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Charge and Electric Field
Sum of Charge
Sum of charge
= number of charge particles charge of 1 particle


1. An electric field is a region in which an electric
charged particle experiences an electric force.
2. Electric field is represented by a number of lines with
arrows, called electric lines of force or electric field
lines.
3. The lines of force are directed outwards for a positive
charge and inwards for a negative charge.
Note

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Current & P. Difference
Current is the rate of flow of electric
charge flow in conductor.

The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is defined
as the work done in moving 1 Coulomb of positive charge
from 1 point in an electric field to another point.

Ohmic/ Non-Ohmic Conductor
1. Conductors that obey Ohms law are said to be
ohmic conductor.
2. Examples of Ohmic conductor: Metal, Copper
sulphate solution with copper electrodes
3. Conductors which do not obey Ohms law are
called non-ohmic conductor.
4. Example of non-Ohmic Conductor:
Semiconductor Diode, Vacuum tube diode
Resistance
The resistance R of a material is defined as the ratio
V : I, where V is the potential difference across the
material and I is the current flowing in it.


Ohms Law
Ohms Law states that the current flowing in the metallic
conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference applied across its ends, provided that the
physical conditions ( such as temperature ) are constant.

Factors Affecting the Resistance
1. Length l,
Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
2. Cross-sectional area A
Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the conductor.
3. Temperature and
A conductor with higher temperature has higher resistance.
4. Type of material.
Difference materials have difference resistivity. The resistance of copper wire is lower than iron wire.

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Circuit
Resistance
Series Parallel










Current
Series

In a series circuit, the current at any points of the
circuit is the same.
Parallel

The current flow into a parallel circuit is equal to the
sum of the current in each branches of the circuit.
I = I
1
+ I
2


1 2 3
R R R R
1
1 2 3
1 1 1
( ) R
R R R


Potential Difference
Series

The sum of the potential difference across individual
resistor in between 2 points in a series circuit is equal to the
potential difference across the two points.
Parallel

The potential difference across all resistors in a parallel
circuit is the same.
V = V
1
= V
2


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Electromotive Force
Electromotive force is the energy per unit charge
converted from the other forms of energy into electrical
energy to move the charge across the whole circuit.

E = e.m.f.,
W = energy converted from non-electrical forms
to electrical form
Q = positive charge.
The relationship between e.m.f. and the terminal potential
difference is given by the following equation.
E = V + Ir
or
E = IR + Ir

E = e.m.f.
V = terminal potential difference
I = current flows in the circuit
r = internal resistance
R = the load resistance

The Linear Graph

Y axis = Potential difference (V)
X axis = Current (I)
Gradient od the grapf, m = - internal resistance (r)
Y intercept of the graph, c = e.m.f.


Open Circuit Close Circuit

In open circuit ( when the switch is off), the voltmeter shows
the reading of the e.m.f.

In close circuit ( when the switch is on), the voltmeter shows
the reading of the potential difference across the cell.
With the presence of internal resistance, the potential difference across the cell is always less than the e.m.f..

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Electrical Energy & Power
Electrical Energy

E = Electrical Energy
Q = Charge
V = Potential Difference

Electrical Power





Power Rating
An electrical appliance which is marked 240V,
1200W means that the electrical appliance will
consume 1200J of energy in every second if the
potential difference across it is 240V.
Calculating the cost of electricity consumption

Energy consumed = Power rating x time
E = P t

The cost of electricity consumption is based on the
number of kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electrical energy
used.
The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy used by a device
at a rate of 1000 watts in one hour.

Efficiency of electrical appliance
1. The efficiency of an electrical appliance is given by the following equation



Note
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