing in this poem. It was written down during the Dark Ages, what is practically 300 years too late according to our historical frame of reference. There is no contemporary who has written down anything concerning the Arthurian legend. In other words, there is a gap of 300 years that needs to be filled. Not an easy task for historians. Second of all, plate armour was not around for almost 1000 years after Arthurs life. If King Arthur really lived in the 5th-6th century as our historical frame of reference tells us, than he and his knights would have worn leather patted armour. In the best case, he would have worn leftovers from Britains former rulers; the Romans. Thirdly, the castle Camelot, from where Arthur ruled over his kingdom has a different appearance than one might think. In fact, stone castle were not around in that time; it would be more like a wooden lodge. A bit less impressive than expected. Finally, the appearance of Arthurs trusty sword Excalibur is questioned. It would not have been a brood sword like the medieval knights had, it would have been a lot smaller. Also, during the 5th century a sword was not worn with the intension to fight with it, but rather as a symbol. In the 5th century, the kings were signified not by a crown like a medieval king, but by a special sword. in other words; Excalibur did not fulfil the role that is portrayed in the Arthurian legend.

The birthplace
Tintagel at the coast of Cornwall is said to be Arthurs birthplace. However, it was only in the 15th century version of the legend; Morte dArthur of Sir Thomas Malory that this place is mentioned. Almost 600 years after Arthurs death. Scientist have found the foundations of a castle in Tintagel, but these foundations only go back till the 13th century, not the 5th. However, recent findings have concluded that there was a royal court during the 5th century. Maybe this is a place where a great king was born? And yet, during a excavation in one of the final archaeological examinations, a piece of slate was found. This slate had some carvings in it; the letter ART. After careful examination, scientists concluded that the slave came from the correct period in time, but it would be more normal that the name these three letters represented was not Arthur but Arthnou. So unless we have named Arthur by the wrong name for centuries, it was not Arthur who had written these letters down.37

Tintagel Castle38

37 38

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC (red.), Is it real? King Arthur, video, National Geographic Channel, Washington, 1996-2008. ENGLISH HERITAGE, Tintagel Castle, internet, 2008-06-05, (http://www.englishheritage.org.uk/server/show/conMediaFile.2410).

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The grave
What about the other end of the Arthurian lifeline; his grave? According to legend, to find his grave, one has to find Avalon. As I have already mentioned in chapter 3, Glastonbury is voted most probable place for Avalon. In 1191, monks claimed that they had found a grave with two corpses in it; one fair headed female and male with a head injury. The monks spread the word that this was the grave of King Arthur. A leaden cross was also found. It had the text; Here lies the body of the famous King Arthur, buried at Avalon.39

A print of the leaden cross, said to be found in Tintagel Castle

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As one has read in chapter 3, these findings were all a hoax. The monks were in desperate need of money to restore their church. Years later, everything of the findings has disappeared, except for the print of the leaden cross. Based on this print, scientist were able to recover which letterform was used and by doing so, to recover the time in which this cross was made. Unfortunately, the C and the N are written in such a way that there is no other conclusion that this cross is made in a period after the 5th century.

39 40

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC (red.), Is it real? King Arthur, video, National Geographic Channel, Washington, 1996-2008. PITKIN GUIDES (red.), King Arthur, Pitkin, Hampshire, 2004, 29 paginas

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4.2

The three candidates

I have presented three possible candidates for the role of King Arthur. They all have their supporters and objectors. Although there is a counter-argument for each prove that these persons can be the real King Arthur, I feel that should be mentioned in this work. One will be amazed about the findings of the scientists and it is my opinion that the ongoing debate about who is suitable for the role, is an element that keeps the Arthurian mystery alive. In the end, it probably will be a combination of these three famous persons, created by poets and troubadours in the Middle Ages.

The Roman

Ambrosius Aurelianus during the Battle of Mons Badonicus

The first candidate is a mixture between two people; Ambrosius Aurelianus and Artorius Castus. As a Roman, Ambrosius Aurelianus stayed in Britain to defend his adopted people. However, during the battle of Mons Badonicus, he would have been 70 years old. In a time where men reached to each of 35, 40 years maximum, it is highly unlikely that he was King Arthur. Artorius Castus, which means Arthur in Latin, on the other hand was a Roman officer during the 2nd century. In other words, he is 400 years too young. According to Dr. Linda A. Malcor that is really a pity, since he is strongly associated with the King Arthur we know. Artorius Castus had a cavalry unit; the Sarmatians. They fought with the weapons and the equipment medieval knights would have used. They also flew a pendragon (dragon) banner when they went into battle. And to top it off; their legends tell about a man with an important sword and a water ritual. But of course; 400 years cannot be swept of the table.41

The high king

''In the High King called Riothamus we have, at last, a documented person as the starting point of the legend. He is the only such person on record who does anything Arthurian. Or to put it more precisely, he is the only one to whom any large part of the story can be related.'' (Geoffrey Ashe in an interview with the NY Times)42

41 42

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC (red.), Is it real? King Arthur, video, National Geographic Channel, Washington, 1996-2008. NOBLE WILFORD, J., A new theory points to model for King Arthur, internet, 2008-06-05, (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D04EFDE1638F93AA25750C0A963948260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted =all).

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Candidate number two is the Dark Age ruler; the high king. According to doctor Geoffrey Ashe, this high king was Riothamus. Historical documents have proven that his man lived in the right time. As King Arthur, Riothamus travelled to what now is known as France. King Arthur travelled with the purpose of conquering and protecting, Riothamus was in France for a rescue operation to help the Romans. For both men, it ended up in defeat and betrayal. Riothamus went to Burgundy after this betrayal, Arthur was fatally wounded and left to go to Avalon. What is remarkable, is the fact that during this period in time, there was a town called Avalon in Burgundy. Maybe this little town was the inspiration for the Arthurian Avalon? The only thing that does not seem to add up is Riothamus name. Dr. Geoffrey has an explanation. He states that Riothamus is not the name of this historical person, but his title. After all, Riothamus is the Irish word for high king. However, the theory that Riothamus is a job description is highly debated. Moreover, it seems that this Riothamus was not British. Some claim that he was not in France for a campaign, but just because he lived there. This would make more sense, since Burgundy is centred in France instead of being on the coasts. According to scientists, it is possible that this Riothamus was the real King Arthur, but they wonder if the he should not be a real Britain.43

The bear
The final candidate seems to be a 5th century king, who may have ruled one of the most important British cities of that time; Viroconium. This city together with London, Lincoln and York were the four most important cities. London, Lincoln and York all went down in their battle against the Saxons, but remarkably Viroconium triumphed. According to genealogies, the person who ruled over Viroconium around the year 500 was Owain Ddantgwyn. Both the time and place By just looking at the name, there seems to be no link with Arthur. However, it was very common for warriors in that time to have an animal name. This name symbolised their braveness in battle. Owain Ddantgwyn was known as the bear. The Welsh word for bear is arth and the Latin word is ursis. Together this is Arthursis; a clear link with King Arthur. Also, King Arthur is known as the once and future king This, of course, is according to legend, but maybe this also applies for a genealogic clue. Owain Ddantgwyn had a son, who on his turn married into a wealthy British family. The members of this family are the descendants of the Spencer family. The most famous one is Princess Diana. Her son; Prince William, second in line for the throne. Coincidental, his middle name is Arthur. All of this would make him the immediate descendant of King Arthur. A picture perfect one should think, but as I said there is a counter-argument for each candidate. Here, there is no hard evidence that the bear really was the animal name for Owain Ddantgwyn. In fact, it was his son who had this name and we are not sure that his father was given the same name.

43

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC (red.), Is it real? King Arthur, video, National Geographic Channel, Washington, 1996-2008.

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5 Bringing Arthur and his knights into the classroom

Drama is something that becomes more and more common in the classroom. Instead of just knowing the theory and getting a diploma, pupils are expected to develop their creativity and expression. A good evolution, since employers and society in general nowadays expect you to work in team, to be flexible and to be creative with certain problems. However, drama in the classroom usually means drama in the mother tongue. It is my opinion that drama should extent to the classes of foreign languages. Under the cover of games and plays, pupils learn new vocabulary, grammatical constructions and have the courage to speak in a foreign language. They learn about culture(s) in certain times while pretending to be Hamlet, queen Elisabeth or even King Arthur or one of his knights. I will try to give a guideline for teachers in English, to bring King Arthur and his knights into the classroom. The why?, how? and some examples will be explained below.

5.1

Choosing King Arthur and his knights

The Why?
Why should one choose to bring Arthur into the class? There are so many obvious choices such as Romeo and Juliet or Hamlet, but maybe they are too obvious. Getting into the world of Shakespeare is something pupils do when they are in their final two years of secondary school. And that is only when they are in a ASO school, not when their school is TSO or BSO. With the myth of King Arthur, it is possible to bring drama at an earlier stage into the class. Thanks to Disney and other institutions the myth was kept alive. Children and youngsters nowadays still know the story more or less and this makes it possible for them to enter the world of King Arthur. Most pupils will know the base of the myth and the rest can be told by the teacher. Depending on the emphasis one wants to lay as a teacher, the version changes of course. When one wants to stress the romantic story, I feel it is necessary to take Morte dArthur by Sir Thomas Malory as the base. When one wants to stress the story with all his battles and wars, it is necessary to concentrate on Historia Regum Brittaniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth.

Values for youngsters

When bringing a story into the class, I feel it is important to bring some values for the youngsters. As a teacher, you can choose whether you discuss these values with your pupils or if they will be kept hidden in the pupils plays. Here you can find some of the values that can be connected with the Arthurian tales and adventures. 44 The tension between good and evil All the characters are in this field of tension; one character better of worse than the other. The characters all have to choose which side they belong to. Youngsters today find themselves in a place where they have to make choices in values and morals. As a teacher, it is important to emphasis the grey tones in good and evil; it is not all black or white. In this theme, one can discuss the love triangle Arthur-Guinevere-Lancelot and
44

MICHIELS, K., Wat u nog niet wist van Koning Arthur en de Graal, KHLeuven, 1996-1997, 81 paginas.

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whether these people had a good or evil role in it. Learning how to nuance is very important here. Justice Arthur and his knights will do anything to prevent evil from succeeding. Therefore, their adventures have to go as righteous as can be. Accept for their adventures, this is also noticeable in the court of Camelot, where Arthur listens to everyones story and tries to make a fair decision. And of course, the theme justice is something that has an impact on youngsters. As a teacher, I feel that one can connect this theme with the judicial courts we know nowadays and the ongoing trials the pupils will read about in the papers. Discuss what their opinion is, how they would rule and how Arthur would rule in these cases. Love of ones fellow man For the quest of the Holy Grail or any other adventure, it was unthinkable that the goal could have been reached if there was just one knight. All the adventures and even the quest for the Holy Grail, were carried out as a group. It is of great importance to have friends and that one belong to some kind of could, if one does not want to grow lonely. The respect and friendship between the knights and between the knights and King Arthur, is something that surely can be discussed in the classroom, since pupils will definitely recognize themselves in this theme.

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5.2

From legend to lesson

Drama
It is my opinion that drama lessons are the way to go when transferring Arthur and his knights into the classroom. Drama has many functions which can benefit the pupils.45 Social function Drama activities can help make friendships and social contacts. It brings a note of fun into the lessons. Some say it is just playing, but I feel it is a kind of playing that is significant in the interaction with each other. We play to learn from and interact with each other. Creative function Drama is an excellent way to express a personal content with the emphasis on learning how to shape the own ideas. Learning how to express creativity is an important objective here. We play to express. Training function Drama is a way to prepare pupils for a new situation or to learn how to react differently in an existing situation. Since there is a level the pupils have to reach, one can name it training. Practice in independence, social skills and interview techniques are just a few examples in which drama has a role. We play to practice. Educative function In my opinion, drama can be used as a way to learn something about an aspect from the past, the present or the future. Without effort, pupils get to know about social connections and the course of some famous stories and legends. We play to learn. Formative function The development of the personal characteristics is something that really shows through drama. Each pupil can express the contents he or she finds important. We play to develop ourselves.

Warming-up exercises
In the corporate world, one has to think and be creative on the spot. One has to invent quick and solid solutions for given problems and improvisation is something that can help develop pupils into these people. Improvisation can also be a good warming-up exercise since the pupils know these games from TV-stations such as MTV and JIM tv. I have written down some of these games, so the pupils can get to know each other and drama and improvisation in general a bit better.46 Make it more interesting During this game, one of the pupils is asked to portray a simple situation, e.g. brushing his teeth or cooking some spaghetti. At first, this is obviously quit simple. However, during the progress the teacher will say Make it more interesting for several times and each time, a pupil from the classroom will add some adjustments of problems to the situation. E.g. the walls are on fire, the spaghetti sauce boils over,. This way, the actor-

45 46

VANE, S., Werken met drama, drama-activiteiten voor agogische beroepen, Nelissen B.V., Haarlem, 1998, 246 paginas. POPPE, T., Drama, een drama?, KHLeuven, 2000-2001, z.p.

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pupil will have to come up with solutions and by doings so, be more and more creative during his acting. The worst way to In this improvisation game, a number of pupils will have to stand in a line in front of the class. Both the pupils and the teacher will hand situations on which the players have to respond, but in the worst way possible. E.g. What is the worst possible way to tell someone he stinks, he is fired or what is the worst possible way to break up? The actorpupils in line step up when they know what to say and how to act this out. Different emotions This exercise has two parts. At first, you give random situations to the pupils, which they have to act out in pairs. These are some of the situations one can give to the pupils; - an old lady who asks a youngster to give up his seat for her in the bus - a guy proposes to his girlfriend - a teacher who has to tell a parent that his child will not graduate - In the first stage, the pupils will act out these situations in pairs, just by using improvisation. In the second part of the exercise, you as a teacher give each pair an emotion in which these situations have to be act out. E.g. surprised, nervous, shy, completely in love, angry,. Each pair will present their situation to the class.

The How?
Here, I have written down just a few examples in which drama can be used for the Arthurian legend. I have chosen not to make a complete lesson, since I feel that drama should be improvisation for the biggest part and it should not follow a perfect lesson plan from beginning till end. One can choose one or more of the forms given here to use in his or her lesson and even mix them up. Have fun! Tableau vivant During this technique, the pupils delineate a performance to make a living painting, a three-dimensional image. The essence of the story is transferred into an immovable scene, into episodes. This technique especially is suitable for beginning groups to shape a content and presenting it does not need that much guts. 47 There are two main ways to work with this technique:48 From imagination to posture. The actor-pupils confer with each member of their group how they imagine the scene and discuss it. They make a deal concerning the scene and their postures. After they have acted their scene out, it is up to the other pupils in the classroom and the teacher to indicate what has to be intensified and what has to be removed from the total image. From posture to interpretation. After a certain group has acted out their tableau vivant, the other pupils are asked what kind of emotions and attitudes the scene recalls. Here, associative thinking takes place.

Of course, these two ways can be used both separately as they can be used together.

47 48

POPPE, T., Drama, een drama?, KHLeuven, 2000-2001, z.p. VANE, S., Werken met drama, drama-activiteiten voor agogische beroepen, Nelissen B.V., Haarlem, 1998, 246 p.

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I feel that this technique can also be used for deducing. One group of pupils acts out a tableau vivant and the other pupils have to guess, have to deduce which scene of the story is acted out. As a teacher, you can also work with multiple tableaus and this way act out the whole story in a comic book kind of way. Taking pictures of each tableau and making a comic book of the class is very motivating and rewarding for the pupils. During my internship in the BSO school Don Bosco Groenveld, I have tried to make some kind of comic book, but here, the pupils were able to choose a story by themselves. I have enclosed one of these pages of the comic book as an example for other teachers. (enclosure 1) The characters in the Arthurian legend appeal to the imagination of the pupils. Therefore, I believe it can be perfectly incorporated in this technique. I have written down some of the scenes that would be suitable: - Arthur pulls the sword out of the stone - Arthur and Merlin create the Round Table and choose their knights - Guinevere and Lancelot fall in love - Arthur finds out that Guinevere and Lancelot are having an affair - Lancelot saves Guinevere from the death penalty - The duel between Arthur and Mordred - The search for the Holy Grail -

Pantomime To me, this technique goes one step further than tableau vivant. Here, there is still no sound, but the actor-pupils can move and mime. This technique is especially suitable for pupils who do not have a lot of courage, but who have a lot of imagination. One has to call on the imaginative powers of the actor. This technique can be used for the Arthurian situations given in tableau vivant. It can be made more interesting to follow when a storyteller guides the viewer through the performance of the pantomime.49

Radio play Where a tableau vivant has no sound, a radio play has no image. As a consequence, the voices of the pupils are of the greatest importance. During this technique, the pupils will be divided into groups, each with his own couple of scenes from a story. The pupils of each groups will have to write out the scene and divide up the roles. During all of this, they will have to come up with answers to these questions: - How can you personalise the characters by just using your voice? - How to make clear that there is a change in location? - How to make clear that there is a change in time? - Which sounds are going to be necessary? - Which music is going to be needed?50 In a radio play, it is of great importance that the pupils express themselves and the scene in a very concrete and specific way. Otherwise, it will not be clear for the listeners.

49 50

Janssens, L., Drama is de kunst, handboek voor dramadocenten, Uitgeverij IT & FB, Haarlem, 1998, 334 p. POPPE, T., Drama, een drama?, KHLeuven, 2000-2001, z.p.

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It is my opinion that this technique is an ideal assignment for a trimester, a semester or even a whole school year. After clarifying the technique, the teacher divides the pupils up into groups, each with their own scene. Throughout the year, they will get the chance to work on their radio play. There will be set moments to discuss their evolution. Not only will they have to act out their radio play at the end of the year, but they will also have to give an answer to the questions given above. Connected with the Arthurian legend, here is a more specific version of the questions. How can you personalise the characters by just using your voice? Arthur has a deep and low voice, Guinevere has a high voice, Lancelot has a rasping voice, Merlin speaks very slowly,

How to make clear that there is a change in location? The blare of trumpets for being in Camelot, The sound of talking men when being in the room with the Round Table and his knights, How to make clear that there is a change in time? By just telling it, owl sound for night, Which sounds are going to be necessary? the clatter of hoofs (maybe by using coconuts), the creeping of doors, the sound of owls, Which music is going to be needed? The blare of trumpets, mystic music in scenes where Merlin is present or makes his prophecies.

Theatre Stories that one wants to stage will have to be full of action and dialogues. But more importantly, they should have dramatic tension. The Arthurian legend is full of actions and witty dialogues, e.g. the search for the Holy Grail, the gatherings of the knights of the Round Table, the love triangle Arthur-Guinevere-Lancelot, the tension between good and evil,. Every good play has its climax, where the tension explodes, the main characters have their conflict or the emotions burst out.51 Depending the version of the Arthurian legend one takes (romantic version according to Sir Thomas Malory or the war version according to Geoffrey of Monmouth), the climax of the story the pupils act out, changes. I feel that techniques such as tableau vivant, pantomime and/or radio play can be a great preparation for the pupils before that start to act out a play. After all, these techniques are very suitable for pupils who are a bit timid, but have a lot of imagination. Here, in theatre, it is almost necessary that the pupils are in a more advanced stage. Of course, the pupils who do not want to perform, can be useful in griming, building the dcor and so on. Theatre is, as well as radio play, ideal for a trimester, semester or school year assignment. The pupils will get the chance throughout the year, to work and correct the play. As a teacher, it is of course necessary to control the evaluation and have set moments in which the pupils can come and ask questions.

51

POPPE, T., Drama, een drama?, KHLeuven, 2000-2001, z.p.

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Conclusion

After searching for hard historical evidence that either Arthur or his knights existed, I have to conclude that any evidence concerning this historical figure is as transient as the mist that surrounds his country. There is no paper trail or physical evidence that he existed. This, however does not mean that he does not live on in our minds. Every character in the Arthurian legend has undergone a change, depending in whose hands they got. Now, it is time for us as teachers to mould and create something new and exciting with the Arthurian myth. Connecting drama and the legend was a real challenge, but I am very glad that I did it. Not only have I personally learned a lot, but I also hope that this work can overcome some of the fears that teachers have concerning drama in the classroom. And who knows, maybe the once and future king will some day rise again; adored by his people and feared by his enemies.

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Bibliography

Books
BARBER, C., PUKITT, D., The Final Discovery of King Arthur, Samuel Weiser Inc., York, 1991, 205 paginas. BEJCZY, I., Een kennismaking met de middeleeuwse wereld, Uitgeverij Coutinho, Bussum, 2001, 224 paginas. BRYANT, P., Awakening Arthur!, Aquarian/Thornsons, London, 1991, 208 paginas. DAY, D., Koning Arthur, het ontstaan van een mythe, Atrium in opdracht van ICOB B.V., Alphen, 1995, 176 paginas. JANSSENS, L., Drama is de kunst, handboek voor dramadocenten, Uitgeverij IT & FB, Haarlem, 1998, 334 p. MACHIELS, M., VALGAERTS, E., De Keltische erfenis, Stichting Mens en Kultuur Gent, 1998, 317 paginas. MICHIELS, K., Wat u nog niet wist van Koning Arthur en de Graal, KHLeuven, 19961997, 81 paginas. PITKIN GUIDES (red.), King Arthur, Pitkin, Hampshire, 2004, 29 paginas POPPE, T., Drama, een drama?, KHLeuven, 2000-2001, z.p. SCHOLLEN, E., VALVEKENS, M., Koning Arthur: Legende of werkelijkheid, eindwerk KHLeuven (onuitg.), 91 paginas. VANE, S., Werken met drama, drama-activiteiten voor agogische beroepen, Nelissen B.V., Haarlem, 1998, 246 p. YSKOUT, A., Drama in het secundair onderwijs: Grote kinderen mogen ook spelen!, eindwerk KHLeuven (onuitg.), 72 paginas.

Video
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC (red.), Is it real? King Arthur, video, National Geographic Channel, Washington, 1996-2008.

Internet
ENGLISH HERITAGE, Tintagel Castle, internet, 2008-06-05, (http://www.englishheritage.org.uk/server/show/conMediaFile.2410). GLASTONBURY TOWN COUNCIL, Glastonbury Abbey, internet, 2008-05-06, (http://www.glastonbury.gov.uk/g_gov/mod.php?mod=userpage&menu=3700&page_id =32&side_month=1201744800&PHPSESSID=f2b3c73bea5cd185c3beefcb41e9c90b).

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GRAHAM, P., Merlin, the man behind the (http://www.grahamphillips.net/Merlin/merlin2.htm).

myth,

internet,

2008-06-07,

MALORY, T., Morte dArthur, internet, 2008-06-01, (http://www.arthurian-legend.com/lemort-darthur.php). NOBLE WILFORD, J., A new theory points to model for King Arthur, internet, 2008-06-05, (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D04EFDE1638F93AA25750C0A96394 8260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=all). HUNT, P., Celtic Iron Age Sword Deposit and Arthurs Lady of the Lake, internet, 200806-06, (http://traumwerk.stanford.edu/archaeolog/2008/02/celtic_swords_and_arthurs_lady.ht ml). UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, The World of Gloriana, internet, 2008-06-04, (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/specialcollections/exhibits/past/Gloriana.htm). X., King Arthur, a man for the ages, internet, 2008-06-11, (http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/4186/Arthur/htmlpages/kingarthurfaq1.html). X., De geschiedenis van de Heilige Graal, internet, 2008-06-05, (http://www.geschiedenis.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=648&Itemid =17). X., Lancelot and Guinevere, internet, (http://www.digischool.nl/ckv1/ckvdol/germaans/kelten.htm). 2008-06-05,

X., Morgan le Fay, internet, 2008-05-06, (http://www.answers.com/topic/morgan-lefay). X., Geoffrey of Monmouth Historia Regum Brittaniae The prophecy of Merlin, internet, 2007-11-01, (http://www.caerleon.net/history/geoffrey/prophecy1.htm).

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Enclosures

Striphelden: Lorena, Benjamin, Hanane, Yana, Karin, Nayara, Sara, Marlies, Caroline, Tamara, Angela en Karlien Montage en vormgeving: Mevrouw Kelly Assistentie en opvolging: Mevrouw Kim
45

Een zonnige dag

De drie biggetjes, de wolf en de zonnemelk

Maar er luistert iemand mee!

Al die moeite voor niets!

Einde! 46