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2010:051
MASTER' S THESI S
Re-use of Exomars Rover on
Icy Moons of Jupiter
Abrar-Ul-Haq Khan Baluch
Lule University of Technology
Master Thesis, Continuation Courses
Space Science and Technology
Department of Space Science, Kiruna
2010:051 - ISSN: 1653-0187 - ISRN: LTU-PB-EX--10/051--SE
CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
ABRAR-UL-HAQ KHAN BALUCH
RE-USE OF EXOMARS ROVER ON ICY MOONS OF JUPITER
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Astronautics and Space Engineering (SpaceMaster)
MSc THESIS
Academic year: 2009-10
CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Astronautics and Space Engineering (SpaceMaster)
MSc THESIS
Academic Year 2009-2010
ABRAR-UL-HAQ KHAN
BALUCH
RE-USE OF EXOMARS ROVER ON
ICY MOONS OF JUPITER
Supervisor: Dr J. Kingston
June 2010
This thesis is submitted in partial (45%) fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Science
Cranfield University 2010. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced without the written permission of the copyright owner.
i
Abstract
The ExoMars Rover, developed by EADS Astrium to perform in-situ investigations into
the potential existence of life on Mars, may also be exploited for use on other planetary
bodies. The Icy Moons of Jupiter (JIMs): Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, are in
particular also of key interest to astrobiologists and geologists.
The purpose of this research was to perform a feasibility analysis on the operation of the
ExoMars rover on these Icy Moons. Specifically, this involved the conduction of
design/concept study to determine whether it is possible from a thermal and system
power point of view with the current design and, if not, what modifications would need
to be implemented for successful operation. The European Space Agency standard tool
ESATAN-TMS was employed to perform a detailed thermal analysis.
Initially the original model as provided by EADS Astrium-UK was simulated in the
extreme environment of Jupiters icy moons. On the basis of findings, it was determined
that alterations were necessary to the passive thermal control and power sub-system.
The rover model was updated and then again placed in the environments of icy moons
to be analysed over five scenarios encompassing: equatorial and polar regions of both
Europa and Ganymede and on equator of Callisto. The results of these missions were
post-processed in the advance post processing tool Thermal NV.
It was found that major design changes were required as the original rover failed
completely to work on JIMs. Key changes implemented were; the reduction of radiator
areas, replacement of solar arrays with Multi Mission Radioisotopes Thermoelectric
Generators and their accessories. The structural temperature was also found not to
compatible with moons surface and a redesign of this element is recommended;
however, altering the structural design was beyond the scope of this thesis.
From the analysis of all defined scenarios, it was concluded that the rover need major
changes in structure, power subsystem and slight changes in radiators sizing, Of key
significant, however, was the finding that if the modified rover is made suitable for one
moon, then it would be able to operate in the environments of all three icy moons.
Consequently, it is feasible that following these design changes that the ExoMars rover
concept could be employed for the exploration of JIMs, which would have significant
scientific value over a range of science missions, findings of life and other geological
investigations.
ii
Acknowledgements
All praise to Almighty Allah who bestowed upon me the capabilities and passions to
complete this work. My sincerest thanks are due to my supervisor Dr. Jennifer
Kingston for her valuable guidance, affirmative criticism, motivations and
incredible encouragements.
I want to say my thanks to SpaceMaster consortium for giving me this opportunity to
study in Europe in the field of Space science and technology. My extended thanks are
due to my friends Zhao Lei, Cheng and Karolina for their support, their critique, their
help and their encouragement during days of working and anxiety. I also want to say
thanks to Charlotte for her guidance and support regarding ESATAN-TMS.
Finally, I am grateful to all of my family members who always supported me with love
& pray for my success. I cant forget the special attention of my father (Late) who
always prayed for my triumph. It is all his encouragements and support, which made
me able to reach at this stage.
A.H.Baluch
iii
Contents
Abstract.............................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... ii
Contents........................................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures.................................................................................................................. vi
List of Tables................................................................................................................. viii
Nomenclature................................................................................................................... ix
1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Why Icy moons of Jupiter.................................................................................. 2
1.2 Why Rover ......................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Aims................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Objectives .......................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Summary............................................................................................................ 4
1.6 Thesis layout ...................................................................................................... 4
2 Literature Review..................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Heat transfer Modes........................................................................................... 6
2.1.1 Radiation..................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Conduction ................................................................................................. 6
2.1.3 Convection.................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Thermal Control System.................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Passive Thermal Control (PTC) ................................................................. 8
2.2.2 Active thermal control (ATC) .................................................................. 12
2.3 Temperature limits and margins by ESA......................................................... 13
2.4 Power requirement by Spacecraft .................................................................... 14
2.4.1 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs).................................... 15
2.5 Jupiter and Jupiters Icy Moons....................................................................... 18
2.5.1 Europa....................................................................................................... 20
2.5.2 Ganymede................................................................................................. 21
2.5.3 Callisto...................................................................................................... 22
2.6 Rovers and their history................................................................................... 23
3 ESATAN-TMS designing ...................................................................................... 25
3.1.1 Geometry .................................................................................................. 26
A.H.Baluch
iv
3.1.2 Nodes and their types in ESATAN-TMS................................................. 27
3.1.3 Geometric mathematical model (GMM) .................................................. 27
3.1.4 Radiative Case .......................................................................................... 28
3.1.5 Matrix Method (MM) ............................................................................... 28
3.1.6 Monte Carlo Ray tracing (MCRT) ........................................................... 28
3.1.7 Thermal mathematical model (TMM)...................................................... 29
3.1.8 Analysis Case ........................................................................................... 30
3.2 A few points worth mentioning for beginners in ESATAN-TMS................... 30
3.3 MORTRAN (FORTRAN-77).......................................................................... 31
3.4 Post processing with Thermal-NV................................................................... 31
4 Modification of Rover w.r.t JIMs........................................................................... 34
4.1 Why Modifications are required...................................................................... 36
4.1.1 Mission Scenarios..................................................................................... 36
4.1.2 Original ExoMars rover at equator on Europa ......................................... 36
4.1.3 Original ExoMars rover at poles on Europa............................................. 39
4.1.4 Original ExoMars rover at equator on Ganymede.................................... 40
4.1.5 Original ExoMars rover at pole on Ganymede......................................... 41
4.1.6 Original ExoMars rover at equator on Callisto ........................................ 42
4.2 Convergence of modified design ..................................................................... 42
4.3 Major modifications in the rover ..................................................................... 43
4.3.1 Changes in thermal control mechanism.................................................... 43
4.3.2 Changes in power producing equipments................................................. 44
4.3.3 Non-geometric thermal nodes .................................................................. 46
4.4 Changes specific to Europa.............................................................................. 46
4.5 Changes specific to Ganymede........................................................................ 47
4.6 Changes specific to Callisto............................................................................. 47
4.7 Modelling technique ........................................................................................ 47
5 Thermal modelling results of modified rover......................................................... 48
5.1 Europa.............................................................................................................. 51
5.1.1 Modified ExoMars rover at equator on Europa........................................ 51
5.1.2 Modified ExoMars rover at pole on Europa............................................. 55
5.2 Ganymede ........................................................................................................ 56
5.2.1 Modified ExoMars rover at equator on Ganymede.................................. 56
5.2.2 Modified ExoMars rover at pole on Ganymede ....................................... 58
5.3 Callisto............................................................................................................. 60
6 Discussion............................................................................................................... 63
A.H.Baluch
v
6.1 Reasons for different alterations ...................................................................... 64
6.1.1 MLI........................................................................................................... 64
6.1.2 Removal and reduction in areas of rover radiators................................... 64
6.1.3 MMRTG................................................................................................... 65
6.1.4 Power budget ............................................................................................ 66
6.1.5 Batteries.................................................................................................... 66
6.2 Electronics mountings and Insulation.............................................................. 67
6.3 Analysis regarding Wheels .............................................................................. 68
6.4 Comments on every components as provided by ASTRIUM ......................... 68
6.5 Calculation of View factors and REFs ............................................................ 69
6.6 Active heat rejection system for Rover during cruise...................................... 69
6.7 Rover on Europa .............................................................................................. 70
6.8 Rover on Ganymede ........................................................................................ 76
6.9 Rover on Callisto ............................................................................................. 81
6.10 Comparison among the rovers on different moons at different conditions.. 84
6.11 Limitations of results.................................................................................... 86
7 Conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................ 88
References ...................................................................................................................... 89
Appendix A Contents on CD-ROM. ........................................................................ 96
ESATAN-TMS files................................................................................................... 96
Thermal NV files ........................................................................................................ 96
View Factors Links..................................................................................................... 97
Aerogel Data sheet...................................................................................................... 97
Key web-pages used in the research.xlsx................................................................... 97
Appendix B Solar flux and Solar arrays area ................................................................. 98
Appendix C Moons bulk and optical properties............................................................. 99
Appendix D Heat Report for Europa............................................................................ 100
A.H.Baluch
vi
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 ExoMars rover by ESA (ESA, 2010). ............................................................ 3
Figure 2-1 Convective cooling (John and John, 2005)..................................................... 7
Figure 2-2"Ideal representation of 4-basic control surfaces"(Gilmore, 2002). ................ 8
Figure 2-3 Typical layout of MLI (Gilmore, 2002; Finckenor and Dooling, 1999). ....... 9
Figure 2-4 Heat pipe working pattern (Gilmore, 2002).................................................. 10
Figure 2-5 Basic configuration of PFLs (Gilmore, 2002). ............................................. 13
Figure 2-6 Thermal margins as described by ESA-ESTEC (ESA-ESTEC, 2002). ....... 13
Figure 2-7 Power of different energy sources with mission duration (Patel, 2004)....... 14
Figure 2-8 Single-stage unicouple TEC (Hyder et al., 2000). ........................................ 17
Figure 2-9 RTG assembly (Enrico, 2003). ..................................................................... 17
Figure 2-10 Detailed inside view of GPHS and RTG (Enrico, 2003). ........................... 17
Figure 2-11 Jupiter with its Galilean moons (Harvey, 2010). ........................................ 19
Figure 2-12 Internal structure of Jupiter's Galilean moons (Left top Io, right top-Europa,
left bottom Ganymede, Right bottom Callisto) (Fran et al., 2004). ............................... 19
Figure 2-13 Europa and its Icy Shell assuming a thick shell model (Ronald et al., 2009).
........................................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 2-14 Ganymede as seen by Galileo spacecraft (taken on June 26, 1996)
(NASA/JPL image). ....................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2-15 Global view of Callisto by Voyager II (Jeffrey et al., 2004). ..................... 23
Figure 2-16 Future and past Rovers used. ...................................................................... 24
Figure 3-1 Modelling scheme in ESATAN-TMS .......................................................... 26
Figure 3-2 MCRT method description (ITP Engines, 2009d)........................................ 29
Figure 3-3 Representation of nodes in different shapes in Thermal-NV (ITP Engines,
2009e). ............................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 4-1 The ESATAN-TMS model of ExoMars rover by EADS Astrium. .............. 34
Figure 4-2 Power obtained by Solar arrays (Class lecture by Dr JK, Cranfield
University-UK)............................................................................................................... 37
Figure 4-3 Original rover on Europa post processed in ESATAN-TMS. ...................... 37
Figure 4-4 Average temperatures of original rover at equator of Europa. ..................... 38
Figure 4-5 Average temperatures of original rover at pole of Europa. .......................... 39
Figure 4-6 Average temperatures of original rover at equator of Ganymede. ............... 40
Figure 4-7 Average temperatures of original rover at pole of Ganymede...................... 41
Figure 4-8 Average temperatures of original rover at equator of Callisto. .................... 42
Figure 4-9 Different modified rover options. ................................................................. 43
Figure 4-10 Modified ExoMars rover model. ................................................................ 45
Figure 5-1 View factors to environment by ESATAN-TMS. ........................................ 49
Figure 5-2: The rover on moon orbiting around Jupiter (Radiative case: Avg HFs). .... 50
Figure 5-3 Total absorbed flux on Europa (Albedo+IR+SAF) random position around
the Jupiter. ...................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 5-4 Thermal model: Primary Model Attribute: Temperature [C]. .................... 53
Figure 5-5 Steady State analysis of rover at different locations..................................... 54
Figure 5-6 Temperature profile at Polar Regions of Europa. ......................................... 55
Figure 5-7 Total absorbed flux on Ganymede (Albedo+IR+SAF) random position
around the Jupiter. .......................................................................................................... 56
Figure 5-8 Thermal model: Primary Model Attribute: Temperature [C]. .................... 57
Figure 5-9 Temperature profile at Equatorial Regions of Ganymede. ........................... 58
A.H.Baluch
vii
Figure 5-10 Temperature profile at Polar Regions of Ganymede. ................................. 59
Figure 5-11 Total absorbed flux on Callisto (Albedo+IR+SAF) random position around
the Jupiter. ...................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 5-12 Thermal model: Primary Model Attribute: Temperature. .......................... 61
Figure 5-13 Temperature profile at Equatorial Regions of Callisto. .............................. 61
Figure 6-1 Thermal control system for ExoMars rover for JIMs. .................................. 63
Figure 6-2 Electronics mountings on spacecraft (Gilmore, 2002; Karam, 1998). ......... 67
Figure 6-3 Comparison of conductance with and without filler materials (Karam, 1998).
........................................................................................................................................ 68
Figure 6-4 Schematics representing the thermal control of the rover during cruise for
Mars (Pradeep et al., 2009)............................................................................................. 69
Figure 6-5 Arrangement of different nodes of the rover in Thermal NV....................... 70
Figure 6-6 Rover electronics and their radiators at Equator of Europa.......................... 71
Figure 6-7 Rover RTGs radiators temperature profile at equator of Europa.................. 72
Figure 6-8 Limit report when rover is at equatorial regions of Europa (Temperature in
[C]). ............................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 6-9 Average Temperature of rover structure....................................................... 74
Figure 6-10 Rover electronics and their radiators at Equator of Ganymede. ................ 76
Figure 6-11 Rover RTGs radiators profile at Equatorial Regions of Ganymede. .......... 77
Figure 6-12 Limit report when rover is at Equatorial Regions of Ganymede
(Temperature in [C]). .................................................................................................... 78
Figure 6-13 Temperature of rover structure. .................................................................. 79
Figure 6-14 Temperature histogram at Equatorial Regions of Callisto.......................... 81
Figure 6-15 Rover electronics temperature profile at Equatorial Regions of Callisto. .. 82
Figure 6-16 Limit report when rover is at Equatorial Regions of Callisto (Temperature
in [C])............................................................................................................................ 82
Figure 6-17 Cross comparison limit report for three icy moons (Temperature in [C]). 85
A.H.Baluch
viii
List of Tables
Table 2-1 Isotopes commonly used in RTGs (Hyder et al., 2000)................................. 16
Table 2-2 Properties of Icy moons of Jupiter (Leslie Lowes, 2001b; Leslie Lowes,
2001c; Leslie Lowes, 2001a; David, 2004).................................................................... 20
Table 3-1 Thermal and electrical analogies (Gilmore, 2002)......................................... 29
Table 3-2 Sub-Solvers and their explanations (ITP Engines, 2009b). ........................... 30
Table 4-1 Temperature constraints of different components of rover as provided by
Astrium-UK.................................................................................................................... 35
Table 5-1 Conductive links among different components ............................................. 49
Table 5-2 Boundary conditions provided to the model .................................................. 52
Table 6-1 Different characteristics of rover components for Europa............................. 75
Table 6-2 Different characteristics of rover components for Ganymede ....................... 80
Table 6-3 Different characteristics of rover components for Callisto............................ 83
Table 6-4 Comparison of rover's Callisto conditions with rest of icy moons ................ 85
A.H.Baluch
ix
Nomenclature
Absorptivity
Emissivity
Thermal conductivity
Density
Stephen Boltzmann constant
AMTEC Alkali metal thermal to electric convertors
ASEC Advanced Sterling Engine Convertors
ATC Active thermal control
AU Astronomical Units
BOL Beginning of life
CD Compact Disc
DHF Direct heat flux
DTIMEI desired time step length
EOL End of life
EPS Emissivity
ESA European Space Agency
ESATAN-
TMS
European space agency-thermal modeling suite
FHTS Fluid heat transport system
GMM Geometric mathematical model
GPHS General purpose heating source
h Convective coefficient
HF Heat flux
HS Heat switches
JIMs Jupiter icy moons
JPL Jet propulsion Laboratory
MCRT Monte Carlo ray tracing
MDB Model data base
MEL Mars exploratory Laboratory
MER Mars exploratory rover
MHW-RTG multi-Hundred watt RTG
MLI Multi layer insulation
MM Matrix method
MMRTGs Multi mission RTGs
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
PCM Phase change materials
PFL Pumped fluid loops
A.H.Baluch
x
PM Payload module
PSA Pressure sensitive adhesives tapes
PTC Passive thermal control
PV cells Photo-voltaic cells
REF Radiative exchange factors
RTGs Radioisotope thermoelectric generators
RTVs Room temperature vulcanized compounds
SA Solar arrays
SAF Solar absorbed flux
SDF Solar direct flux
SINDA-G Solver
SM Service module
STEC Segmented thermoelectric convectors
TEC Thermo electric convertors
TMD Thermal model data
TMM Thermal mathematical model
TPL Template
TT&C Telemetry and telecommand
VF View factors
A.H.Baluch Introduction
1
1 Introduction
The work reported in this thesis is to make a design/feasibility study of ExoMars rover
by doing its thermal analysis using European Space Agency Thermal Analysis
Network-Thermal Modelling Suite (ESATAN-TMS) software for the Icy moons of
Jupiter; Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Every spacecraft has different subsystems
which include On board data handling (OBDH), Telemetry and telecommand (TT&C),
Power, Thermal, Structures and mechanism, Navigation and control, Propulsion and
others specific to payloads. Every subsystem has its own limitations and constraints;
those should be covered for the mission sent to the space. Every subsystem needs proper
attention to be handled and careful analysis should be done before the mission sent to
space, because space is completely unforgiving. One little mistake leads to the failure of
whole mission.
Thermal protection system is one of the important subsystems because its effective
working is very essential for the operation of spacecraft components. For spacecraft to
be protected thermally, first of all, one has to take into account what the profile of the
mission is. Based on that, calculation of different types of fluxes, temperatures and
finally protection against those temperatures are carried out. The mission profile is
important because sometimes different fluxes are significant in some regions while no
one bothers about them in other mission scenarios. In case of low earth orbit missions,
earth albedos are taken into account along with other fluxes while in case of Geo
stationary orbits they are not included in the analysis as they are negligible. Secondly,
there is a big difference between the thermal protection systems of near earth / sun
missions to the deep space missions. For the former missions the main concern is to
avoid excessive heating of the spacecraft as the intensity of solar flux is very high. This
intensity leads to the mission failure because of overheating if not thermally protected
properly. The eclipse condition in near earth / sun missions is a special case which has
to be dealt differently. While for the deep space mission, it would be totally opposite
scenario. In deep space missions the concern is to conserve heat most of the time until
or unless the nuclear source is not used for which heat dissipation is required. For
electronics, they are designed in earth atmosphere, therefore, in deep space their
working ranges have to be maintained same as on ground. All these are ensured only by
proper thermal protection system. One big issue for the deep space missions is when
they launch from Earth; they would face hot conditions while in deep space they have to
overcome cold conditions. So it is really challenging from the thermal protection point
of view that spacecraft has to be designed for both extremes. Different space agencies
have made clear documentations on the basis of experiments and failures during space
missions. All those are used as guidelines for the space missions.
Deep space exploration is always fascinating for scientists but at the same time it is
really challenging for the engineers to overcome all the constraints and make every
subsystem to work. The application of rover and exploration of different planets and
moons is time tested technology for different missions. The ExoMars rover concept also
lies under the same category; which is under ESA Aurora mission and planned to be
launched in the near future for Mars. This rover is of concern in this work. Actually it is
designed for the Mars exploration with a lot of scientific research and investigation. By
utilizing all these input, if the same concept can be used for the exploration of deep
2
space regarding Jupiters icy moons (JIMs) with some alterations, then it will make the
mission for JIMs more cost-effective.
1.1 Why Icy moons of Jupiter
The data obtained from the Voyager and Galileo spacecraft during their flybys of
Europa, Ganymede and Callisto show detailed information about their features. The
symptoms of life presences as predicted by scientists because water in form of ice is
present there and the features on moons surfaces can lead us to properly analyse the
creation of solar system and these icy moons, as some of them are still in the same form
as they were born.
Europa is one of the moons which fascinate scientists a lot and it is a potential candidate
where life can exist. Ganymede is next icy moon of Jupiter and its geological and
scientific investigation is also helpful in understanding the moons creation and presence
of life there in any form. The last icy moon is Callisto, which is mainly composed of
dirty ice and rocks. Scientists are very much keen to this moon because based on the
obtained data information; assumption is that it is still in the same form as it was born.
The prior knowledge of deep space is still a mystery and still a lot of scientific
investigation is required for them such as how the Galilean satellites are formed and
what sort of changes have they experienced from the start up to the present stage?
Galilean moons exploration will lead to know their internal structure in details as well
(Fran et al., 2004). One can see that there are different future planned missions for these
moons which show their importance for scientific explorations like Jupiter Icy Moons
Orbiter (JIMO) by NASA, two orbiters under Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM);
Jupiter Europa Orbiter (JEO) led by NASA and Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter (JGO) led by
ESA.
1.2 Why Rover
Rover is the state of the art technology used for the space exploration since the
beginning of space age. Planet Mars already has been in the state of being explored
since 2004 by Spirit and Opportunity rovers. If such an advance rover can be further
used to explore the possible life presence, geological investigations and other scientific
experiments such as the exploration of deep space planets then it can lead to new
ventures including human space flight to deep space. All of the different space agencies
around the world such as NASA, ESA, JAXA, CNSA, Russian federal space agency all
are working independently and collectively on different aspects to explore solar system
and beyond that. The highly advanced ExoMars rover is designed for the exploration of
Mars surface under ESA Aurora programme which will finish with the exploration of
deep space by humans. A lot of research and investment have already been done
focusing on different aspects of rover regarding its locomotion, navigation, steering,
cameras, different science objective equipments and their feasibility. If it is possible
with some alteration to use the concept of ExoMars rover for the exploration of deep
space moons, then it will be economical in all aspects.
3
Figure 1-1 ExoMars rover by ESA (ESA, 2010).
Figure 1-1 shows the artist impression of ExoMars rover on the surface of the Mars as
published by ESA.
1.3 Aims
The aim of this research is to check whether it is possible from thermal and system
point of view to use ExoMars rover concept in scenario of Icy moons of Jupiter (JIMs).
By Icy moons mean Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. The thermal analysis should be
done by using thermal analysis European space agency standard tool ESATAN-TMS
and some recommendation for the modifications will be suggested in order to make it
suitable for Jupiters moons.
As Jupiter and its moons lies in the deep space and the solar power is not available,
therefore the other aims of this mission is to investigate which power source will be
feasible in the absence of solar power? And what that kind will be among the available
ones with reliability and how it will be implemented in extreme environments of JIMs.
4
1.4 Objectives
To achieve the aims described above different objectives are defined and described in
the sequential order. First of all, the thermal analysis tool ESATAN-TMS must be
understood, so that analysis of the rover in scenario of JIMs can be carried out
effectively and efficiently.
Secondly, some recommendations will be made for the rover modification for the
extreme chilling environment of JIMs, otherwise a new concept. This will be done by
doing thermal analysis and comparing the results with the constraints of the rover
provided. To achieve the aim for the power, nuclear source will be used. This is on the
basis of the reliability of nuclear source as previously used for the other deep space
missions. There are some limiting factors for this source but those are very less in
comparison to their benefits. The nuclear source in terms of Multi Mission
Radioisotopes Thermoelectric Generators (MMRTGs) will help to achieve this aim.
Lastly the system changes will be recommended based on the result of the ExoMars
rover accordingly to the Jupiter's moons; Europa, Ganymede and Callisto after
ESATAN-TMS simulations.
1.5 Summary
Europa, one of the Icy moons of Jupiter is the potential candidate where the chances for
the existence of life are much higher than any other moon. Different Orbiter missions
are in a planning phase in the near future whereas in the past Galileo and Voyager
already send a lot of useful information about them. If the concept of ExoMars rover
can be utilized for JIMs then a lot of useful information can be verified and new forms
of life can be investigated if found. For all these, the use of rover can be really effective
to collect data and send the information back to the earth before any human flight to
them. Concluding all ExoMars rover is state of the art technology, if possible to use
then the exploration of JIMs will become more economical and cost-effective.
1.6 Thesis layout
The first chapter belongs to the introduction, aims and objectives. Initially the aims are
defined and then objectives to fulfil those aims. Next chapter describes about the
literature regarding thermal control mechanisms, Jupiters icy moons of interest, rovers
history and different exploration of space by means of those rovers. In chapter 3 the
thermal modelling starts. The way how to use ESATAN-TMS, different techniques,
implications, geometric mathematical model (GMM), thermal mathematical model
(TMM) , different sources of errors which new engineer usually face while they start
such modelling tools and post processing by using advance post processor Thermal NV
are discussed. In chapter 4, the modification, why modification is required, comparison
between the two modified design and the selection of one with respect to Europa,
Ganymede and Callisto are discussed. Chapter 5 includes the results and discussion on
5
thermal modelling and then it is followed by next chapter with comprehensive
discussion on each component. Conclusions, recommendations and future work are the
last chapter of this thesis. In the end different references and bibliography are added
along with appendices.
A.H.Baluch Literature review
6
2 Literature Review
The critical issue towards the designing and feasibility of spacecraft is its thermal
protection. Every spacecraft has to be validated and verified thermally before it is send
into the space. Here the discussion will be mainly about different surface properties,
configuration of moons surfaces of Jupiter and thermal protection system for spacecraft
generally and for interplanetary mission specifically as emphasis is on ExoMars rover
mission to Jupiters icy moons. There are different ways to protect the spacecraft from
extreme thermal environment in space. Usually these techniques are broadly divided
into passive thermal control (PTC) and active thermal control (ATC). PTC can be
achieved by insulation blankets, paints and different coatings, while ATC needs clever
use of different components like heaters, louvers, heat pipes etc. (Gilmore, 2002). But
before discussing control methods, heat transfer modes are elaborated.
2.1 Heat transfer Modes
There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiations. The
details can be found in any of heat transfer books (John and John, 2005; Holman, 1996).
Some important points and formulas are discussed below.
2.1.1 Radiation
In space the main mode of heat transfer to environment is radiation (electromagnetic
energy), as there is no atmosphere in space. The radiative heat transfers from one face
i to the other j can be expressed by the following equation
4 4
( ) i i i j i j Q A B T T o c =
2.1
Where is Stefan-Boltzmann constant having a value of 5.67x10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
,
i
is the
emissivity of facei, B
ij
are the radiative exchange factor (REF) between i and j (ITP
Engines, 2009a). REF is the fraction of energy emitted by i which is finally absorbed
by j. This energy at j can arrive directly or via reflection or transmission by other
face; where there is a direct line of sight, B
ij
=
i
F
ij
where
j
is the absorptivity of face j
and F
ij
is the view factor between i and j (ITP Engines, 2009a). The calculation of REF
is usually done by dedicated software ESATAN-TMS in this research work.
2.1.2 Conduction
Heat conduction can be explained by Fourier law. According to him, the heat flux is
directly proportional to the magnitude of temperature difference but with negative in
sign
7
dT
q k
dx
=
2.2
Where q is the heat flux in (W/m
2
), k is the thermal conductivity of material and usually
expressed in (W/m.K). This is the mode of heat transfer which normally happens
between radiators and components from where the heat dissipations are required.
2.1.3 Convection
The convection is usually not considered in to be the main point of interest while the
space is involved. But nowadays because of the involvement of fluid pump loop
systems, convection is considered within the system. Heat convection is carrying away
heat from the body by fluid, in which fluid forms a boundary layer adjacent to the body
and conductively transfer the heat with in the layer from one point the other (John and
John, 2005).
Figure 2-1 Convective cooling (John and John, 2005).
The Newtons law of cooling can effectively describe the convection process
. .( )
body
Q h A T T
=
2.3
Where Q is the heat transferred in Watts, h is the convective heat transfer coefficient in
(W/m
2
.K), T
, T
body
are the temperatures of oncoming fluid and body respectively as
shown in Figure 2-1 and A is the surface area for convection in (m
2
)
2.2 Thermal Control System
For the working of any spacecraft, it is essential that it must be thermally protected from
the extreme environment which is available in space. There are different tradeoffs in the
space industry for the thermal control protection system, but everyone agrees to avoid
active control system, if passive can work instead. The advantages of using passive
control mechanism is its life time, durability and effectiveness, its limitations came
when excessive heat removal is required in very short period of time. Nowadays
because of advanced instrumentation, heat removal is much more than that in the
previous century, so space industry is forced to use active system. One interesting
observation about space engineers is that they are usually conservative in their approach
concerning the reliability of spacecraft. This is to avoid failure of spacecraft because of
new experimentations. But it doesnt mean that they are restricted in their approach. A
8
comprehensive literature is available on NASA WebPages and different thermal
handbooks. Limited details have been discussed below.
2.2.1 Passive Thermal Control (PTC)
The spacecraft is always preferred to be provided with passive thermal control as its
long lasting and running cost are very less or even negligible. There are different ways
to control the spacecraft passively.
2.2.1.1 Thermal surfacefinish
Thermal coatings which are usually used for spacecraft basically are selected on the
basis of their wavelength dependant properties. Some coatings are used to absorb less
visible solar energy while at the same time emitting almost all IR energy like white
paints. For the other cases, it can be opposite.
There are two important wavelength dependant properties of concern; the percentage of
incident energy absorbed is called solar absorptivity and the ratio of energy emitted
from surface to that of emitted from an ideal blackbody surface at the same wavelength,
direction and temperature is known as emissivity . Usually absorptivity and
emissivity are equivalent at a given wavelength (Gilmore, 2002).
Thermal control surfaces are broadly divided into four types: Solar reflectors having
very low
o
c
ratio, solar absorber absorbs solar energy and emit IR energy in small
proportion. A Flat reflector reflects all energy whatever the spectral range is and flat
absorber works totally opposite to flat reflectors, black paint is best example for this
type of reflectors (Gilmore, 2002).
Figure 2-2"Ideal representation of 4-basic control surfaces"(Gilmore, 2002).
9
From the Figure 2-2 shows how close the space qualified surfaces are near to the ideal
ones. All these conditions are defined at the beginning of life (BOL). The problems
faced by these surfaces like out gassing, exposure to UV radiation degrade them before
their estimated end of life (EOL).
2.2.1.2 I nsulation
Multi layer insulation (MLI) and single layer insulation for the spacecraft are the most
widely used passive control technique for the thermal protection of spacecraft. They are
usually used to avoid excessive heat transfer to or from the component to the
environment. MLI is composed of different layers of low emittance films with the low
conductance separators among them. Heat transfer in case of MLI is because of
radiation and conduction only, but if this one is exposed to atmosphere, then gaseous
conduction also exists. To minimize the effect of conduction usually low conductive
separators are provided among the layers and to encounter radiation usually multiple
layers are provided to encounter radiations (Gilmore, 2002). Whenever MLI is
discussed, effective thermal conductivity and effective emissivity are usually taken into
account.
Figure 2-3 Typical layout of MLI (Gilmore, 2002; Finckenor and Dooling, 1999).
The Figure 2-3 shows the schematics of MLI, how different layers are arranged and
how they protect the spacecraft from external extreme environment. MLI layers are
usually classified on the basis of their exposure. The outer most layer has moderate
value of
o
c
ratio for materials like Aluminized Kapton or beta cloth. These are used to
protect the spacecraft from Ultra Violet (UV) radiation attack but care must be taken
that outer layer should not be made of Mylar, as that one is not resistant to UV attack
(Gilmore, 2002). Interior layer should be made of low emittance material and separators
should have low conductivity values. For the inner core layer which is again Mylar is
not recommended because of flammability concern. One should instead use Aluminized
10
Polyimide with fiberglass backing. PSA (pressure sensitive adhesive) tapes are usually
used to close the MLI ends.
Apart from its construction MLI should be grounded to avoid any electronics problem
but the blankets having area < 1m
2
may not require grounding (Finckenor and
Dooling, 1999).
2.2.1.3 Radiators
Radiators lie in the category of passive thermal control system. All of them radiate heat
from their surface in terms of IR radiation. The total heat from radiator is
=
2.4
Where Q is the heat leaving the radiator in Watts, A is surface area in (m
2
), is
emittance, is Stefan-Boltzmann constant and T is temperature. From this expression,
the strong dependence of radiators on temperature is clear (Gilmore, 2002). Radiators
are used in combination with the heat pipes where heat dissipation is high. Some
radiators are mounted on the separate body of the spacecraft for heat rejection; in this
case the spacecraft is properly protected with MLI and coatings. Radiators with varying
surface areas have also been used in space application just to increase heat rejection,
like in the case of ISS.
2.2.1.4 Heat pipes
Heat pipes lies in the category of thermal transformers, and these are used when the
contact between the source and heat rejection body is required to be avoided. Heat pipes
system uses the closed and completely sealed flow of two fluids having high latent heat
of vaporization. Small movement of fluid leads to high rate of heat transfer because of
the above property. The basic working principle; the heating of the working fluid in the
evaporator converts it into vapours leading to decrease its meniscus (the curvature of
upper surface) and increase in local vapour pressure. The difference of the curvatures
between the evaporators and condenser wicks causes a capillary pressure difference
which leads to pull the liquid from condenser to evaporator region. In this way the
transfer of heat is usually done within heat pipes.
Figure 2-4 Heat pipe working pattern (Gilmore, 2002).
Figure 2-4 shows the schematics how the heat pipes work under normal operating
conditions. Broadly heat pipes are divided into two major categories namely constant
11
conductance heat pipes (CCHP), and variable conductance heat pipes (VCHP). In
case of CCHP, the main structure is comprising of working fluid with high latent heat
of vaporization, wick structure and a envelop. The wick structure also sometimes lead to
classification of CCHP like groove wicks, composite wicks etc. To avoid the back flow
in CCHP the diode heat pipes are being used. They work only in one required direction
and restrict the flow in other. Some common diode heat pipes are liquid trap, liquid
blockage and gas blockage diodes.
While in case of VCHP the gas reservoir is provided with condenser and uses to control
the operating area of condenser (Gilmore, 2002) and usually lie under the active system
of thermal control. Nowadays different concept of using heat pipes have been
introduced, Capillary pumped loops (CPLs) and loop heat pipes (LHPs) are among
them. But recommendations from engineers who worked on all these technologies
stated that the conventional heat pipes must be tried first then LHPs and in the end
CPLs because of the complexities of the systems (Gilmore, 2002).
2.2.1.5 Heat Switches
Heat switches (HS) are used to control the temperature of the spacecraft components
without using any thermostat by just connecting and disconnecting it from the
components. The working principle can be defined as, if the temperature of the
component increases, then the switch allows increasing the conductance, leading to flow
of heat and then radiatively move to the external space. If the temperature drops then it
leads to decrease the conductance of the HS. They can be different from Louvers in
such a way that they establish a conductive link while for Louvers the thermal coupling
is via radiative link. There are different types of HSs in use. Some are Paraffin HS while
the other one is Cryogenic HS. But the working principle is same as described above.
In case of Paraffin HS, the basic property is the phase changing of paraffin with the
limitation of volume. At specific temperature of interest the composition of paraffin is
partly frozen and partly melted. They can be further classified into pedestal type,
diaphragm thin plate type or washer type. Cryogenic HS are used for special space
instruments like IR sensors where main concern is to reduce noise from the system. Gap
gap heat switches were used by JPL NASA for few missions while other includes HS
with different thermal expansions (Gilmore, 2002).
2.2.1.6 PhasechangeMaterials
Phase change materials PCM lies in the category of reliable systems and they can
passively control the temperature by absorbing the generated latent heat of fusion of the
material. They worked cyclically in on/off conditions. During ON storing of the
generated heat by phase change and at OFF conditions removing that heat by the
process of fusion is done. Different types of phase changing is involved in the process,
It can be sublimation, vaporization, melting and freezing but selection criteria is the
melting point of material. PCM are designed to provide stable temperatures and
optimize the radiators size for average loads. Usually fillers are used in combination
with PCM (Gilmore, 2002).
12
2.2.2 Active thermal control (ATC)
In the era of advanced science and technology, the electronics, instrumentation and
payload used in spacecraft needs more heat removal than that required a few years
earlier. This can only be achieved by active thermal control (ATC) mechanism.
2.2.2.1 Heaters
Instead of removal of heat, sometimes the spacecraft components need to be heated to a
working temperature for proper functioning. For this purpose heaters are widely used.
Heaters usually used in combination with the thermostat or solid state controller, either
controlled by ground station or by on board computer system of spacecraft.
The heaters which are commonly used in space applications are either patch type or
cartridge type. In case of Patch type heaters, the main construction is electrical resisting
element sandwiched between electrically insulating material while cartridge heaters
consist of wound resistor covered inside the metallic body (Gilmore, 2002).
2.2.2.2 Louvers
Louvers lie under the category of active thermal control system comprising of base
plate, blades, actuators, sensing and structural element. The rate at which louvers
usually transfer heat can be varying more than six times when fully open to fully closed
situation. The base plate which is covering the components whose temperature has to be
controlled has low
o
c
. Blades are controlled by actuators, while opening and closing
depends how much radiative heat transfer is required while fully open (Gilmore, 2002).
Usually different types of louvers are in use like Vane louvers, pinwheel louvers.
2.2.2.3 Thermoelectriccoolers
Thermoelectric coolers (TECs) are usually known as solid state heat pumps and are
used for localised cooling for special instruments like low noise amplifiers, star trackers
and IR sensors. They are simple, noiseless, compact, having low mass, no moving
components and no vibration. The basic working principle of TECs is Peltier effect with
the configuration of two semi-conductors p-type and n-type connected by a metallic
conductor. The heat is transferred from hot junction to the cold junction with the help of
electricity which is totally reverse of the Seebeck effect. Some limitations inherent in
TECs are that they are not advised to be used below 130K because of efficiency issue
(Gilmore, 2002).
13
2.2.2.4 PumpedFluidLoops
Pumped fluid loops (PFLs) are used to transfer large amount of heat by using the active
and complex mechanism of heat transfer. If PFLs are broadly defined then they have
three main basic components, pump, and heat exchanger and space radiators as shown
in the figure below.
Figure 2-5 Basic configuration of PFLs (Gilmore, 2002).
Figure 2-5 shows the involvement of different components in pumped fluid loops
system. How the heat is transferred from heat source to the external environment
actively by the involvement of pumps is the main theme here.
2.3 Temperature limits and margins by ESA
After the discussion of active and passive thermal control mechanicals and devices, one
has to be careful about the different margins standards as adopted by ESA or NASA to
make system work. The upper and lower limits for the spacecraft working are under the
thermal design range. Interesting point is that the lower bandwidth increases the number
of inputs in terms of efforts and resources. To compensate this usually two trade-offs
are in practise. One is to increase the design range and apply PTC while the other is to
apply ATC to compensate the smaller bandwidth (ESA-ESTEC, 2002).
Figure 2-6 Thermal margins as described by ESA-ESTEC (ESA-ESTEC, 2002).
14
Figure 2-6 show the standard margin and trade-off while preferring active system over
the passive or vice versa.
2.4 Power requirement by Spacecraft
When the space war began, the issue of power requirement for the spacecrafts was less
important as there were no such equipments which consume so much power. But with
the passage of time, the involvement of complex instrumentation and equipments led to
higher the power requirement. The abundantly available power source in space is solar
energy, which then can be converted into other forms in the hour of need by using
different technologies. But this energy also has its own limitations especially in context
of deep space missions, where solar energy is not an available option. Comparison of
different power systems are discussed below.
Figure 2-7 Power of different energy sources with mission duration (Patel, 2004).
From the Figure 2-7, it can be inferred about the batteries, they are helpful for the
missions having a limited lifetime with limited power. It usually last for few weeks. But
recently because of its importance, a lot of research has been done in this field, and long
life rechargeable Lithium-ion batteries has been introduced having high specific power
(Surampudi and Subbarao, 2006).
Fuel cell technology is one of the useful energy sources which can provides continuous
energy to missions, because it involves electrolysis of water and that can be used for
drinking purpose as well if its a human spaceflight. NASA is planning to use his
technology for lunar man missions (Surampudi and Subbarao, 2006). In comparison to
internal combustion engines, its efficiency is much higher, but still this technology
needs more research to be matured (Patel, 2004).
Photovoltaic cell used in solar arrays for the generation of required power is a time
tested technology for many years. It can provide power from few Watts to many kilo
Watts from months to several years but with the effect of efficiency decrement from
maximum at beginning of life (BOL) to minimum at end of life (EOL). The basic
mechanism of energy conversion is attacking of photons on p-n junction of Photo
Voltaic cells, causing flow of electrons which leads to electricity generations.
Nowadays research is going on in this field for Ga-Arsenoid as one of the component
cell reaching the efficiency up to 35% (Gil, 2002).
15
Nuclear source for the power is one of the reliable sources, when solar power is no more
available especially in interplanetary and deep space missions. Many missions like
Voyager, Galileo and others used nuclear energy as a primary source and until now
there is no such mission which is failed because of this source. Sometimes nuclear
source is only used for heating purpose like in case of RHU (Radioisotope heating
units) to maintain suitable working temperature which were used in Mars rover during
its mission to Mars (Michelle and Kirk, 2009).
Other sources to produce power for the deep space missions are RTG (Radioisotopes
thermoelectric generators) which can produce power from several Watts to a few
hundred Watts. If the power requirement is in the range of kilo Watts then the option is
space nuclear reactors. Usually the basic components of nuclear reactor involves reactor
core, control rods, radiation shields, heat transport mechanism, power consumption and
waste heat radiation. For all types of nuclear source the nuclear fuel is PuO
2
(Hyder et
al., 2000). Some details about Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs)
construction and how they work are given below.
2.4.1 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs)
Nuclear powered system is independent of sun and solar energy. Two types of nuclear
power systems have been used and tested in deep space missions.
1. Radioisotopes System
2. Nuclear reactors
In both systems the conversion from heat energy to electrical energy can be the same,
but the production of heat energy is totally different. For Radioisotopes System the heat
energy is generated by natural decay of radioisotopes, while nuclear reactors the heat
energy generation is due to the nuclear fission reactions. The other difference is the
amount of power. The power requirements for the missions including Radioisotopes
Systems is usually less than 1 KW while Nuclear Reactors missions have power
requirement of few KWs (Hyder et al., 2000).
The rest of discussion will be about RTGs, the reason for being discuss here in details is
because they could be the replacement of solar array in absence of solar flux to produce
power for working of rover on icy moons of Jupiter.
Radioisotopes thermoelectric generators are the constant and reliable sources of energy
for deep space missions (Pradeep et al., 2005). Apart from constant output, independent
of sun and not affected by radiations, the efficiency is the most important concern. Its
usual efficiency is around 6~7% while this efficiency depends upon the material
properties, the temperature of hot and cold junctions of thermoelectric convertors
(TEC).
For RTGs different development has been made over time, initial development were
done in 70s under the System for nuclear auxiliary power (SNAP) programme, which
includes Apollo, Pioneers and Viking missions. The second development was done
under multi-Hundred Watt RTG (MHW-RTG) with the introduction of
238
PuO
2
fuel,
iridium alloy as metal cladding containment and SiGe unicouples for thermoelectric.
Next advancement after MHW-RTG was the introduction of General Purpose Heating
Sources (GPHS) modules. According to the requirement different combinations of
GPHS can be used. For example this GPHS-RTG was used in Galileo and Cassini
(Hyder et al., 2000).
16
In case of RTGs fuel, energy conversion and materials are the main areas to be known
properly. There are different types of isotopes are in use with different characteristics.
Their comparison in terms of their half life, radiation dose level and specific power
production is listed in the Table 2-1 below.
Table 2-1 Isotopes commonly used in RTGs (Hyder et al., 2000)
The conversion of energy by using TEC is principally based on the Seebeck effect.
According to definition of Seebeck effect; the emf, force production leads to electric
current generation, when the two junctions of two dissimilar materials are kept at
different temperatures (Encyclopdia, 2010).
Under the effect of thermal energy, the transfer of electron or hole between the two
dissimilar metals take place which can be conductors or semiconductors having n-type
and p-type material combination. If such combination of materials holds at some
temperature difference, the result will be in the form of potential difference across the
two as
2.5
Where
12
is the Seebeck coefficient of the couple. As thermal conductivity k and
electrical resistivity strongly depend on the temperature of the couple, one has to
define the figure of merit Z for the couple as
2 2
2
12
12
2
1 1
( )
Z
o
k k
=
+
2.6
Where subscripts 1, 2 represent the different materials in the junction, is the
electrical resistivity and k is thermal conductivity. From the figure of merit Z
12
it is
clear that high value of
12
leads to high voltage and less value of conductivity leads to
increase temperature difference.
There are different types of construction for TEC which are in use for space application,
ranging among single-stage unicouple, single-stage multicouple and multi-stage
multicouple. Single stage uincouple is shown in Figure 2-8 to illustrate its construction.
17
Figure 2-8 Single-stage unicouple TEC (Hyder et al., 2000).
The combination of TEC, fuel and materials in the form of a graphite and iridium leads
to the formation of RTG assembly.
Figure 2-9 RTG assembly (Enrico, 2003).
Figure 2-10 Detailed inside view of GPHS and RTG (Enrico, 2003).
Figure 2-9 and Figure 2-10 show the complete assembly of RTG and GPHS module
construction. Nowadays a research is going on to increase the conversion efficiency of
TECs with the use of alkali metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC), Stirling
18
engine usage and thermo-photovoltaic (TPVs). In all these technologies the main goal is
to increase efficiency threefold over then the existing one.
Apart from advantages of using RTGs, there are some limitations and concerns. First
main important area is about the natural decay of nuclear material which is irreversible
and no one can stop that. Second concern is its low efficiency and high cost. RTGs are
an expensive choice among all other options available. One should also be careful for
on-board electronics shielding from radiations.
2.5 Jupiter and Jupiters Icy Moons
Jupiter is fifth and biggest planet of the solar system and named after a Roman god. It
completes its one orbit around sun using almost 12 earth years. Hydrogen and helium
are main parts of its surface composition, but in the core some heavy elements are
assumed to be present (Gierasch and Philip, 2004). One interesting feature of Jupiter is
its magnetic field which is ten times bigger than that of earth, which has been known
that the earth magnetic field lines are from South to North but in case of Jupiter, the
case is opposite.
The Jupiter has around 62 moons which are orbiting around it (Blue, 2009). Some are
orbiting in regular orbits, while the majority of irregular satellites of Jupiter are
eccentric and are occupying the retrograde orbits (inclination 90) (Fran et al., 2004).
A number of missions had already been there to explore deep space. The missions in the
past include Pioneers 10, Pioneer 11,Voyager1,2, Galileo, Cassini in the past and for
future new mission like JUNO, Europa Jupiter System Mission (Lindstrom, 2010) are
on their way of completion. In this research work the main emphasis will be the
modification of ExoMars rover with respect to only three moons which are Europa,
Ganymede and Callisto.
The first observation of Jupiter system was done from the Pioneer 10 spacecraft in
December, 1973 (Richard et al., 1977) then followed by Pioneer 11 one year later. As
the temperature above the clouds of Jupiter is around -140C and below the clouds
temperature ranges to room temperature and scientists predict that if any form of life
exist then it will be airborne because of the absence of any solid surface at this
comfortable temperature with pressure of 10 times of earths atmosphere (Gierasch and
Philip, 2004).
19
Figure 2-11 Jupiter with its Galilean moons (Harvey, 2010).
Figure 2-12 Internal structure of Jupiter's Galilean moons (Left top Io, right top-Europa, left
bottom Ganymede, Right bottom Callisto) (Fran et al., 2004).
Figure 2-11 and Figure 2-12 shows the Galilean moons and their internal structure (Fran
et al., 2004). How much ammonia is present on the JIM, there is no such data available
from different deep space missions especially the Galileo and Voyager (Fran et al.,
2004). Different properties are listed in the table showing typical characteristics of
Jupiters icy moons. In the Table 2-2 the typical data for the Icy moons is enlisted as
available by NASA.
20
Table 2-2 Properties of Icy moons of Jupiter (Leslie Lowes, 2001b; Leslie Lowes, 2001c; Leslie
Lowes, 2001a; David, 2004)
2.5.1 Europa
Europa is the potential candidate where the symptoms for the existence of life are good
enough according to the data obtained by different deep space missions. Europa icy
shell and its thickness are still important points to be discussed. Different opinions exist
for its thickness being thin or thick (William et al., 2009).Thin model assumes its
thickness being several kilometre thick or less (Greenberg et al., 2002) while for thick
model, It ranges from 19 Km to 25 Km (Schenk, 23 May 2002). The total volume of
water is about 3x10
9
Km
3
which is twice the amount of water available on earth.
(Ronald et al., 2004)
The surface of Europa can be a very good laboratory for studying the material properties
as the surface temperature is in the critical range in which the properties of water ice
changes rapidly with temperature (Ronald et al., 2004). The ice of Europa has different
properties on leading and trailing edges. Ice above and below 60 of latitude is fine
grained (radius<50m) on leading side (Shirley and Carlson, 2000) while it is large
grained on trailing edges (radius >200m) (Thomas et al., 2002)
The density of outer surface of Europa is assumed to be 1050Kg/m
3
(Fran et al., 2004).
21
Figure 2-13 Europa and its Icy Shell assuming a thick shell model (Ronald et al., 2009).
Figure 2-13 shows the surface of ice and its depth of hundreds of kilometres are
predicted by different scientists. At the same time the Europa interior has also been
defined into three layers model. The outer most layer of water-ice liquid shell with the
density of 1050 Kg/m
3
and inner metallic cores with an Fe core of density 8000 Kg/m
3
or inner core of Fe-FeS of density 5150 Kg/m
3
(Schubert et al., 2004). There are some
other considerations which will affect the thermal properties of Europa such as the
presence of salt and the small amount of ammonia. The presence of this ammonia leads
to make the temperature lower thus increasing the viscosity (Deschamps and Sotin,
2001).
2.5.2 Ganymede
The biggest moon of solar system is Ganymede (Robert et al., 2004). This moon is
made of rocky materials which are more than half in percentage and water sharing the
percentage slightly less than half for its composition (Fran et al., 2004). Through the
Galileo and Voyager missions, dark and light markings were observed on the surface
and the presence of unidentified non-icy materials was also found on its surface (Fran et
al., 2004). Ganymede is also divided into three layers into ice over mixed ice + rock
over a rock core, where rock means solid mixture of rock + metal by Mueller and
McKinnon in 1988. The size of core lies between 650 Km and 900 Km while ice shell is
very thick around 900 Km (Schubert et al., 2004).
22
Figure 2-14 Ganymede as seen by Galileo spacecraft (taken on June 26, 1996) (NASA/JPL image).
Figure 2-14 shows the image of Ganymede as seen by the Galileo. Different interesting
profiles can be seen on the surface, if they can be explored using the rover then it leads
to interesting scientific discovery.
2.5.3 Callisto
The density and dimensions of Callisto are not much different from Ganymede but it is
unique in terms of its properties and surface processes (Jeffrey et al., 2004). One main
property which differentiates it from Ganymede is that it doesnt have its own internal
magnetic field (Khurana et al., 1998). The composition of this moon is about 40% ice
and 60% rocks/metals (Arnett, 1999). One fact about the Callisto surface is that it is full
of deep craters which indicate that the surface is not changed since its birth. These
properties are really helpful in understanding the creation of these icy moons (NESTA,
2010).
The available data in literature is just at equator because all the flybys of Galileo were
near to equatorial region so it still needs more investigations. The two layer model of
Callisto suggests that interior of Callisto is made of denser rock and ice, while the
exterior is less rocky but more icy with low density (Schubert et al., 2004).
23
Figure 2-15 Global view of Callisto by Voyager II (Jeffrey et al., 2004).
Figure 2-15 shows the view of Callisto with the resolution of 3 Km/pixel as taken by
Voyager II. In the image of Callisto, North side is up.
2.6 Rovers and their history
A rover can be manned or unmanned vehicle used for space exploration. Until now
different rovers from different nations had been used for space exploration. Here is the
summary for some of them with their mission profile and their special features will be
discussed.
The first rover used for deep space mission was Lunokhod 1 (figure A) by Soviet
Union which is now known as Russia by using Luna 17 spacecraft. This rover was
used to explore moon surface. After 11 months of successful working, Rover never got
connected again to the ground station at earth (Robert and Jerry, 1999).
Immediately after Russian rover mission, three missions were sent by NASA under
mission name Apollo 15 (Eric and Ken, 2009) in year 1971 and other two under names
of Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 in year 1972 (David, 2009).
In early 1973, one more unmanned rover was sent to the moon with the name of
Lunokhod 2 by Soviet Union (Russia) by Luna 21 spacecraft. This rover was operated
for four months, sending useful data in terms of images and soil analysis for the moon
surface (Ed, 2009).
After this the next rover was by NASA with the name of Sojourner (figure C), which
was landed on mars in 1997. It got a lot of data, collect samples, analyse the Mars soil
and send back a lot of data regarding weather prediction, wind and atmospheric
conditions of Mars-the red planet (Jim, 2007).
In 2004 under the mission of mars geological exploration by NASA two rovers (figure
D(Susan, 2003)) were landed on Mars surface with the names of Spirit and
24
Opportunity. The opportunity rover had successfully covered more than 15Km on the
surface of Mars until now (Michelle and Kirk, 2010).
There are some more rovers which are planned by different nations for the space
exploration in near future, one is Mars Science laboratory rover (NASA JPL, 2007)
planned in 2011 (Rebecca, 2010). One rover with the name of Change 3 by Chinese
National space agency in 2013 and one by Indian space agency in collaboration with
Russia naming Chandrayaan-2 in year 2013. All these are on their way to completion
and to be launched under future deep space mission (Robert and Brian, 2010).
Figure 2-16 Future and past Rovers used.
A.H.Baluch ESATAN-TMS designing
25
3 ESATAN-TMS designing
In case of thermal modelling, space thermal engineer must have to be careful about all
aspects including orbits location, albedos, IR flux and specially the solar flux intensity.
The next important thing to be worried about are the constraints of the different
components, their limiting temperatures, the structure compatibility, the thermal
gradient between the different walls of spacecraft / rover and parameters specific to
payloads.
There is a big difference of thermal control in near Earth / Sun missions to deep space
missions. For the former, the thermal control is usually comprises of heat removing
components to avoid the system from overheat, some exceptions are there in which
heating is required as well for example during eclipse. While for the latter case, the
environment is so cold that heating is provided to the electronics and other components
to keep them warm within the limits of proper functioning of spacecraft.
The Solar, albedos and planetary fluxes usually ignored in case of deep space outer
planets missions and in such cases the excessive heat load by environment is usually not
considered for electronics and other payloads. Only sensitive elements like some
applications of cryogenic take into consideration of these lower values of fluxes for
missions. In deep space missions the main concern is to keep rover/spacecraft warm
instead of trying to lose heat which is opposite to near Sun missions. The methodology
used in terms of space application is passive thermal control system first and then if it is
necessary then go for the active thermal control system. The main goal is to minimize
the mass of spacecraft as ATC usually adds the mass penalty to the system. Different
rovers for space exploration, as discussed in Chapter 2, have passive thermal control
system but active system was also used sometimes in the hour of need.
European Space Agency Thermal Analysis Network-Thermal Modelling Suite
(ESATAN-TMS) is the ESA standard software used for thermal analysis of spacecraft
in the space industry. The main language used for the programming is MORTRAN.
Initially it was separated in ESARAD and ESATAN solver but now after early 2009 all
modules are combined under one name to make it more comprehensive and user
friendly. Now advance post-processor like Thermal-NV is also a part of ESATAN-
TMS.
The methodology used for analysis in ESATAN-TMS is lumped parameter method. In
this method the continuous system is discretised into number of nodes and then system
properties are given to those nodes. Properties are in the form of capacitance value of
system and conductors, which linked them to the external world. Langmuir and Bauken
contributed initially to thermal / electrical analogy and then by constructing the simple
system. Then the numerical techniques to solve these were introduced by Southwell,
Emmons and Dusinberre. ESATAN-TMS is mainly dependent on these numerical
methods techniques (ITP Engines, 2009b).
Firstly, the geometric mathematical model is built to calculate the radiative coupling
among the nodes of the model; secondly, the thermal mathematical model lead to
calculate temperatures at specified location. The thermal modelling details can be found
in ESATAN-TMS user manual (ITP Engines, 2009c), here the details give the reader an
idea about the common philosophy of modelling and their constraints. The way how the
modelling procedure works in ESATAN-TMS is described in form of flow chart
starting from the basics to the final outcomes of the results.
26
Figure 3-1 Modelling scheme in ESATAN-TMS
The Figure 3-1 shows that GMM and TMM are important mathematical models in
thermal modelling. They have to be critically analysed before processing further to get
some results. In the end post processing can be done within the work bench or in
Thermal NV.
3.1.1 Geometry
The first step of modelling in ESATAN-TMS is to do geometry modelling. The thermal
engineer has to define the geometry of spacecraft or rover (in this case) in such a way
that the model should be the description of overall spacecraft including essential
features. The important parameters which designer must keep in mind are about the
optical and bulk properties which the spacecraft is made of and the nature of their
27
activity. The activity can only be conductive, conductive and radiative both and if the
fluid loop system is involved then it can also be convectively active as well. The colour
conventions used in ESATAN-TMS workbench are; red for inactive, green for active,
blue for thermally active and yellow for radiatively active faces. The numbers of nodes
on the different faces of interest are also important because unnecessary nodes lead to
extra computational cost. All these definitions become critical when doing radiative
analysis.
While making geometry the creation of variables like coordinates, different points of
interest, spin and matrixes are really helpful for the ease of geometry. In the preference
directory as defined in the ESATAN-TMS, five different types of files are stored for
keeping different types of the data. Some of them are; for geometry (model_g.log),
radiative cases (model_k.log) and for thermal analysis cases (model_e.log). These files
usually updated automatically whenever any modification is done. In the end, purging
of the model leads to the removal of any un-used or repeated shells.
In ESATAN-TMS, the extension commonly used for geometry is .erg. If model is
loaded from .erg file and during its running on the software, if some changes are done
on this file then model in the software will automatically ask for update whenever .erg
file is saved.
3.1.2 Nodes and their types in ESATAN-TMS
There are different types of nodes in use in ESATAN-TMS, they can be classified as
diffusion, boundary, inactive nodes and a few specific nodes related to fluid heat
transport system (FHTS) and some specific to pumps if someone is calling specific
library functions. Boundary node is such a node where the temperature is constant,
sometimes used for deep space with the temperature of -273.15C (A. Carreira
Perpin'an, 2007). The diffusion nodes lie in the category of normal nodes. These are the
nodes whose temperatures have to be measured and they are usually known as solution
variables. Inactive nodes dont take part in any of the solutions. The FHTS nodes are
categorized in five principle nodes describing fluid properties with their pressure,
enthalpy and temperature boundaries.
The capacity of nodes C in case of transient analysis if required can be defined in the
model.d file by user itself. As it is the product of density , volume V and specific
heat capacity C
p
of material of the node
C=C
. .V 3.1
This capacitance C represent the nodes property for absorbing heat, If its value is
small then node response to heat is very quick(ITP Engines, 2009c).
3.1.3 Geometric mathematical model (GMM)
The geometric mathematical model (GMM) is the mathematical representation of
physical surface of spacecraft / rover and on the basis of this, the interaction between
the surface and environment is calculated which is usually termed as radiative coupling
between surface and environment (Gilmore, 2002).
28
3.1.4 Radiative Case
In the radiative model, the view factor (VF), radiation exchange factors (REF), heat
fluxes (HF) absorbed and planet both are calculated by using two different methods.
VFs are geometry properties only and are calculated by energy emitted by one and
fraction of that absorbed by the others. View factors calculated for both IR and solar
spectra, although these are geometrical properties, and remain the same, but for
accuracy they are calculated again (ITP Engines, 2009d). To find the VF for different
geometrical surface the analytical details are available on web-pages of Professor
Isidoro, Universidad Polytecnica de Madrid (Martnez, 2001) and others in appendix A.
REFs depend not only on geometry but also on thermal optical properties. The direct
heat fluxes (DHFs) only consider direct incident of light while absorbed heat fluxes
(AHFs) incorporate multiple-reflections, absorptions, geometry and its location in the
orbit.
3.1.5 Matrix Method (MM)
The matrix method is a deterministic method. The calculation of radiative cases was
done by this under the assumption of uniform emission, uniform irradiation and diffuse
faces (ITP Engines, 2009d). They are used when faster calculations are required, but
care should be taken by thermal engineer, a small mistake could lead to totally wrong
calculations. In case of MM, the REFs and AHSs are measured after the calculation of
VFs and DHFs by MCRT methods (ITP Engines, 2009d).
3.1.6 Monte Carlo Ray tracing (MCRT)
Monte Carlo ray tracing techniques is widely used nowadays for computer modelling
for complex geometries. This technique based on the stochastic methods which further
deals with the randomness of the data. The quality of this technique is, with same
boundary conditions the result always varies a bit, but if the no of seeds defined are
more than enough, convergence is always the same. Here the term seed refers to user
defined input for pseudo distribution of rays. The radiative calculations obtained by this
represent the behaviour of thermal radiation because of radiative faces and heat flux
sources. In case of ESATAN-TMS the VFs and DHFs are always calculated by the
MCRT while the REFs and AHFs can be calculated by MCRT or MM techniques (ITP
Engines, 2009d). The MCRT technique is controlled by two parameters namely the
number of the rays fired from each face and seeds. This technique is bit time consuming
and stochastic in nature.
A.H.Baluch
Figure 3-2
The Figure 3-2 shows how MCRT converges to the theoretical values of the result when
two seeds are used.
3.1.7 Thermal mathematical model (TMM)
TMM is based on the lumped parameters used to determine temperatures of the surfaces
and it includes thermal mass and radiative and conductive couplings
The number of nodes in TMM should keep as simple as required and those must
represent the geometry configuration. The nodes are usually represented
electrical analogies just like RC (resistance capacitance) network as shown in table 3
The reason of using electrical analogies
they can easily apply different electrical laws like Kirchhoff and
implement matured numerical techniques for these systems
Table 3-1 Thermal and electrical analogies
Different techniques are in use like finite difference method
methods (FEM) for modelling of the system.
ESATAN
29
MCRT method description (ITP Engines, 2009d).
shows how MCRT converges to the theoretical values of the result when
Thermal mathematical model (TMM)
l mass and radiative and conductive couplings (Gilmore, 2002)
represent the geometry configuration. The nodes are usually represented
electrical analogies just like RC (resistance capacitance) network as shown in table 3
The reason of using electrical analogies is to make the life of thermal engineers easy as
they can easily apply different electrical laws like Kirchhoff and
implement matured numerical techniques for these systems.
Thermal and electrical analogies (Gilmore, 2002).
Different techniques are in use like finite difference method (FDM), and finite element
for modelling of the system.
ESATAN-TMS designing
shows how MCRT converges to the theoretical values of the result when
(Gilmore, 2002).
represent the geometry configuration. The nodes are usually represented by their
electrical analogies just like RC (resistance capacitance) network as shown in table 3-1.
the life of thermal engineers easy as
they can easily apply different electrical laws like Kirchhoff and Ohms law and
, and finite element
30
3.1.8 Analysis Case
Two solver analysers are available in ESATAN-TMS, one is ESATAN and the other is
SINDA-G. The base of these two is to use the results of radiative case. In case of
ESATAN-TMS the preferred solver is with ESATAN solver. There are different sub-
solutions existed, two for steady state case and few for transient case.
Table 3-2 Sub-Solvers and their explanations (ITP Engines, 2009b).
3.2 A few points worth mentioning for beginners in ESATAN-
TMS
There are different errors, when doing modelling in ESATAN-TMS as beginner, these
errors can be at geometry level, at definition of radiative cases, or while running thermal
analysis. Some of them are listed here.
- Make sure that geometry file should be clean on regular intervals; otherwise it
would lead to the crashing of programme more often.
- One should avoid extra un-necessary nodes; they lead to model computationally
expensive and time consuming.
- Always validate and cross check the results before proceeding to next step.
- For boundary conditions, instead of defining for repeated missions again and
again, just copy those and put under thermal tab, it will work then, otherwise its
laborious work to do so.
- Commands are case sensitive, if recalling some defined function, be careful for
their case.
- HF out of order; whenever geometry is changed the heat fluxes has to be
calculated again, as they become obsolete.
- Error number: 941; It shows when invalid value for source reference parameter
exist in the geometry file.
- Error number: 943; when conductor assignment is not proper in the geometry
file.
- Syntax error; usually shown the line number as well along with error, where
engineer can edit and correct it.
31
- Error number: 671; when the radiative case is not open, and thermal solver is
called.
- Default execution block; one has to check is there some issue with the solution
technique called.
- Collect 2: Id returned 1 exit status, Error: Compilation or link errors; One should
check is there enough space on the disk where the solver is saving the files.
- When analysis case is run and ESATAN solver is called, always have a look of
ESATAN-TMS small window about the processes sequences. It shows the
continuity of the process.
- For other errors, one can get hold of them while doing analysis with ESATAN-
TMS.
In short one has to be careful about thermal modelling and analysis. They are always
approximate and software is going to do whatever the inputs have given. Therefore,
even if the inputs are wrong, solution still exists and sometimes looks good as well, but
its wrong in all sense.
3.3 MORTRAN (FORTRAN-77)
The language used for the programming of ESATAN-TMS is FORTRAN-77 which is
usually known here as MORTRAN. The detail of this language can be easily available
in different literatures. Detailed commands related to this software are also available in
workbench reference manual of ESATAN-TMS.
If categorizing of these commands is done then some of these are related to declaration
like integer, real, string, shell assembly, boundary conditions, initialization and many
more. Some lie under the category of geometry definition, radiative and thermal
analysis commands and their visualization. There are two ways to use these commands;
one is through the workbench which works like any CAD software, one just insert
required input parameters, then the MORTRAN language will automatically generate a
model_g.log file if these just belong to geometry only.
The other way is to write all the codes first and then called those files in ESATAN-TMS
to be processed. These are also applicable to the template files, model.d files and
others as well. The preferred method in industry is to write the programme in
MORTRAN and then execute it in the workbench; the reason being workbench is just
introduced in year 2009.
3.4 Post processing with Thermal-NV
After doing simulation the results should be post processed to get some fruitful outcome
and for that there are be two candidates; Matlab and Thermal Analysis model Network
Viewer (Thermal NV). As Matlab is general and Thermal NV is specific to ESATAN-
TMS. So the better option is to go for Thermal NV. In case of this post-processor apart
from other good features like different reports, charts but the best one is Thermal NV
batch, in which many output files get compared with each other after generating a
32
common layout. A comprehensive detail is available in user manual (ITP Engines,
2009f) but here main points are under discussion.
When the thermal analysis has been done by ESATAN-TMS, then model_name.TMD
file is available in case of steady state solutions and model_name.TMD2 in case of
transient solution. There are two ways to post process, one within the ESATAN-TMS
and the other one is importing to the Thermal NV. After importing in Thermal NV by
default display is in terms of nodes. It can be rearranged then by group by label
according to the labels defined earlier in the geometry in ESATAN-TMS. The second
way of defining the label is picking the nodes of interest and labels them as required.
One should have to be careful about the display of the nodes. The display is in different
shapes, normal solid node is shown in the form of small circle, grouped one in the form
of small rectangle.
Figure 3-3 Representation of nodes in different shapes in Thermal-NV (ITP Engines, 2009e).
The Figure 3-3 shows the node colour scheme in Thermal NV post-processor. They can
be easily differentiated in the visualization panel with their shape and colour. Sub-
model, group, normal solid node, boundary node and fluid nodes of different types are
shown above.
Arranging a layout can be done manually or can be by using spring, random, snap,
attribute options which further lead to multiple options of arranging the layout in
different combinations by spacing X-distance, Y-distance, conductor length, X,Y-
coordinates, repulsive force and with respect to the attribute of someones own choice.
Colouring scheme should be done with some intelligence. At the same time the
direction of heat flow can also be represented by arrows by choosing the right attribute
of choice.
The charts generation philosophy is simple in such a way that one has to pick the
nodes/groups of interest, plot the charts and select attribute according to the interest. For
the generation of simple reports, the selection of nodes followed by attributes of own
choice make life easy for the results to be post processed. One good report is the limit
report, in which one can visually see where different components stand as per their
design limits and then what sort of error/uncertainty do they have with their
qualification, acceptance and operational limits with their margins (ITP Engines,
2009e). Delta report is another feature in which comparison is made between the
reference values and the values obtained from ESATAN-TMS. In this case, it is visible
to see where and how much is the difference, where the limit is exceeding.
Heat reports are another speciality of Thermal NV. Heat reports give all the flow of heat
either it can be from system to environment or vice versa. During heat reports, care
must be taken as these reports work at group level only in Thermal NV. Thats why
every node must be a part of some group or its own group to make heat report.
33
Colouring and layout limitations should be kept in mind while doing post-processing by
Thermal-NV. Colour scheme needs careful selection, as one extreme temperature leads
to the distortion of colour pattern (ITP Engines, 2009f).
A.H.Baluch Modification of Rover w.r.t JIMs
34
4 Modification of Rover w.r.t JIMs
In thermal modelling the most important is the thermal balance of the system, the heat
input must be balanced by heat output. In other words conductively, radiatively and
convectively heat mechanism if is there any, the balance of heat should be there. For
any system, the equation
must be satisfied. In this Q
in
,Q
ext
are the internal and external power dissipation, C
ij
, R
ij
,
H
ij
are the conductive, radiative and convective heat couplings respectively, m
i
is the
mass, C
p
is the specific heat capacity and

is the rate of change of temperature

(Poinas, 2004). In ESATAN-TMS, this equation is solved for every node until or unless
the solution gets converged.
In case of the rover, internal power dissipation is because of the electronics components
which are in use. Here one assumption is made that all the electrical energy supplied is
converted into heat. The conductive couplings are among the electronics and radiators
directly, at this stage the conductive couplings among panels are neglected as they are
assumed to be very small while the radiative couplings exist among the rover external
structures and environments of Jupiters icy moons. Inside of the rover is made active
and provided with black paint so that they can exchange the heat radiatively as well. As
in the analysis pumped fluid loops are not included so convective couplings H
ij
is not
considered. All the analysis done in steady state conditions thats why

is assumed to
be zero as well. The conductive coupling C
ij
is the heat transfer factor for conduction
and for the radiative couplings R
ij
, it is the product of emissivity, absorptivity, Area of
the first node and the view factor from first node to the second,
.
The ExoMars rover model used for Mars exploration is provided by EADS Astrium,
Stevenage UK. This model is the representation of the geometry of rover, solar arrays
and wheels. The model in ESATAN-TMS is shown in the Figure 4-1 below.
Figure 4-1 The ESATAN-TMS model of ExoMars rover by EADS Astrium.
=m
.C
4.1
35
The rover has different cameras, electronics equipments, actuators, wheels, solar arrays
and other components needed for the scientific objective of the mission. But in this
work, the main concern is do the thermal modelling of the rover main components and
provides validation for them in scenario of Jupiters icy moons (JIMs).
To avoid excessive rover analysis computational cost, the total numbers of nodes
provided are 105 with 342 total numbers of faces in ESATAN-TMS. The complete
detail about nodes and faces is available in appendix B. They are representing the
geometry in a broader way. The external panels for Service Module (SM) and Payload
Module (PM) contain two nodes each. All of them are radiatively active. Different
radiators of rover have different faces but active ones are those which exposed to
external environment only.
The modelling of moon is done by making a big disc, splitting into different nodes on
the basis of interest. In the centre where the rover is placed numbers of nodes are more
while at the end of the disc only one node is representing a big part of disc. After nodes
distribution assigning of bulk and optical properties of the moons is done. In this case
the disc surface exposed to rover is only made active while the other side made inactive
for modelling purpose. Finally the disc along with rover is orbited around the Jupiter in
specific orbit of the moon of interest.
The limitation and temperature constraints of different components during operation
and survival as provided by EADS Astrium-UK are enlisted below in the form of table.
Table 4-1 Temperature constraints of different components of rover as provided by Astrium-UK
36
The requirement for the individual components is not provided but total power required
is known to be 120Watts, which is necessary for the working of the different electronics
and payloads of the rover. There details regarding rover with respect to the Mars is
provided in model.d file. This file includes capacities of different nodes, fluid
properties, heat loading conditions during day and night and conductive couplings
among different components of the rover. To extract the useful information from
model.d file usually take some time for the beginner to this field. After extracting
information from this file, different approaches were used to make the rover suitable for
the icy moons.
4.1 Why Modifications are required
First of all before doing any modifications, it is essential to check the original ExoMars
rover by using it on the Jupiters moon without any alteration. For checking on different
moons following mission scenarios are selected.
4.1.1 Mission Scenarios
The following scenarios are selected for modelling and experimentations for Jupiter icy
moons to fulfil aims of this project.
1. Original ExoMars rover at equator on Europa.
2. Original ExoMars rover at pole on Europa.
3. Original ExoMars rover at equator on Ganymede.
4. Original ExoMars rover at pole on Ganymede.
5. Original ExoMars rover at equator on Callisto.
All these are selected because to check the rover for most of the conditions. At
equatorial regions, the conditions are moderate while at poles the conditions can be
extreme and worse.
4.1.2 Original ExoMars rover at equator on Europa
The original model was tested first to check whether it is feasible to use ExoMars rover
as it is, for the exploration of the equatorial regions of Europa or not. The rover was put
on the Europas equatorial region and then Europa along with rover orbited around the
Jupiter in its specific orbit as mentioned in the literature. The properties of rover were
not changed and kept as it was provided by the Astrium-UK and the properties of disc
representing the moon is changed from Mars surface to the Europa surface as provided
in appendix C. Three non-geometric nodes were incorporated inside to represent the
electronics in each of the Service and Payload Modules. The boundary conditions
provided to them are; they initialize at temperature of 20C and the load conditions
provided to them are calculated in Figure 4-2, by considering the solar flux on the
Europa around 55W/m
2
with certain solar panel efficiencies and their life degradation
factors.
37
Figure 4-2 Power obtained by Solar arrays (Class lecture by Dr JK, Cranfield University-UK)
During the radiative analysis the specific conditions were provided so that rover
represents its location on the equator of Europa. The radiative case calculate the View
factors by using MCRT technique, the rover is adjusted in the centre of disc
representing Europa in such a way that it always face towards Jupiter by adjusting the
primary positioning vector. After radiative analysis, thermal analyses were done by
providing the boundary conditions of initial temperatures and heat loads. Then the
results were post processed both in ESATAN-TMS workbench and advance post
processor Thermal NV.
Figure 4-3 Original rover on Europa post processed in ESATAN-TMS.
The Figure 4-3 shows the temperature profile of the original rover when placed in the
Europas environment without any changes. The colour pattern on the left side of figure
shows the temperature in C. The temperatures of solar array panels are very low,
Temperature [C]
38
ranging below then -150C. In this figure the temperature profile of electronics and
Europa ground are not visible which are around -110C and -174C respectively.
Figure 4-4 Average temperatures of original rover at equator of Europa.
Figure 4-4 is the extract of average temperatures of different components of rover as
analysed and post processed in Thermal NV. These results shows that the temperature
for electronics in both cases, payload and service modules are ranging from -107C to -
120C which are not acceptable in any case for electronics. The temperature for the
solar panel shown is around -156C; this is average temperature when exposed to
environment. Until now there are no such solar panels discovered which can work at
these chilling temperatures. The comprehensive details are being discussed and
compared with the results of modified rover in the chapter 6.
39
4.1.3 Original ExoMars rover at poles on Europa
The same methodology is adopted here as it was done for the rover on equatorial
regions of Europa to check original rover compatibility and its working for polar
regions. The only difference made is about the location of original rover, which is now
placed at pole by putting the polar conditions of Europa in the ESATAN-TMS radiative
case.
Figure 4-5 Average temperatures of original rover at pole of Europa.
In Figure 4-5, only parameters of interest are chosen, the critical ones are solar arrays,
electronics and their radiators. The solar arrays temperature is below -150C, which is
not the working range of solar panels. If solar panels are not working then there will be
no power and no purpose of mission exists. Secondly the electronics are also out of their
working temperature ranges. In general, these results again show that rover needs major
modifications.
40
4.1.4 Original ExoMars rover at equator on Ganymede
The validity of ExoMars rover model provided by Astrium-UK in its original form
checked at equatorial regions of Ganymede for it working before doing any
modifications. In this case, the disc properties were replaced by Ganymede moon bulk
and optical properties as given in appendix C.
Figure 4-6 Average temperatures of original rover at equator of Ganymede.
The Figure 4-6 shows the temperature of electronics is less than -100C where no
electronics can work. Secondly the solar arrays reaching to the temperature of -155C,
which is even beyond the qualification limit of them. They cant contribute towards
power for electronics. So concluding all above, modifications are essentials and utmost
important if ExoMars concept is to be utilized for the exploration of Ganymedes
equatorial regions.
41
4.1.5 Original ExoMars rover at pole on Ganymede
After doing analysis at equator, the original rover put on the polar regions of Ganymede
and analysed. The results here also demands modifications.
Figure 4-7 Average temperatures of original rover at pole of Ganymede.
The Figure 4-7 shows when the original rover is on the Ganymede pole, then electronics
are not working any more as temperature of them is below -100C and solar arrays as
well, as they are around -156C of chilling temperature. Concluding all that
modification is essential in this case as well.
42
4.1.6 Original ExoMars rover at equator on Callisto
To check the original ExoMars rover on Callisto the same methodology adopted as done
previously for the other two icy moons. The original rover needs first to check the
feasibility of this concept by providing the properties of Callisto moon surface to the
disc as in appendix C.
Figure 4-8 Average temperatures of original rover at equator of Callisto.
The Figure 4-8 showing the rover temperature profile on the surface of Callisto. Solar
arrays reaching a temperature of -155C and electronics are below -100C. These are no
working zones for both of them. Concluding all, changes are required in power
providing systems and then to electronics eventually in case of Callisto as well
By doing analysis for all five mission scenarios, it is concluded that without major
modifications, the concept of ExoMars is not feasible to use on the Icy surface of the
Jupiters moons. These modifications are discussed next.
4.2 Convergence of modified design
Different design modifications were made in the rover structure to make it feasible for
the JIMs. Few options, in the form of comparison are given below. Option 2 was
selected not on the basis of results but also on the basis of practical constraints.
43
Figure 4-9 Different modified rover options.
In the Figure 4-9 option 2 was selected after doing detailed analysis, comparing the
results with the data available and incorporating the practical constraints in the model.
After this, the modified rover model refers to the modified rover option 2 only.
4.3 Major modifications in the rover
After running the analysis of ExoMars rover model without any modification in
scenarios of Jupiters Icy moons, the findings lead to the conclusion that major changes
are required in the rover if this concept has to be utilized for JIMs.
4.3.1 Changes in thermal control mechanism
These changes are in general according to the all three moons; Europa, Ganymede and
Callisto. For space application, it is always recommended to prefer passive thermal
control mechanism instead of active. So the first choice is to modify the rover by
changing the passive thermal control mechanism with respect to JIMs.
44
4.3.1.1 Surfacefinishes
The surface finish changing is really cost effective and safer. A lot of space qualified
surface finishes are available in market. One has to careful while using them, their
values usually given with respect to BOL, a comprehensive table of different surface
finishes with their absorptivity and emissivity is available (Henninger, 1984) in the
literature. In case of rover for JIMs, different combinations are tested and validated like
black paints for inside of rover to enhance the radiative exchange of heat.
4.3.1.2 I nsulations
The multi-layer insulation (MLI) is used where the requirements are to protect the
spacecraft/rover from extreme space environment. It is the combination of low
emittance sheets with low conductance separators (Finckenor and Dooling, 1999). The
MLI is mainly used for external components, those one which are exposed to the space
environment. Single layer insulation Aerogel is suggested for the electronics to keep
them totally isolated and insulated.
4.3.1.3 Heat Pipes
Heat pipes used to increase the radiating heat capacity of the system and they are widely
used in spacecraft applications. They are considerably good in moving the heat from
electronic components through their base plate. In this thermal analysis they were not
incorporated but discussed.
4.3.1.4 PumpedFluidLoopsystem
These PFLs are required when the rover will be in mother-ship, because rover is
enclosed in the spacecraft and once the nuclear source being initiated, it is going to
produce continuous heat. That heat should be removed. In case when the rover is inside
the spacecraft, heat has to be actively dissipated and for that PFLs system is the best
known technology by today. In this work they are not used but discussed.
4.3.2 Changes in power producing equipments
Major change is done regarding the power system of rover. For deep space missions as
proven and time tested by Galileo and Voyagers the only reliable source of energy is
nuclear source.
45
4.3.2.1 RTG
The first step is to remove the solar array because of unavailability of solar flux. The
solar flux average value on the different moons is around 50~60W/m
2
and if one has to
use solar arrays, then the area required should be more than 17 m
2
[Appendix B] with
the limitations of solar availability, which is not feasible in this case. The solution to
this problem leads to use alternative reliable approaches in the form of some nuclear
source for power.
The nuclear source planned to use for this research can be multi-mission radioisotopes
thermoelectric generators MMRTG with eight units of general purpose heating
sources (GPHS). The output of this unit (64 x 64 cm
2
) is 120Watts of electrical power
and 2000Watts of thermal power at beginning of life (BOL). These MMRTGs are the
advanced form of RTGs. In this case such thermal heat load removal is the critical issue,
which needs to be carefully handled (Pradeep et al., 2005; Caponiti, 2008). In the later
text RTG means multi mission RTG.
4.3.2.2 RTGradiators
Second modification is regarding the radiators sizing. As the surface temperature of JIM
is below -140 C in case of all moons, so radiators area requirement become less as
discussed in chapter 6 in details.
Figure 4-10 Modified ExoMars rover model.
The extended structure in Figure 4-10 representing MMRTG assembly comprises of
radiators, two heat shields; one for rover and other for the ground of the moon. The
RTGs radiators temperature goes above 200C so the shielding is essentially required to
protect rover and moon ground.
46
4.3.2.3 RTGHeat shields
For RTG, the heat shields are necessary to avoid excessive heating of icy ground moon
and rover itself from the thermal waste heat of RTG. For that different options are
available but the best one is silica fibre insulation. This insulation keeps the heat of
radiators away from the ground to avoid melting of ice present of the surface of moon
and rover structure. All this heat is going to be radiated in the upper environment of
moons.
4.3.3 Non-geometric thermal nodes
For the representation of electronics, different non-geometric thermal nodes are defined
within the rover. Care must be taken when connecting these nodes to the radiators or
surfaces of interest. Conductive couplings are critical in this case. Multiple non
geometric thermal nodes are provided to avoid the short circuiting of the heat flow
among different nodes.
4.4 Changes specific to Europa
The general and major changes have already been done for all the icy moons. Those
include power source in terms of RTGs, coatings, surfaces paints for rover and
electronics representations in terms of non-geometric nodes. Specifically for Europa, the
changes done already are fine.
For the rover main body, passive thermal control in terms of MLI and black paints are
used. MLI is used externally because of its low emittance and absorptivity. The
effective conduction with the value of 0.001 was used through the panels in ESATAN-
TMS. For the radiators, the main purpose is to remove more heat in IR so for this
purpose white paints (NASA__NS74_white_paint) is used with having a high
emissivity and low absorptivity values. For wheels the paints with low absorptivity have
been used, as the surface of the Europa is totally icy with having an average temperature
of 100 K (Cassidy et al., 2007). But the wheels are not analysed in detail model as they
are out of the scope of this work.
The inner of the rover has electronics and other crucial components and it is desired to
keep it up to a certain allowable temperature, in this case 20 C is the target with 11C
margin. For that the inner side of rover, coating is made of black paint with high
emissivity and absorptivity values and for modelling purpose the inner is made totally
active in ESATAN-TMS. By totally active means, the surface is active conductively
and radiatively both.
The disc in the model represents the moon surface. For the case of Europa, the bulk and
optical properties of Europa icy surface are provided. The two layers definition for the
bulk properties is an intelligent way to deal with surface properties of moon in
ESATAN-TMS. During the simulation, the effect of these dual layers gives the better
results in terms of recognising the heterogonous composition of the surface. The
properties are given in appendix C. The main source of information is NASA-JPL web-
pages. As the data by Galileo and voyager suggest that the uppermost surface of the
47
moon is made of ice, so ice optical and bulk properties are used which are taken from
NASA web-pages as in appendix C.
4.5 Changes specific to Ganymede
The rover on Ganymede had the same major modification as discussed in the case of
Europa. The reason for using the same modified rover is the temperature profile of
Ganymede which is near to the Europa.
The rover is provided with MLI externally, black paint internally and white paint for
radiators of SM/PM modules of rover and RTGs. The surface of the Ganymede is made
of ice but its composition lies under dirty ice category as suggested by different
scientists on the basis of data obtained from the flybys of Galileo and voyager. So its
bulk and optical properties are provided in appendix C. Some assumptions regarding
dirty ice properties are made in the table by extrapolating for extreme temperatures.
4.6 Changes specific to Callisto
Callisto is the moon which is said to be more or less like Ganymede but is without its
own magnetic field. It contains dirty ice on the surface and its total composition
includes ice with rocks.
The major modification already done in rover is also applicable in Callistos
environment. MLI with 15 layers of Aluminized Kapton and Mylar, black paint inner
coating and white paint for radiators are the main properties of the modified rover of
Callisto. The bulk and optical properties are provided in appendix C and are mainly
taken from NASA-JPL web-pages. Some assumptions regarding dirty ice properties are
made in the table by extrapolating for extreme temperatures. These are related to the
specific heat and conductivity specially. As in the data obtained by Voyager and Galileo
spacecrafts flybys, its composition is mixture of ice and rock.
4.7 Modelling technique
The model of modified ExoMars rover placed on the big disc representing the moon of
interest. This is done by providing the bulk and optical properties of the moons to the
disc. Then the disc along with rover orbited around the Jupiter at specific orbit of moon
and its inclination as taken from the literature for icy moons.
The results obtained from thermal analysis followed by radiative one were cross-
checked and validated. For ESATAN-TMS one should be careful about the results
which are on the basis of inputs. Sometimes results look really good and fine but it is
practically impossible to implement them structurally.
A.H.Baluch Thermal modelling results of modified rover
48
5 Thermal modelling results of modified rover
During the thermal analysis of spacecraft, the goal is to control the temperature of
different components. These can be controlled by controlling the heat fluxes which are
the main cause of temperature fluctuations.
The different scenarios were checked and analysed by putting the ExoMars rover at
different conditions, at different locations and on different Icy moons of Jupiter.
Interesting findings were observed while simulating in the ESATAN-TMS European
space agency standard thermal analysis software. The modelling of ExoMars rover for
JIMs is totally opposite to the near Earth / near Sun missions. The environmental
conditions and temperatures are bone chilling on them and it is an extreme challenge to
built rover for such icy moons which can be used for their exploration.
The same scenarios were selected for modelling and experimentations as done for
original rover to validate the modifications of the rover in the same conditions. These
five conditions with respect to modified rover are defined here again.
1. Modified ExoMars rover at equator on Europa.
2. Modified ExoMars rover at pole on Europa.
3. Modified ExoMars rover at equator on Ganymede.
4. Modified ExoMars rover at pole on Ganymede.
5. Modified ExoMars rover at equator on Callisto.
Before continuing to the results, the scheme of modelling needs to be discussed.
Initially the simulations were done with single layer model. By single layer model
means just considering the surface of the icy moons thick enough that it can survive
while different payloads start working like drill for sampling and assuming no melting
of ice happen. But this approach was found not good enough in terms of real life time
scenarios. Then the two layers model approach was adopted as previously used by
(Lcking, 2009) for the rover on Earths moon. In this model of layers the upper surface
of ice is composed of two imaginary layers when the rover has to be at some specific
location of icy moons. Upper layer was assumed to be 200mm thick and then lower
layer assumed to be 800mm thick. This was done to get the better results on the basis of
simulations in ESATAN-TMS. During analysis upper layer of 200mm can melt while
the layer beneath will have the same constant properties all the times. Although
different data analyses on the basis of Galileo and Voyager missions of Jupiter show
that the crust of ice is hundreds of kilometres thick on these moons. But here only the
top surface is assumed for analysis as the rover is only in contact to the upper surface of
ice conductively through wheels and radiatively otherwise. To simulate the conductive
conductance between the electronics and different radiators of rover, the conductive
links are given conductive values and these are enlisted below in the form of Table 5-1.
They are discussed in details in the next chapter.
49
Table 5-1 Conductive links among different components
The methodology used for modelling is by placing the rover on the big disc. The disc is
then given the properties of the moon. This is one of the way of representing the moon,
rover and Jupiter at the same time in ESATAN-TMS. After that the disc along with
rover is orbited around the Jupiter to get the radiative results in such a way that the
rover is always facing towards planet. This was done by adjusting the primary position
vector for rover.
Before proceeding to the radiative case description, the view factors as calculated by the
ESATAN-TMS using MCRT technique are shown.
Figure 5-1 View factors to environment by ESATAN-TMS.
Figure 5-1 shows the view factors (VF) for ExoMars rover and moon disc. VFs are the
geometric properties and totally dependent of the geometry of the object. The colour
scheme shows the values of different view factors, blue showing the minimum and red
is the maximum value of one. VF for the moon surface to the environment is one, for
rover it varies.
50
Figure 5-2: The rover on moon orbiting around Jupiter (Radiative case: Avg HFs).
In the Figure 5-2 the disc is representing the moon of interest (Europa here) and the
rover is at the centre of the disc and both of them are orbiting around Jupiter which is in
the centre of the image represented by blue sphere.
Before starting the analysis, the heat flux distribution was modelled on each of the Icy
moons. This was done by creating a sphere and providing it the optical and bulk
properties of the specific moon of concern. Then the moon is orbited around the Jupiter
in its specific orbit. The flux distribution on each moon is given below. For the steady
state analysis different positions are selected. It can be seen in above figure
REFERENCE(X) / ASCENDING NODE is the starting position of the analysis. After
that every 45 steady state analysis is done for every case.
W/m
2
51
5.1 Europa
The direct heat flux on the Europa is around 50W/m
2
as calculated manually and
absorbed flux by ESATAN-TMS is 40W/m
2
.
Figure 5-3 Total absorbed flux on Europa (Albedo+IR+SAF) random position around the Jupiter.
In the Figure 5-3 the ESATAN-TMS gives the maximum value around 40W/m
2
of
absorbed flux at random position.
5.1.1 Modified ExoMars rover at equator on Europa
After doing the analysis and simulation for original rover, modifications were made.
These modifications have already been discussed in chapter 4. Now the modified rover
is placed into the environment of Europa at equator to check its adoptability and
validation for the changes. The modification in the power source from solar to nuclear
led to the solution of power for electronics of different payloads and service module of
rover up to required level. The reduction in rovers radiator areas, incorporation of non-
geometric nodes for the representation of electronics and conductive link between the
radiator and electronics are also part of modification as discussed earlier.
The modification of geometry, then doing the radiative analysis, checking and verifying
the VFs, Heat Fluxes and REFs as calculated by ESATAN-TMS using MCRT
technique leads to the thermal analysis, which calculates temperatures and produce heat
reports for different components of rover. Thermal analyses include the calling of the
ESATAN solver with sub-solver SOLVIT for doing steady state analysis. This sub-
solver works on Newton Raphson method for iteration of the results. Initially 1000
number of loops are provided in ESATAN-TMS workbench with convergence criteria
of 0.001, but the solution converges after around 740~900 loops as read in
model_name.out file in the esatan folder of the directory.
To properly simulate the result, boundary conditions are provided to the different non-
geometric nodes. These include nodes for electronics and for RTGs. For RTGs the inner
W/m
2
52
core temperature is more than 550C (Caponiti, 2008) and total load of 2000Watts of
waste heat is distributed among the radiators of RTGs. While for electronics the initial
temperature for the working of electronics provided is 20C with 30Watts of power
each, making 120Watts power in total with the assumption all electrical energy is
converted into thermal heat energy. In the Table 5-2 boundary conditions are enlisted
which were used in the thermal modelling.
Table 5-2 Boundary conditions provided to the model
The modified ExoMars rover and Europa temperature profiles are varying from -174C
to 254C. This variation is general and on overall basis. The ground temperature of
Europa is around -174C as come out from the simulation of ESATAN-TMS. These
boundary conditions are not only limited to the case regarding Europa, but they are
applicable to all moons, as the source of power produces continuous heat and have to be
rejected to the environment for the proper working of rover. The conductive links
among the radiators and their respective source components have already been
discussed.
53
Figure 5-4 Thermal model: Primary Model Attribute: Temperature [C].
The Figure 5-4 is the outcome of the results when modified ExoMars rover is post-
processed in ESATAN-TMS workbench environment. The colour scheme shows the
temperature distribution for rover. One point worth noticing here is that the Europa
surface is not displayed in the figure but that is included in the colour scheme of
temperature because of software constraints. The top of the service module is also made
hidden just to show the electronics temperature profile in the figure which is in the form
of non-geometric thermal node. The temperature profile of wheels is also visible but
they are not analysed in this work but it is discussed in chapter 6 how one can do, as
done by some researcher earlier.
All the analysis for the ExoMars rover was done in steady state conditions to find the
temperature profile of different components at different true anomaly positions with
regular intervals 0, 45, 90, 135, 180, 225, 270, 315, 360. The starting point is
REFERENCE(X) / ASCENDING NODE as shown in Figure 5-2. These results give
the pattern how the profile of different components change while the rover is on equator
of Europa which orbits around the Jupiter.
Temperature [C]
54
Figure 5-5 Steady State analysis of rover at different locations.
In Figure 5-5 temperature profile of different components around one complete orbit is
shown. All of these analyses are done in steady state conditions. The data were
extracted from different model.out file which were done at different orbit positions
and then post processed collectively in Microsoft Excel. The electronics of both SM and
PM are lying in the working range of electronics around the orbit, the radiators of
service and payload modules are working few degrees Celsius below that of their
electronics. The RTG radiators are at constant temperature of 225C and radiating the
heat to environment of Europa. The reason is the presence of continuous source of heat
in term of eight GPHS with nuclear material within the RTGs. The structure of the rover
is always around just above the average temperature of Europa ground surface
temperature which is -174C.
Although the radiative analysis shows that while Europa orbits around Jupiter the
eclipse duration is around 3.2% of total orbit time, but still the temperature profile
doesnt change. The reason for this is the low value of solar flux on the surface of moon
even in the presence of sunlight. The curves profile in above figure show almost the
straight lines. They are showing that heat generation is continuous and electronics
temperature is well maintained all around the orbit. The only limitation here is that all
the analyses were done in steady state conditions.
55
5.1.2 Modified ExoMars rover at pole on Europa
Next approach in this work is to check the rover on the poles of Europa under modified
forms of rover. This was done to fulfil one of the objectives as defined earlier. It will
lead to the possibility to use rover for the exploration of life and other geological
activities happened and happening at the polar region of Europa.
The modified ExoMars rover is placed on the polar region of the Europa to check its
validity. The changes made in general for the rover are also applied here. No special
changes were made for polar regions. This is done to check that is there any criticality
exist while missions changed from equator and polar scenarios of Europa.
Figure 5-6 Temperature profile at Polar Regions of Europa.
In the Figure 5-6, the temperature profile for electronics, radiators of rovers and RTGs
are shown. The temperature for different components of structure of rover is also
illustrated in the figure. The RTG radiators are at average temperature of 225C; this is
because of continuous heat from the nuclear source and that have to be dissipated to
avoid any failure. The electronics and radiators of rover are ranging from 10C to 25C
showing their proper working all around the orbit but the structure is much below then
the designed temperature values.
At true anomaly of 270 degrees there is a drop of temperature as observed. But this drop
is very small and it is because of the eclipse conditions. Although eclipse conditions are
only 3.2% of the total orbit time and there is not much difference of temperature while
56
the sun is there or not. So in total the rover and its electronics are not affected by this
fluctuation.
5.2 Ganymede
Ganymede is the largest moon of the solar system and it falls under the category of
Jupiters icy moons. It is composed of dirty-ice and it has a magnetic field, unlike
Callisto.
Figure 5-7 Total absorbed flux on Ganymede (Albedo+IR+SAF) random position around the
Jupiter.
The Figure 5-7 shows the distribution of total absorbed flux including Albedo, Infrared
and solar absorbed as processed in ESATAN-TMS at random position around the
Jupiter in Ganymede orbit. The colour scheme of left side of the figure shows the flux
intensity which is very low in comparison to that on the earth.
5.2.1 Modified ExoMars rover at equator on Ganymede
For the exploration of Ganymede, the most suitable place is around the equatorial
regions. These are the regions where more geological observations can be found and
W/m
2
57
chances for the existence of microbial life in these regions is more likely, than anywhere
else on the moon. The ExoMars rover is modified and then tested again in the
environmental conditions of Ganymede.
Figure 5-8 Thermal model: Primary Model Attribute: Temperature [C].
The Figure 5-8 shows the modified ExoMars rover on the surface of Ganymede. The
temperature colour scheme is shown on the left side of the figure. The radiators for SM
and PM, wheels, structure, and RTGs are visible in terms of their temperature. The heat
shield covering the RTGs and their radiators for the protection of ground is also visible
with its temperature range. The electronics are not visible as they are inside the service
and payload module but they are working well ranging from 10C to 25C.
The analyses done for rover on Ganymede are in steady state conditions. To check the
validity of modified rover on different locations around the orbit, the rover was tested at
different positions independently and then plotted, as can been seen in the next figure.
The modified ExoMars rover is placed on the equatorial regions of Ganymede under its
extreme environmental conditions for validation. One interesting similarity found is
temperature of RTGs radiators, actually they have to be same as source is same and it is
continuously producing waste heat and their radiators are removing them to the
Ganymedes environment.
Temperature [C]
58
Figure 5-9 Temperature profile at Equatorial Regions of Ganymede.
The temperature profile is plotted against different true anomaly positions in Figure 5-9
for different components when the rover is on Ganymede orbiting around Jupiter. The
electronics is working within their design temperature ranges from 10C to 25C and
their radiators are few degrees Celsius below then their temperatures as conductor used
among them having a value of 50W/m
2
.K. The external structure is out of range for this
moon as well, as they are not designed for the extreme conditions of icy moons.
5.2.2 Modified ExoMars rover at pole on Ganymede
For solar system the temperatures at poles are more chilling then equators. Although the
average temperatures on Ganymede are around -160C but one can assume it will be
more freezing on poles than regions of equators but not much difference due to low
solar flux. If any life can exist on the surface then it can be in the frozen form as
predicted by scientists and astrophysicists or it can be exist in some other forms which
are not known by today.
The testing of modified ExoMars rover is essential to validate the results. This testing
leads to find the conclusion about the modifications made that these are feasible for
Ganymede or not.
59
Figure 5-10 Temperature profile at Polar Regions of Ganymede.
The Figure 5-10 shows the same pattern as it was for the previous case when the rover
was on the Equatorial regions of Ganymede. The electronics are working fine with in
10C to 26C all around the orbit along with their radiators. The RTGs are producing
waste heat continuously and their radiators removing them to the environment at
average temperature of 225C. The temperature of structure is ranging between -150C
to -160C, much below then their designed value. They need to be modified.
60
5.3 Callisto
As the flybys of Galileo and Voyager were only along the equator of Callisto so the data
available is limited to equatorial regions, so the analyses are done for equatorial region
of this moon. It is good to simulate the results at poles but then one should have to
assume the properties of ice at poles completely.
Exploration of Callisto can give us more information about the geological origin of
these moon systems along with the presence of life if there any. Before proceeding to
the rover experimentation, the flux distribution is checked on the surface of Callisto.
Figure 5-11 Total absorbed flux on Callisto (Albedo+IR+SAF) random position around the Jupiter.
The absorbed flux distribution on Callisto at random position around the Jupiter is
shown in the Figure 5-11 as processed by ESATAN-TMS. The direct heat flux is
around 50W/m
2
which is not suitable for working of solar arrays; otherwise huge area
of approximate 17m
2
(appendix B) is required for them to get the same amount of
power which is 120Watts here.
The rover is modified by providing nuclear powered source and reducing the radiators
areas to make it suitable for the Callisto environment.
W/m
2
61
Figure 5-12 Thermal model: Primary Model Attribute: Temperature.
Figure 5-12 shows the post-processed image of modified rover in ESATAN-TMS. The
RTG radiators are reaching to an average temperature of 230C, while electronics and
their radiators are well within the working range -20C to +40C.
Figure 5-13 Temperature profile at Equatorial Regions of Callisto.
Temperature [C]
62
The Figure 5-13 shows the results of different components of the rover when different
analyses were done at different positions on the orbit of Callisto and then extracting the
data from model.out file and post processing in Microsoft Excel. This shows the same
profile pattern as for the rover when it is on the other icy moons. The straight lines show
that radiators of RTGs are continuously dissipating heat to the environment at
temperature of 225C. Structure is always at chilling temperature below then -150C.
All these analyses were done under steady state conditions, if these can be done
transiently then the profile will show the actual scenario much better but because of the
presence of lower solar flux, bone chilling temperature, constant heat production from
RTGs and its dissipation will cause not much difference from steady state conditions.
A.H.Baluch
6 Discussion
Thermal inertia is the key criterion
long the spacecraft is exposed to heating or cooling loads is the main concern. The
challenging environment of Jupiters icy moons with their extreme and chilling
temperatures lead engineers to diffic
of any rover. The main philosophy carried out in this research is the modification of
rover, its analysis using ESATAN
used in general is the passive ther
suggested for cruise stage but not
project.
Figure 6-1 Thermal control system for ExoMars rov
In the Figure 6-1 the complete procedure is shown. There are
in strike through style, showing that they are not
work but initially carried out in the research. Heat pipes and pumped fluid loops are
discussed but not included in the analysis. Passive thermal control (PTC) is preferred
over active control system as a whole unti
mechanism is used because of its durability and long life time. The outer surface of
rover is protected by MLI and inner is provided with black paints. The factor which
matter for any surface exposed in space
different wavelength regions.
environment and black pint is used to increase the radiative couplings inside the rover
body. The active thermal control (ATC) as used by JPL
surface during cruise is discussed later in the text for Pumped fluid loops
incorporated in the ESATAN
absorptivity and emissivity values with respect to the beginning of life (BOL).
63
rmal inertia is the key criterion for the thermal designing of spacecraft. In short, how
temperatures lead engineers to difficulty for the exploration of the surface with means
rover, its analysis using ESATAN-TMS and validation of the results. The methodology
used in general is the passive thermal control while active thermal control mechanism is
suggested for cruise stage but not developed further here, as it is out of the scope of the
Thermal control system for ExoMars rover for JIMs.
the complete procedure is shown. There are a few components written
in strike through style, showing that they are not used in thermal control of rover in this
over active control system as a whole until or unless it is essential to use it. The PTC
matter for any surface exposed in space is the ratio of
o
c
giving the idea of properties in
different wavelength regions. MLI is used to protect rover from extreme external
The active thermal control (ATC) as used by JPL-NASA for rover on Mars
surface during cruise is discussed later in the text for Pumped fluid loops
incorporated in the ESATAN-TMS analysis. The properties used for PTC have their
nd emissivity values with respect to the beginning of life (BOL).
Discussion
for the thermal designing of spacecraft. In short, how
surface with means
TMS and validation of the results. The methodology
mal control while active thermal control mechanism is
developed further here, as it is out of the scope of the
er for JIMs.
few components written
used in thermal control of rover in this
l or unless it is essential to use it. The PTC
giving the idea of properties in
used to protect rover from extreme external
NASA for rover on Mars
surface during cruise is discussed later in the text for Pumped fluid loops (PFLs) but not
TMS analysis. The properties used for PTC have their
nd emissivity values with respect to the beginning of life (BOL).
A.H.Baluch Discussion
64
Two layers model approach is used for simulation as explained in previous chapter. The
different results have already been presented in the chapter 5, now those are being
discussed and compared with the literature and research already done in this field.
6.1 Reasons for different alterations
In the rover different components were removed, different coating and paints are
incorporated and some of the components get reduced in area, while there are a few new
components which are added to the system of ExoMars rover to make it feasible for the
exploration of Jupiters moons. The detail discussion is given below.
6.1.1 MLI
Multilayer insulation is provided to the rover external structure. It is made of 15 layers
of Aluminized Kapton and Mylar separators. Pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA) tapes
are used to close the MLI ends at different parts of the rover.
The effective value of MLI emissivity used is 0.05 and with the very low absorptivity of
0.03. There are some practical constraints with MLI that with the mission life the values
of emittance and absorptance decrease, so the thermal engineer must keep that end of
life (EOL) values in the mind whenever doing analysis. For the mission duration of five
years the MLI used in case of rover is within the limits. With respect to the extreme
chilling temperature of JIMs, MLI can easily survive these chilling temperatures
because the literature shows its concern with high temperature not with the freezing
temperature. Care must be taken at the joints while using PSA tapes.
6.1.2 Removal and reduction in areas of rover radiators
The electronics and different sensitive components work only in a certain specified
temperature ranges. If temperature is below or above those values, the component
cannot perform its intended function. There are different ways to control the
temperature up to a certain range. Sometimes ATC like heaters are required while PTC
like radiators can work effectively within the margin of 11C.
In case of rover, initially there were six radiators comprising of total area of 0.75m
2
but
then it is reduced to 0.33m
2
with 56% reduction in area in total. The radiators, facing
towards the ice directly at the bottom of rover, are removed totally to avoid heating of
ice while drill or some other science experiment is going on. The side radiators of
payload and service modules reduced 44.5% because to maintain the electronics within
working temperature range. These are the conditions when all electrical power is
dissipated in terms of heat within the rover and external payload is not working at that
time meaning 120Watts of all electrical power is converted into heat. Another analysis
with 90Watts of heat used by electronics is done as well and found working
temperatures of electronics between -5C to 23C with radiator few degree centigrade
below them [Appendix A].
The ESATAN-TMS modelling of radiators is done in such a way that the face directed
towards the environment is made active while other one facing towards the rover made
inactive. The direct conductive link is made among different electronics and radiators.
65
The capacitance value used here for modelling purpose is 50W/m
2
.K. The other
important parameter of radiators is their surface paints. The white paint
NASA_NS74_white_paint is used for the external surface which is exposed to the
environment with high emissivity 0.92 and low absorptivity 0.17 values at BOL
(Finckenor and Dooling, 1999). The reason of using this is the effective removal of heat
in IR regions. One practical constraint is the white paint EOL values of emissivity and
absorptivity.
6.1.3 MMRTG
Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generators (MMRTGs) concept as used by
Mars exploratory laboratory (MEL) is extended and utilized here for the power
generation purpose in deep space missions of Jupiters icy moons. This MMRTG used
in Mars Exploratory Rover (MER) has a mass of 40kg with 2000Watts of waste heat
(Pradeep et al., 2009) and 120Watts of electrical power. As already discussed this
MMRTG has eight general purpose heating sources and basic principle is the natural
decay of radioisotopes. The heat generated by this decay is utilized for thermoelectric
conversion. The problem with these nuclear source driven devices are that they are
independent of demand with continuous production of power (Som et al., 2009) so
removal of heat and consumption of power is required all the time.
The removal of this heat is a big challenge in deep space and during the cruise stage for
the rover. These are preferred over solar arrays because of their effectiveness in deep
space missions and reliability (Caillat et al., 2006) as mentioned in chapter 2. Among
the other reasons, solar array cannot work efficiently when the solar flux having values
around 50W/m
2
and if they can work then area required for them would be very large,
12 times more than the original Solar arrays area as discussed in chapter 4. Other
important consideration is RTG powered rover can work at any time irrespective of sun
availability. For RTGs, there are a lot of advancement have already been done by
NASA in terms of Advance Stirling engine convertors (ASEC), Alkali metal thermal to
electrical convertor (AMTEC) and Segmented thermoelectric convertors (STEC)
(Mondt et al., 2002) to improve their efficiency from 6~7 % to 12~15% but the process
of continuous improvement is still there. One disadvantage of using nuclear source is
that they will add mass penalty in comparison to solar arrays by making the mission
costly. But in a long run they are effective and reliable for deep space missions. Use of
the radioactive material in such missions can also be dangerous if during the launch
some mishaps happen and radioactive materials get dispersed.
6.1.3.1 Radiatorsfor RTGs
The radiators with the increased efficiency and less mass can be made of carbon-carbon
or thermo-pyrolatic graphite (TPG). These radiators are proved to be ultra light weight
(Shaltens et al., 2001). The net result of weight reduction and efficiency improvement
leads to the cost effectiveness of the mission. For LEO missions by space shuttle cost is
around $10,500/kg (Futron Corporation, 2002) and deep space missions are much
higher than this. So weight reduction is really helpful in reducing cost.
66
6.1.3.2 Fuel cell withRTGs
Fuel cell technology is getting the attention because of its specific volume and specific
weight density in comparison to the conventional batteries (Burke, 2003). But in case of
Jupiters icy moons, this technology in combination with the RTGs leads to increase the
system net power by using the melting of in-situ ice by use of waste heat and then
electrolysis of water obtained into hydrogen and oxygen for working of fuel cells. The
comparison of (Som et al., 2009) preferring fuel cell over Lithium-ion batteries and
within the fuel cells technology, Alkaline fuel cells over Proton Exchange Membrane
(PEM) fuel cells shows the effectiveness of hybrid system and their importance for
overall power. The only constraints for this is the mass penalty, but lifetime can be
increased much more then the system which is on batteries. This technology needs more
validation and experimentation, in this work this is just discussed not carried out in
simulations.
6.1.4 Power budget
During the analysis, the assumption is made that all electrical power is converted into
heat and all of that is utilized within the rover service and payload module equipments.
A detailed table for one of the rover power budget is available in the work done at
Marshal Space Flight Centre-NASA for the rover which is designed for polar
exploration of Earths moon (Graham, 2007).
The load conditions which were provided for the rover in case of Martian environment
do not work here. Actually it was defined in terms of day and night conditions because
of the availability of sun but in case of JIMs there is no such difference of conditions
between the two, when they are facing towards sun or not as they are approx 5.203AU
distance away from sun and Solar Arrays have been replaced with RTGs.
So the load in case of rover when it is on the surface of JIMs is considered to be
120Watts all the time, the designing and analysis here done when the peak load of
120Watts is utilizing by all the electronics inside of the rover and all is converting into
the heat. All the electronics in the Service and payload module found working within
their working ranges. It was also checked by decreasing the power to the electronics
from 120 to 90Watts and assuming that some power is converted as RF during
transmissions of signals. The results for electronics were still within the allowable range
from -15C to 23C [Appendix A].
6.1.5 Batteries
Although the batteries are completely removed from the modified rover but if the
rechargeable batteries can be used for storing the energy in the rover of deep space
missions, then the biggest challenge is to keep them within their working temperature
range. Advanced space rated Lithium-Ion batteries developed by NASA are good in
energy storage but the issue is their temperature constraint, they still work only from -
60C to +60C (Surampudi and Subbarao, 2006). So batteries can be the last option in
any case but with significant improvement in their design not in the conditions as they
are available now.
67
6.2 Electronics mountings and Insulation
For the working of electronics and its different components, they have to be insulated
properly and maintained at their designed temperatures. This is applicable to all space
missions. For the case of rover, the electronics have to be insulated by AEROGEL,
especially the type of aerogel which is used for cryogenic application; the available one
with trade name is Cryogel Z by aspen aerogel [Appendix A]. The other option for
aerogel can be carbon-opacified silica aerogel with low emissivity surface finishes (T
Rettelbach, 1995). The overall mechanism is keeping the electronics isolated from
environmental loads and maintaining their design working temperatures. In this work,
within the ESATAN-TMS model, the electronics is defined as non-geometric node and
initialize with initial temperature and heat loads. But in actual practise, space thermal
engineer has to keep in mind about the contact area at joints, the uniformity of pressure
among them, the gaps present between the contact surfaces at microscopic level. All
these play an important role in heat transfer through conduction. Filler can increase the
conductivity among them but their properties need careful attention.
The electronics in the spacecraft are accurately organised in terms of where the
components need to be bolted and what values of conductance should be there. For
electronics the flow of heat usually happen from the component to the mounting plate
then to the base plate and finally to the space through radiators. The higher the value of
conductance ensures the less temperature difference between the component and the
base plate. In reality it is difficult to get high conductivity but they can be enhanced by
using the filler materials among them. Silicone Room-TemperatureVulcanised
compounds (RTVs) are used as filler in space industry and preferred over CHO-THER
composite which have poor out-gassing qualities (Karam, 1998).
Figure 6-2 Electronics mountings on spacecraft (Gilmore, 2002; Karam, 1998).
The Figure 6-2 gives the schematic representation how the different electronic
components are mounted on the mounting plates through base/cold plate. Usually most
of the spacecraft are made of honeycomb structures, so the care is required as the heat
transfer in honey-comb structure in the lateral direction is limited. The effect of filler
plays an important role in conductance values. It can be seen from the graph below.
68
Figure 6-3 Comparison of conductance with and without filler materials (Karam, 1998).
In Figure 6-3 shows that use of filler like RTV leads to increase the conductance
through honey comb structure very effectively by reducing the contact area / number of
bolts which are important in conduction within the spacecraft.
6.3 Analysis regarding Wheels
The locomotion of the rover is done by using wheels. There are six wheels present on
the rover for the exploration of Jupiters icy moons. These six wheels configuration
make rover capable of crossing the hindrance size of its own wheel diameters (Graham,
2007). In this work wheels analysis is not incorporated in ESATAN-TMS but the same
analogy adopted here as done by Jerry B. Graham (Graham, 2007) at Marshall Space
Flight Centre of NASA for rover at poles of Earths moon.
The working of actuators for wheels can be controlled passively around -150C
and incorporation of 3Watts of power per wheel can easily work for the wheel system as
tested by Marshall Space Flight Centre (Graham, 2007). In this work, the wheels are
provided with the material coating of low absorptive and low emissivity values. The
reason for this is the extreme chilling temperature of icy moons. From inside they are
provided with black paint. But in detailed analysis these wheels are not incorporated. In
this area more detailed modelling in ESATAN-TMS is required and then validation
with the literature available for the rover wheels mechanism.
6.4 Comments on every components as provided by ASTRIUM
Although only limited data have been provided for the thermal modelling of the rovers
different components by Astrium-UK, but survival limit is available in the data sheet, so
few comments regarding every component are made according to their thermal and
system point of view. Batteries are too sensitive to the environmental fluctuation, in the
modified rover they have been removed because of the reliability of RTGs. Navigation
and localization cameras have their survival ranges of -130C which are higher than the
average temperatures of JIMs, so before putting them onto the rover for Icy moons they
should have to be validated for their conditions. UHF Antenna survival range is around
69
-130C while the average temperature profile is below then -150C, so antenna needs
careful consideration regarding survival and working limits. The antenna and MLI
interaction should be avoided to ensure proper transmission of signals. The external
structure operational and working temperatures in the original model are not suitable in
Jupiters icy moons so they also need considerable modification.
6.5 Calculation of View factors and REFs
In case of ESATAN-TMS the calculation of View factors and the REFs is usually done
by the MCRT technique. These view factors are totally geometric properties and can be
validated by creating M-files in Matlab or Microsoft Excel files which are abundantly
available on the web. A list of these sources is available in the Appendix A. Few of
them were validated with the results of ESATAN-TMS and complete correlations with
them were found.
6.6 Active heat rejection system for Rover during cruise
The thermal management of the rover during transfer through the mother-ship is really
challenging and requires active heat rejection system. Once nuclear source start working
then the generation of heat is continuous and its removal should be done for the safety
and criticality of different components of the spacecraft. Once the spacecraft/rover is on
the surface of the moons, then passive system can work for the heat removal as analysed
and found by the ESATAN-TMS.
Different researchers used and validated mechanically pumped fluid loop systems
(Ganapathi et al., 2003) for the rovers. More recent work has been carried out with
mechanically pumped fluid loop systems (PFLs) at Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA
and California institute of technology. Two mechanical PFLs were tested, one for
payload and one other used to transfer the heat during cruise phase (Pradeep et al.,
2009). Same analogy can be used for the rover made for Jupiter icy moons.
Figure 6-4 Schematics representing the thermal control of the rover during cruise for Mars
(Pradeep et al., 2009).
70
The Figure 6-4 gives the idea for the heat removal from the rover during its cruise stage
by using cruise radiators. The same technique can be used to test and validate the rover
during its mission to Jupiters icy moons.
6.7 Rover on Europa
When the modified ExoMars rover is on the surface of the icy moons during
simulations, different temperature profiles were observed for different components. The
main concern is to get some useful information from the results. For that different tool
like Matlab, Microsoft Excel and Thermal NV are available. Microsoft Excel is used but
Thermal NV is preferred as this advanced post-processor is specially designed for
ESATAN-TMS output files.
A short description about this tool has already been discussed in chapter 3; the first step
is the importing of nodes from TMD/TMD2 output files and then arranging them in
layout of interest. There are many layout options but the preferred one here is the
manual layout to show the scheme of rover properly.
While doing analysis and post processing within the ESATAN-TMS workbench two
nodes with the number 99,999 and 99,998 never appear, but in case of Thermal NV they
show up while the file is imported. These are the environmental and inactive nodes
respectively generated during analysis.
Figure 6-5 Arrangement of different nodes of the rover in Thermal NV.
71
The Figure 6-5 shows the arrangement of nodes, representing different parts of the rover
done by using the manual arrangement technique available in Thermal NV. The cyan
colour represents the conductive couplings and the arrow shows the direction of heat
flow. The radiative couplings are not visible in the above figure; this is done
intentionally to show the layout in a comprehensive format otherwise radiative coupling
lines showing the radiative flow make the figure a bit useless because of the overflow of
the details. The temperature of the radiators both for the electronics and RTGs plays an
important role in maintaining the stability of the system, so that the rover can perform
its scientific objectives efficiently.
After importing the .TMD file in Thermal NV, labelling of nodes by group and
rearrangement is done in the format as shown above. Different analyses were done in
forms of charts, delta, limit and heat reports and they are discussed in the coming text.
The control of temperature and their variation are the main task of thermal engineer for
any space mission. The job starts with calculating the heat fluxes which are the cause of
temperature fluctuations and then defining different methods and techniques to avoid
the spacecraft from their effects for the proper working of spacecraft. The next results
discussion is about the temperature profile of the rover on Europa.
Figure 6-6 Rover electronics and their radiators at Equator of Europa.
The Figure 6-6 shows the temperature profile of electronics involved in the rover. The
temperature of the electronics is higher than their radiators as per results obtained. This
is the true representation of practical work as well. It depends upon the thermal
conductivity K of the conductor between the electronics and radiators. The greater the
72
values of conductivity the lesser will the difference of temperature between electronics
and their radiators. The thermal margin provided for PTC in this case is 11C which is
standard in industry as well for the systems which are controlled passively.
In the above result there is one limitation that value conductivity K is assumed and
used in the simulation which can make result biased, if it is not achieved. But in practise
with the use of fillers among the joints, one can achieve the conductivity of own choice
up to a certain limit as shown in Figure 6-3.
Now the next concern is to check about the RTGs and their radiators working
conditions. The next plot is for the radiators of RTGs, their outer casings and
temperature of non-geometric nodes which in total, represent RTGs. As the inner
temperature of the RTGs goes beyond 550C thats why the initial temperature
boundary condition of 600C is provided to simulate the results close to the reality. The
output results are shown in the Figure 6-7.
Figure 6-7 Rover RTGs radiators temperature profile at equator of Europa.
Figure 6-7 shows the average temperature of radiators for RTGs which is around 227C.
The RTG outer is showing the temperature of 175C, which is just the representations
of outer casings and is coupled radiatively only. The RTG_NGN are conductively
linked to the radiators with the conductivity value of 50W/m
2
.K as described in the
result section of this report. The temperature profile of RTGs radiators remain the same
throughout the orbiting of Europa around the Jupiter, as the nuclear source in RTGs is
continuously producing the waste heat. To avoid the moon surface and structure of the
73
ExoMars rover to get heat from RTGs, heat shields are provided on both sides as shown
in Figure 5-4 of previous chapter. These heat shields can be made with carbon-carbon
composite which can withstand temperature ranges up to 300C. Radiators are exposed
to the upper environment only. The white paint coatings are good in dissipating of heat
in IR spectra, thats why they are provided to RTGs radiators. These white coatings if
exposed to high temperature of more than 200C then degrading of them happen more
quickly than designed mission life (Smith and Olson, 1965). Space qualifications are
required for white paints before sending into space with 11C margins. If heat shields
for the RTG radiators are not designed properly then it can lead to mission failure by
melting of ice on the moon and then sticking of rover inside the ice surface.
The other way of getting the fruitful outcomes from the result is to generate limit reports
on the basis of limiting factor for different components of spacecraft/rover. For
ExoMars rover different operational and survival maximum and minimum limits are
provided by Astrium-UK. These limits are plotted in the Figure 6-8 with the
temperature profile of the simulated data obtained by ESATAN-TMS.
Figure 6-8 Limit report when rover is at equatorial regions of Europa (Temperature in [C]).
The Figure 6-8 is the limit report, giving the detailed descriptions about qualification
and acceptance limits with design values incorporating uncertainties in the designing.
The structure can be easily seen with red colour and it is beyond even the survival limit
as provided by the Astrium-UK. This is because actual rover was designed for Mars
conditions. The structure has to be replaced with one having improved qualities. In
recent days different composites are available for this purpose by adding the weight
advantage to the system. Radiators and electronics for the rover are working well within
Temperature [C]
74
the range, but the radiators for RTGs show their inclination towards one of their
extreme acceptance limit. This is because these radiators and their coatings were
assumed to withstand temperature up to 530K (Smith and Olson, 1965). This was one
of the practical constraints back in previous century, now composites specially carbon-
carbon composite radiators can withstand and work on their design temperatures of
700K to 800K easily and effectively (Juhasz, 2002). The average temperature profile
of the structure is shown independently in the Figure 6-9.
Figure 6-9 Average Temperature of rover structure.
In Figure 6-9 the average temperatures of different panels of the rover are shown. The
overall impression about the rover structure from the plot is that they are even beyond
the survival limit as provided by Astrium-UK and always below -150C. As earlier
mentioned they need to be replaced by the composites of better qualities which can
withstand the average temperature profile of the moon surface. Nowadays advancement
in composite technology can make honey-comb structures to withstand such extreme
temperatures by arranging their fibre orientations with different types of matrix fillers.
The use of composite not only adds the mass savings but also avoid any interference
between the metallic structure and its TT&C subsystem.
The Table 6-1 shows the average, maximum and minimum temperatures of different
components of rover, when the rover is on the equatorial regions of the Europa. It also
shows about the node involved for maximum and minimum temperatures of different
components. The flow of the heat in the form of net conductor heat flow can also be
seen from the table below. All this is done in steady state conditions, and there is no
variation with respect to time so thats the reason time shown is zero. The heat shield is
75
showing two extremities; because one side is exposed to the RTGs radiators while the
other to the ground of the moon.
Table 6-1 Different characteristics of rover components for Europa
ExoMars rover at poles on Europa
When the modified rover is placed in the polar regions of Europa to check its system
workability and temperature variation of different modified components under steady
state conditions, then the electronics and RTGs were found to be working normal within
their allowable ranges. The results obtained for the polar regions are same as that for the
equatorial regions. No difference is found among them.
Another extreme case was also checked by putting the rover on equatorial regions while
those regions are in state of eclipse and facing opposite to the Jupiter. The results found
were also the same because there is almost no much difference there if sun is available
or not and other reason is use of RTGs source which is independent of sun availability.
This case is attached in appendix A.
Concluding above if the rover can work at equatorial region then it can work at all the
regions of Europa. All the details including different charts representing Average
temperature of components, Maximum and minimum temperatures, Net heat balance
sum, Nodes of maximum and minimum heat transfer, sum net conductor heat flows,
delta reports and heat reports are provided in details in the appendix A in the form of a
CD for different cases. Heat report for Europa is also attached in appendix D. The
ExoMars rover results discussed above for Europa has some limitations. They are done
at steady state conditions by assuming that there is no change with respect to time. This
76
can decrease the level of confidence on the results, as changes are always there when
moon is orbiting around Jupiter. Secondly, the emissivity and absorptivity values used
for white paints of radiators are with respect to the BOL values but they can vary the
results at the EOL because white paint is sensitive to temporal degradation during their
life time.
6.8 Rover on Ganymede
The next moon of interest is Ganymede in this work, the goal here to check and to
validate the modification in ExoMars rover. The discussion for Ganymede follows the
same pattern as that for Europa. This is done to make the report in the same synchronize
way and to show the consistency of results descriptions.
First of all the same layout was formed as shown in Figure 6-5 for the arrangement of
different nodes. The only difference is Ganymede surface details are picked up by the
Thermal NV from .TMD file by itself during the import of data, instead of Europa
surface.
Figure 6-10 Rover electronics and their radiators at Equator of Ganymede.
The Figure 6-10 shows the electronics and their radiator temperature. For the Payload
module the electronics temperature is around 12C while the radiators are one degree
below this temperature. For the service module the electronics temperature is around
25C. All these are within the working range. The load is assumed to be continuous on
the electronics and they are maintaining themselves at these temperatures through
passive control systems. Their designing needs initial cost but the running cost is
77
negligible as they are passively control which is one of the trade-off used in space
industry. In this work only passive system is changed and analysed.
Figure 6-11 Rover RTGs radiators profile at Equatorial Regions of Ganymede.
The Figure 6-11 shows the temperature profile of second modification, which was done
to provide the continuous power in the absence of solar power. The initial boundary
condition for temperature of 600C is provided to RTGs to represent the inside
temperature of RTG core which is 550C and above (Caillat et al., 2006). The results
were then generated by the ESATAN-TMS to show the range of average temperatures
of radiators around 234C, which the radiators and their coating can easily sustain
(Smith and Olson, 1965) and now because of advance technologies this limit has
increased more than twofold. Here RTG_Outer is the external casing of the RTGs
which are used to represent the structure only.
These temperature ranges are fine for the working of RTGs as literature suggests but the
protection of rover and ground of moon from this heat is critical concern. If such a
temperature is not protected by heat shield then melting of ice can happen. It will
eventually lead the RTGs side of rover to move down inside the ice.
Next is the comparison among the operational, survival limits provided and the results
obtained after simulation of modified ExoMars rover. Such limit reports give the
representation of margins about the spacecraft different components which they have.
One can quickly see the limits with only a birds eye view.
78
Figure 6-12 Limit report when rover is at Equatorial Regions of Ganymede (Temperature in [C]).
The Figure 6-12 illustrates the comparison of the structures, electronics, radiators results
obtained from ESATAN-TMS and the limits provided by Astrium-UK.
The conclusion is that changes are required in the structure to make it suitable to the
environment of Ganymede. The structure is always beyond the qualification limits as
shown red in colour. The electronics, their radiators and RTGs radiators are working
fine well within the limits. Their green profile in the image above shows their normal
working with in their specified ranges. For electronics more refined modelling is
required as non geometric node is just ideal representation not practical.
Temperature [C]
79
.
Figure 6-13 Temperature of rover structure.
The Figure 6-13 shows the variation of temperature of different components of rover
structure at equatorial regions of Ganymede. The structure needs to be modified
according to the moons environment.
components of rover, when the rover is on the equatorial regions of the Ganymede. The
nodes involved, net conductor heat flow can be seen from the table below. All this is
done in steady state conditions and there is no variation with respect to time so that is
the reason time shown is zero. To simulate the RTGs properly initial boundary
conditions are provided to inner core which are represented by non geometric nodes
here. RTGs and its components need more refined meshing and analyses before
execution of this concept.
80
Table 6-2 Different characteristics of rover components for Ganymede
ExoMars rover at Poles of Ganymede
The next scenario checked for modified ExoMars rover is by putting rover on the polar
regions of Ganymede. The results obtained are the same as found for the case when the
rover is placed on the Equatorial regions of Ganymede. Electronics and their radiators
are well within their working temperatures ranging from -20C to 40C. The RTGs and
their radiators average temperatures are around 225C.These results are not produced
here but available in appendix A for reference.
The rover analysis on Ganymedes equatorial and polar regions show that the
modification once made are effective for both the regions. The limiting factors are
steady state analysis, limited number of nodes, electronics representations in form of
non geometric nodes and RTGs heat shields. All these need more detailed modelling
before implementation of the concept.
The complete details in terms of different charts representing Average temperature of
components, Maximum and minimum temperatures, Net heat balance sum, Nodes of
maximum and minimum heat transfer, sum net conductor heat flows, delta reports and
heat reports are provided in details in appendix A.
81
6.9 Rover on Callisto
The flybys of Galileo and Voyager were limited to the equatorial regions of Callisto, so
for Callisto only equator mission scenario is selected and simulated in ESATAN-TMS.
The exploration of this moon leads to find the evolution of solar system along with the
presence of life there if any.
Figure 6-14 Temperature histogram at Equatorial Regions of Callisto.
Figure 6-14 shows the temperature histogram of different components. Electronics is
always above 10C, RTGs radiators are always above 200C which are within the
acceptable range while rover structure going below -150C which is the area of concern
and need to be replaced. The modification of structure is beyond the scope of this
project but carbon-carbon composites with specific fibre and their orientation along
with matrix of desired quality can solve this problem and detailed model in ESATAN-
TMS can validate their working conditions in extreme environments of JIMs. The next
two figures show the temperature profile of individual components in details. Figure
6-15 shows the electronics temperatures which are between 11C to 25C within the
Callisto environment while Figure 6-16 shows the limit range of the components, how
much margin they still have. The assumption about electronics is that all loads are
consumed by them and payload is not working.
82
Figure 6-15 Rover electronics temperature profile at Equatorial Regions of Callisto.
Figure 6-16 Limit report when rover is at Equatorial Regions of Callisto (Temperature in [C]).
Temperature [C]
83
To check the working of electronics in different conditions when payload is working,
different combinations among electronics are adopted by changing boundary conditions
of heat loads. They boundary condition changed from 120 to 90Watts and results found
fluctuation between -15C to 23C (Appendix A) for electronics which are still in the
working range. It leads to validations about the reduction in radiator areas are working
well with the range of electronics.
components of rover, when the rover is on Callisto. The analysis is done in steady state
conditions, and there is no variation with respect to time so thats the reason time shown
is zero. The electronics temperature is varying from 11C to 25C. The heat shields used
for protecting the rover and ground of the moon show two extreme values. 199.5C is
the temperature of that side of heat shields which are exposed to RTGs radiators, while
the other to the rover and icy ground.
Table 6-3 Different characteristics of rover components for Callisto
From the tables 6-1, 6-2 and 6-3, it is evident about the nodes involvement for
maximum and minimum temperatures of electronics fluctuate. This fluctuation is very
small in order of 0.20C, but this is because of the fluctuation of the heat flux on
different sides of rover radiators, as electronics is represented by ideal case of non
geometric nodes. In the actual conditions this can be because of fluctuation of
conductivity values of conductors between electronics and radiators.
For heat shields, the node number 50001 is always showing the maximum temperature.
In this case more refined meshing is required to predict the temperature distribution for
the heat shields. RTG_NGN maximum temperature is always shown by node number
9706 because the heat load applied to this node is 290Watts and for the rest it was
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285Watts as shown in Table 5-2. This is done firstly to distribute the load of 2000Watts
and secondly this non geometric node is attached to the top radiator of RTGs and that
radiator is exposed to the environment completely. For RTG_NGN the conductor heat
flow is -2000Watts, as heat load boundary conditions is provided to them for the
representation of actual module of RTGs. This heat is flowing from RTG_NGN to
RTGs radiators. Rest of the nodes related to the structure of the rover. The interesting
finding is that in all three moons, the same node numbers show the extreme
temperatures for different components of rover structure. This shows the consistency of
the results and lead to conclusion if rover is modified then it can be implemented for the
three moons.
6.10 Comparison among the rovers on different moons at
different conditions
Thermal NV Batch runner is one of the advance tools in Thermal NV. It is really good
for cross comparisons among different results. In this work, Batch runner is used to
make the comparison among the different moons results which are available in form of
.TMD files. In this every model is treated under the same layout with common limits
and deltas and then cross-comparison is obtained from that.
The five mission scenarios and their results have already been discussed and now the
comparison among them is analysed and discussed. The comparison is done in the
following pattern.
- Comparison for the modified ExoMars rover at equatorial and polar regions of
Europa.
- Comparison for the modified ExoMars rover at equatorial and polar regions of
Ganymede.
- Comparison for the modified ExoMars rover for equatorial and polar regions of
Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
The comparison reports with in the Europa and Ganymede and all three icy moons of
Jupiter are attached in Appendix A. Here the discussion is limited to the comparison
among the three moons at different location of rover on them by making Callisto data as
reference. This comparison is among the reports which are obtained at Equatorial and
polar regions of Europa and Ganymede and equatorial regions of Callisto.
Table 6-4 shows the fluctuation of average values of rover components. Although from
the data it can be seen that if same rover concept is used for all three moons, then
electronic can go minimum of 1.5C and maximum of 35C when rover is facing
towards them, which are still well in acceptable range. The radiators for electronics are
working well within the limits and for RTGs radiators their temperature is always from
200C to 250C because of the constant heat source inside. For the structure and its
different components, temperature fluctuates from -150C to -177C but once they are
modified and designed for extreme cold environment temperature of JIMs by the use of
advanced composite materials then they will work fine.
85
Table 6-4 Comparison of rover's Callisto conditions with rest of icy moons
Figure 6-17 Cross comparison limit report for three icy moons (Temperature in [C]).
Temperature [C]
86
Figure 6-17 shows the same characteristics and values as already been discussed for
individual moons. It leads to the conclusion that rover applicability is not limited to one
moon if it designed for one moon only, it can be implemented for the others too.
6.11Limitations of results
The results produced above have some limitations which are affecting the level of
confidence on the results.
- All these analyses were done in ESATAN-TMS, which is based on node
lumping method. So all the results here are approximate because node lumping
method is approximate in nature by itself.
- MCRT technique used for flux calculations in ESATAN-TMS is based on the
stochastic process. This can be one source of error during the calculations of the
result.
- In ESATAN-TMS, during the calculation of REF, Cut-off values limit the
accuracy up to a certain level, which reduce the level of confidence on results.
- All the analyses done in ESATAN-TMS are under the steady state conditions
which assume that there is no change with respect to time. Actually it is
opposite; there is always a change with respect to time. Before implementing
these results transient analyses should be carried out.
- In the modelling, numbers of nodes used for rover are limited. It was done to
avoid the model to become computationally expensive. But it can be improved
by more refined model with more number of nodes before implementation of the
concept.
- The structure of rover only made radiatively active from inside for this study, no
conductive links among them is provided. Although they are having very minor
effects but for detailed analysis these should be done.
- The detailed analysis of electronics is not incorporated; it is done by assuming a
non-geometric node to represent them. That is not the true representation of
practical constraints.
- For the flow of heat from electronics to the radiators, conductors conductivity is
just assumed on the basis of literature, not validated experimentally.
- The properties of dirty-ice for moon Callisto are found by extrapolating the
available data, which can lead to the variations from actual environment of the
moon.
- The RTGs modelling is done by simple schematics and inner core is represented
by non geometric nodes, they need to be modelled in detail.
- The analysis could also be improved by providing the heat pipes on the upper
side of heat shield for the dissipation of heat. It means convection analysis
involvement in ESATAN-TMS.
- In ESATAN-TMS only ESATAN solver with its sub-routine SOLVIT was used.
It could also be used with SINDA-G for comparison of results with two solvers.
- The representation of moon is done in the form of disc, which is the intelligent
way of representing the moon but it can deviate from actual representation of
moon and then their fluxes.
87
- Effect of magnetic field of different moons and Jupiter on TT&C was not part of
this work. It can affect the data transmission back to Earth and if so then the
whole missions will be at stake. Careful evaluation is needed.
- By the placement of RTGs, the centre of gravity of rover can be disturbed,
which is critical in this case. During the scientific experiment like drilling, the
rover should have to balance first to avoid any vibrations to other payloads.
- While providing MLI, care should be taken to avoid its interference with the
communication system.
- The emissivity and absorptivity values used for white paints of radiators are with
respect to the BOL values, they can vary the results at EOL conditions because
white paints are sensitive to temporal degradation during their life time.
A.H.Baluch Conclusions and recommendations
88
7 Conclusions and recommendations
From the simulation results for different icy moons of Jupiter, the conclusions are
- Major changes are required in ExoMars rover if this concept has to be utilized
for the exploration of JIMs.
- First of all replacement of solar arrays with multi-mission radioisotopes
thermoelectric generators leads to the solution of power.
- Replacement of Solar arrays with RTGs will give added advantage that it can
work all the time without showing the dependency on the availability of the sun.
No safe mode is required during nights.
- Secondly, the external structure of the rover whose survival limit as provided by
EADS Astrium-UK is around -130C in comparison to the Jupiters icy moons
must be replaced by new and advance composite honey-comb materials.
- Thirdly, the reduction in radiator areas of rover is required. They are reduced by
56% in this work with the complete removal of base radiators.
- The electronics must have to be insulated properly with aerogel. The conductive
paths their conductivity between radiators and electronics has to be carefully
analysed before implementation.
- Lastly, the important conclusion is, if the modified rover is made suitable for
one moon, then it would be able to operate in the environments of all three icy
moons.
The future work on the basis of findings can be
- Do analysis in the mother-ship while moving from Earth to the Jupiter.
- Incorporate pumped fluid loops system for analysis.
- Do analyses in combinations of fuel cells with MMRTG concept.
- Get involved wheels in the analysis.
- Do transient analysis with different material combinations.
- Do comparison by using one rover from Earth to JIMs and compare it with the
three rovers on mother-ship to JIMs.
This is phase A study, more work has to done to make it mature, so that it can be
implemented for JIMs.
A.H.Baluch References
89
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A.H.Baluch Appendix A
96
Appendix A Contents on CD-ROM.
Baluch_thesis10_version1.pdf
ESATAN-TMS files
Original ExoMars rover
rover_geometry.g
rover_analysis_file.d
Modified ExoMars rover
eqator_Europa_modified_geometry.erg
eqator_Europa_modified.tpl
eqator_Europa_modified.TMD
pole_Europa_modified_geometry.erg
pole_Europa_modified.tpl
pole_Europa_modified.TMD
eqator_Ganymede _modified_geometry.erg
eqator_Ganymede _modified.tpl
eqator_Ganymede _modified.TMD
pole_Ganymede_modified_geometry.erg
pole_Ganymede_modified.tpl
pole_Ganymede _modified.TMD
eqator_Callisto_modified_geometry.erg
eqator_Callisto_modified.tpl
eqator_Callisto_modified.TMD
With modified boundary conditions of electronics.tpl
With modified boundary conditions of electronics.TMD
Rover_on_Europa_extreme_opposite.TMD
Thermal NV files
Batch report layout
Cross comparison reports
equat_Europa_all_thermalNV
Pole_europa_all_thermal NV
equat_Ganymede_all_thermalNV
Pole_Ganymede_all_thermalNV
equator_Callisto_all_thermalNV
Comparison among Europa, Ganymede and Callisto
Europa comparison at Eq and pole
Ganymede at equator and pole
Limits, Layouts, Deltas for Batch reports
Average temperature of components,
Maximum Temperature
A.H.Baluch Appendix A
97
Minimum temperatures,
Net heat balance sum,
Nodes of maximum heat transfer
Minimum heat transfer,
Sum net conductor heat flows,
Delta reports and
Heat reports are provided in details in the appendix for
different cases.
View Factors Links
Links for view factors.xlsx
Aerogel Data sheet
Data sheet
Key web-pages used in the research.xlsx
Key web-pages used in research.xls
A.H.Baluch Appendix B
98
Appendix B Solar flux and Solar arrays area
a)
Solar FluxonEuropa
Distanceof Europafromsun(AU) 5.23
Solar FluxonEarth(W/m2) 1367
Direct Solar fluxonEuropa(W/m2) 49.98

b)
c)
A.H.Baluch Appendix C
99
Appendix C Moons bulk and optical properties
The references for these data is mainly NASA-JPL web pages (Fran et al., 2004; Leslie
Lowes, 2001c; David, 2004; Ronald et al., 2004; Ronald et al., 2009; Robert et al.,
2004; Jeffrey et al., 2004; Arnett, 1999; NESTA, 2010; Cassidy et al., 2007; Cerimele et
al., 2008)
a)
Properties used for Europa in thermal modelling
b)
Properties used for Ganymede in thermal modelling
c)
Properties used for Callisto in thermal modelling
A.H.Baluch Appendix D
100
Appendix D Heat Report for Europa
Heat Report for Europa only is provided here, while the others are available in the CD.
Here GLs, GRs and GFs show the conductive, radiative and convective heat flows.
Heat Report for Rover (Equator_EUROPA.TMD, 5/26/10
11:55 AM) time t=0.000s
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: DEEP_SPACE
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: EUROPA_SURFACE 0.00014.93E3 0.000 0.000 1 4.93E3
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: Electronics_PM 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: Electronics_SM 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: PM_RAD 0.000 33.61 0.000 0.000 33.61
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_Heat_Shield 0.000 466.2 0.000 0.000 466.2
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_NGN 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_outer 0.000 173.2 0.000 0.000 173.2
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:SM_RAD 0.000 33.24 0.000 0.000 33.24
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_base 0.000 0.010 0.000 0.000 0.010
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_front 0.000 0.089 0.000 0.000 0.089
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 0.074 0.000 0.000 0.074
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000 0.007 0.000 0.000 0.007
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000 0.071 0.000 0.000 0.071
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_top 0.000 0.178 0.000 0.000 0.178
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:rad_rtg 0.000 1145 0.000 0.000 1145
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_base 0.000 0.007 0.000 0.000 0.007
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front 0.000 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.006
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000 0.039 0.000 0.000 0.039
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_rear 0.000 0.077 0.000 0.000 0.077
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000 0.039 0.000 0.000 0.039
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_top 0.000 0.105 0.000 0.000 0.105
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_1 0.000 0.082 0.000 0.000 0.082
Total Internal Power [W] 0.000
Total External Power [W] 0.000
101
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: EUROPA_SURFACE
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow
[W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: DEEP_SPACE 0.000 -1 4.93E3 0.000 0.000 -1 4.93E3
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000 -0.001 0.000 0.000 -0.001
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:rad_rtg 0.000 167.1 0.000 0.000 167.1
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front 0.000 -0.001 0.000 0.000 -0.001
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_rear 0.000 -0.017 0.000 0.000 -0.017
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_top 0.000 -911.8E-9 0.000 0.000 -911 .8E-9
Total External Power [W] 14.66E3
102
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: Electronics_PM
To Model
Through
GLs
[W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: DEEP_SPACE 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:EUROPA_SURFACE 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: PM_RAD -60.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 -60.00
103
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: Electronics_SM
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow
[W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:SM_RAD -60.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 -60.00
104
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: PM_RAD
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: DEEP_SPACE 0.000 -33.61 0.000 0.000 -33.61
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: EUROPA_SURFACE 0.000 -26.77 0.000 0.000 -26.77
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_Heat_Shield 0.000 -0.006 0.000 0.000 -0.006
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_base 0.000 -0.004 0.000 0.000 -0.004
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_front 0.000 -0.003 0.000 0.000 -0.003
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 -0.005 0.000 0.000 -0.005
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000
-4.362E-
6
0.000 0.000 -4.362E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000 -0.005 0.000 0.000 -0.005
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_top 0.000 -0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_base 0.000 -0.002 0.000 0.000 -0.002
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front 0.000
-44.1 E-
6
0.000 0.000 -44.1 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000 -0.001 0.000 0.000 -0.001
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000 -0.001 0.000 0.000 -0.001
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_1 0.000 -0.013 0.000 0.000 -0.013
105
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_Heat_Shield
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Throug
h
GFs
[W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:EUROPA_SURFACE 0.000 -28.17 0.000 0.000 -28.17
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_outer 0.000 -35.16 0.000 0.000 -35.16
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 -25.07E-6 0.000 0.000 -25.07E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000 -610.2E-9 0.000 0.000 -61 0.2E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000 -66.35E-6 0.000 0.000 -66.35E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_base 0.000 -83.1 E-6 0.000 0.000 -83.1 E-6
-11.11E-6
0.000 0.000 -11.11 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000 -23.88E-6 0.000 0.000 -23.88E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_rear 0.000 -6.51 E-6 0.000 0.000 -6.51 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000-1 .366E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .366E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_top 0.000 -56.88E-6 0.000 0.000 -56.88E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_2 0.000 -25.92E-6 0.000 0.000 -25.92E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_3 0.000 1.051E-6 0.000 0.000 1.051 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_5 0.000 8.876E-6 0.000 0.000 8.876E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_6 0.000 -17. 78E-9 0.000 0.000 -1 7.78E-9
106
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_NGN
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:EUROPA_SURF
ACE
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:
RTG_Heat_Shield
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:rad_rtg -2000 0.000 0.000 0.000 -2000
Total Internal Power [W] 2000
107
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_inner_core
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conducto
r
Heat Flow
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_base 0.000 -53.54E-6 0.000 0.000 -53.54E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_2 0.000-1 9.65E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 9.65E-6
Total
External
0.599
108
Model=EUROPA_MODIFIED_ROVER:SM_RAD
To Model
Through
GLs
[W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_SURFACE
0.000 -27.08 0.000 0.000 -27.08
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: PM_RAD 0.000 -0.005 0.000 0.000 -0.005
-45.92E-
6
0.000 0.000 -45.92E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_top 0.000
-10.61E-
6
0.000 0.000 -10.61 E-6
-4.386E-
6
0.000 0.000 -4.386E-6
109
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: pm_base
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:DEEP_SPACE 0.000 -0.010 0.000 0.000 -0.010
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_front 0.00029.34E-6 0.000 0.000 29.34E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 55.91E-6 0.000 0.000 55.91 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000
-1 7.5E-
6
0.000 0.000 -1 7.5E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_base 0.000
-2.113E-
6
0.000 0.000 -2.1 13E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front 0.000 -750E-9 0.000 0.000 -750E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000
-168.1E-
9
0.000 0.000 -168.1 E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_rear 0.000
-3.457E-
6
0.000 0.000 -3.457E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.00083.82E-9 0.000 0.000 83.82E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_3 0.00034.93E-6 0.000 0.000 34.93E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_6 0.000 31.92E-6 0.000 0.000 31 .92E-6
110
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: pm_front
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_SURFACE
0.000 -0.046 0.000 0.000 -0.046
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_base 0.000 -29.34E-6 0.000 0.000 -29.34E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 40.52E-6 0.000 0.000 40.52E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000 -40.8E-6 0.000 0.000 -40.8E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front 0.000 -8.879E-6 0.000 0.000 -8.879E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000 -4.122E-9 0.000 0.000 -4.1 22E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_rear 0.000 -22.82E-9 0.000 0.000 -22.82E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000 -5.142E-9 0.000 0.000 -5. 142E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_top 0.000 -2.812E-6 0.000 0.000 -2.81 2E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_2 0.000 3.117E-6 0.000 0.000 3.11 7E-6
Tot
al
0.066
111
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: pm_left
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_Heat_Shield 0.000
25.07E-
6
0.000 0.000 25.07E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_base 0.000
-55.91E-
6
0.000 0.000 -55.91 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_front 0.000
-40.52E-
6
0.000 0.000 -40.52E-6
-43. 73E-
6
0.000 0.000 -43.73E-6
-712.8E-
9
0.000 0.000 -71 2.8E-9
-588.7E-
9
0.000 0.000 -588.7E-9
-272.9E-
9
0.000 0.000 -272.9E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_top 0.000
-5.155E-
9
0.000 0.000 -5.1 55E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_1 0.000
2.583E-
6
0.000 0.000 2.583E-6
1.743E-
6
0.000 0.000 1. 743E-6
1.639E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 .639E-6
13.35E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 3.35E-6
112
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: pm_rear
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: PM_RAD 0.000
4.362E-
6
0.000 0.000 4.362E-6
610.2E-
9
0.000 0.000 61 0.2E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:SM_RAD 0.000
45.92E-
6
0.000 0.000 45.92E-6
5.108E-
6
0.000 0.000 5.1 08E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front -365.7E- 9
-34.46E-
6
0.000 0.000 -34.83E-6
1.369E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 .369E-6
-13. 72E-
9
0.000 0.000 -1 3.72E-9
288.7E-
9
0.000 0.000 288.7E-9
10.65E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 0.65E-6
10.34E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 0.34E-6
1.712E-
6
0.000 0.000 1.71 2E-6
9.486E-
6
0.000 0.000 9.486E-6
272.4E-
9
0.000 0.000 272.4E-9
113
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: pm_right
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conducto
r
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_Heat_Shield 0.000 66.35E-6 0.000 0.000 66.35E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_base 0.000 1 7.5E-6 0.000 0.000 1 7.5E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_front 0.000 40.8E-6 0.000 0.000 40.8E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 43. 73E-6 0.000 0.000 43.73E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_base 0.000-111 .2E-9 0.000 0.000 -111 .2E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front 0.000 -19.15E-9 0.000 0.000 -19.1 5E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000 -3.668E-9 0.000 0.000 -3.668E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_rear 0.000 -493.7E-9 0.000 0.000 -493.7E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000 1 30E-9 0.000 0.000 1 30E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_3 0.000 13.59E-6 0.000 0.000 1 3.59E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_6 0.000 694E-9 0.000 0.000 694E-9
Total
External
0.081
114
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: pm_top
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
10.61E-
6
0.000 0.000 10.61E-6
4.902E-
9
0.000 0.000 4.902E-9
-2.212E-
6
0.000 0.000 -2.21 2E-6
6.158E-
6
0.000 0.000 6.1 58E-6
96.09E-
9
0.000 0.000 96.09E-9
4.796E-
6
0.000 0.000 4. 796E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_5 0.000 1 99E-9 0.000 0.000 1 99E-9
115
Model=EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: rad_rtg
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:DEEP_SPACE 0.000 -1145 0.000 0.000 -1145
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: PM_RAD 0.000 -0.003 0.000 0.000 -0.003
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_NGN 2000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2000
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_outer 0.000 -161.8 0.000 0.000 -161.8
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:SM_RAD 0.000 -0.003 0.000 0.000 -0.003
-81 .5E-
6
0.000 0.000 -81 .5E-6
-70.81E-
6
0.000 0.000 -70.81 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000
-82.11E-
6
0.000 0.000 -82.11 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_top 0.000 -0.003 0.000 0.000 -0.003
-24. 78E-
6
0.000 0.000 -24.78E-6
-22.36E-
6
0.000 0.000 -22.36E-6
-26.84E-
6
0.000 0.000 -26.84E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_5 0.000 -50E-6 0.000 0.000 -50E-6
-1 9.2E-
6
0.000 0.000 -1 9.2E-6
116
Model=EUROPA_MODIFIED_ROVER:sm_base
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conducto
r
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_Heat_Shield 0.000 83.1 E-6 0.000 0.000 83.1 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_outer 0.000 53.54E-6 0.000 0.000 53.54E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_base 0.000 2.113E-6 0.000 0.000 2.113E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 712.8E-9 0.000 0.000 71 2.8E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000 -5.108E-6 0.000 0.000 -5.1 08E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000 111.2E-9 0.000 0.000 111.2E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_top 0.000 -4.902E-9 0.000 0.000 -4.902E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:rad_rtg 0.000 81 .5E-6 0.000 0.000 81 .5E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000 612.1E-9 0.000 0.000 612.1E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000 14.36E-6 0.000 0.000 14.36E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_6 0.000 82. 77E-6 0.000 0.000 82.77E-6
Total
External
0.039
117
Model=EUROPA_MODIFIED_ROVER:sm_front
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: PM_RAD 0.000
44.1 E-
6
0.000 0.000 44.1 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:RTG_Heat_Shield 0.000
11.11E-
6
0.000 0.000 11.11 E-6
4.386E-
6
0.000 0.000 4.386E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_base 0.000 750E-9 0.000 0.000 750E-9
8.879E-
6
0.000 0.000 8.879E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 365.7E-9
34.46E-
6
0.000 0.000 34.83E-6
19.15E-
9
0.000 0.000 19.1 5E-9
48.42E-
6
0.000 0.000 48.42E-6
6.319E-
6
0.000 0.000 6.31 9E-6
17.19E-
6
0.000 0.000 17.1 9E-6
696.6E-
9
0.000 0.000 696.6E-9
3.144E-
6
0.000 0.000 3. 144E-6
13.91E-
6
0.000 0.000 13.91 E-6
118
Model=EUROPA_MODIFIED_ROVER:sm_left
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:PM_RAD 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.001
23.88E-
6
0.000 0.000 23.88E-6
168.1E-
9
0.000 0.000 168.1 E-9
4.122E-
9
0.000 0.000 4.1 22E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000
588.7E-
9
0.000 0.000 588.7E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000-1.369E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .369E-6
3.668E-
9
0.000 0.000 3.668E-9
-612.1E-
9
0.000 0.000 -612.1 E-9
6.625E-
6
0.000 0.000 6.625E-6
1.679E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 .679E-6
1.912E-
6
0.000 0.000 1.91 2E-6
1.204E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 .204E-6
9.738E-
6
0.000 0.000 9. 738E-6
44.05E-
6
0.000 0.000 44.05E-6
119
Model=EUROPA_MODIFIED_ROVER:sm_rear
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
6.51 E-
6
0.000 0.000 6.51 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_base 0.000 3.457E-6 0.000 0.000 3.457E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 272.9E-9 0.000 0.000 272.9E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000 13. 72E-9 0.000 0.000 1 3.72E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000 493.7E-9 0.000 0.000 493.7E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:rad_rtg 0.000 70.81E-6 0.000 0.000 70.81 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_4 0.000 1.147E-6 0.000 0.000 1. 147E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_5 0.000 5.784E-6 0.000 0.000 5. 784E-6
Total External
Power [W]
0.054
120
Model=EUROPA_MODIFIED_ROVER:sm_right
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
1.366E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 .366E-6
-83.82E-
9
0.000 0.000 -83.82E-9
5.142E-
9
0.000 0.000 5. 142E-9
-1 30E-
9
0.000 0.000 -1 30E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:rad_rtg 0.000
82.11E-
6
0.000 0.000 82.11 E-6
-14.36E-
6
0.000 0.000 -14.36E-6
-6.625E-
6
0.000 0.000 -6.625E-6
11.21E-
6
0.000 0.000 11.21E-6
49.67E-
6
0.000 0.000 49.67E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_4 0.000742.4E-9 0.000 0.000 742.4E-9
1.1 73E-
6
0.000 0.000 1.1 73E-6
1 .087E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 .087E-6
121
Model=EUROPA_MODIFIED_ROVER:sm_top
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:EUROPA_SURFACE 0.000
911.8E-
9
0.000 0.000 911.8E-9
56.88E-
6
0.000 0.000 56.88E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_front 0.0002.812E-6 0.000 0.000 2.81 2E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.0005.155E-9 0.000 0.000 5.1 55E-9
2.212E-
6
0.000 0.000 2.212E-6
-48.42E-
6
0.000 0.000 -48.42E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_1 0.000157.8E-9 0.000 0.000 1 57.8E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_4 0.000173.4E-9 0.000 0.000 1 73.4E-9
122
Model=EUROPA_MODIFIED_ROVER:wheel_1
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000 -2.583E-6 0.000 0.000 -2.583E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000 -288.7E-9 0.000 0.000 -288.7E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_top 0.000 -6.158E-6 0.000 0.000 -6.1 58E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:rad_rtg 0.000 24. 78E-6 0.000 0.000 24.78E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front 0.000 -6.319E-6 0.000 0.000 -6.31 9E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000-1 .679E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .679E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_rear 0.000-1 .024E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .024E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right
0.000
-11.21E-
6 0.000 0.000 -11.21 E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_top 0.000-1 57.8E-9 0.000 0.000 -1 57.8E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_4 0.000-1 .097E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .097E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_6 0.000 850.1E-9 0.000 0.000 850.1 E-9
Total
External
0.140
123
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
25.92E-
6
0.000 0.000 25.92E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP: RTG_outer 0.000
19.65E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 9.65E-6
-3.117E-
6
0.000 0.000 -3.11 7E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000-1.743E-6 0.000 0.000 -1. 743E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000-10.65E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 0.65E-6
-96.09E-
9
0.000 0.000 -96.09E-9
22.36E-
6
0.000 0.000 22.36E-6
-17.19E-
6
0.000 0.000 -17.1 9E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000-1.912E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .912E-6
-7.423E-
6
0.000 0.000 -7.423E-6
-4.836E-
6
0.000 0.000 -4.836E-6
-4.033E-
6
0.000 0.000 -4.033E-6
-2.482E-
6
0.000 0.000 -2.482E-6
-918.1E-
9
0.000 0.000 -918.1 E-9
1.198E-
6
0.000 0.000 1.1 98E-6
124
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
-1.051E-
6
0.000 0.000 -1.051 E-6
-34.93E-
6
0.000 0.000 -34.93E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_front 0.000-1.596E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .596E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000-1.639E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .639E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000-10.34E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 0.34E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000-13.59E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 3.59E-6
26.84E-
6
0.000 0.000 26.84E-6
-88.06E-
6
0.000 0.000 -88.06E-6
-696.6E-
9
0.000 0.000 -696.6E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000-1.204E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .204E-6
-49.67E-
6
0.000 0.000 -49.67E-6
-161.2E-
9
0.000 0.000 -161 .2E-9
4.033E-
6
0.000 0.000 4.033E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_4 0.000-1.584E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .584E-6
-2.179E-
6
0.000 0.000 -2.1 79E-6
-1 93E-
9
0.000 0.000 -1 93E-9
125
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs [W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_rear 0.000-1 .712E-6 0.000 0.000-1 .712E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_right 0.000 -2.155E-6 0.000 0.000-2.1 55E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_top 0.000 -4.796E-6 0.000 0.000-4. 796E-
6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_front 0.000 -3.144E-6 0.000 0.000-3. 144E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_left 0.000 -9.738E-6 0.000 0.000-9. 738E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_rear 0.000 -1.147E-6 0.000 0.000-1. 147E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000 -742.4E-9 0.000 0.000 -742.4E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_top 0.000-1 73.4E-9 0.000 0.000-1 73.4E-9
Total
External
0.133
126
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
-8.876E-
6
0.000 0.000 -8.876E-6
-3.464E-
6
0.000 0.000 -3.464E-6
-9.486E-
6
0.000 0.000 -9.486E-6
-2.546E-
6
0.000 0.000 -2.546E-6
-1 99E-
9
0.000 0.000 -1 99E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:rad_rtg 0.000 50E-6 0.000 0.000 50E-6
-13.91E-
6
0.000 0.000 -13.91 E-6
-5.784E-
6
0.000 0.000 -5. 784E-6
-1.173E-
6
0.000 0.000 -1.1 73E-6
-666.3E-
9
0.000 0.000 -666.3E-9
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_2 0.000918.1E-9 0.000 0.000 918.1 E-9
2.1 79E-
6
0.000 0.000 2.1 79E-6
-5.616E-
6
0.000 0.000 -5.61 6E-6
-4.868E-
6
0.000 0.000 -4.868E-6
127
To Model
Through
GLs [W]
Through
GRs
[W]
Through
GFs [W]
Through
Ms [W]
Total
Conductor
Heat Flow [W]
17. 78E-
9
0.000 0.000 1 7.78E-9
-31.92E-
6
0.000 0.000 -31 .92E-6
-1.317E-
6
0.000 0.000 -1.31 7E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:pm_left 0.000-13.35E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 3.35E-6
-272.4E-
9
0.000 0.000 -272.4E-9
-694E-
9
0.000 0.000 -694E-9
1 9.2E-
6
0.000 0.000 1 9.2E-6
-82. 77E-
6
0.000 0.000 -82.77E-6
-44.05E-
6
0.000 0.000 -44.05E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:sm_right 0.000-1.087E-6 0.000 0.000 -1 .087E-6
-850.1E-
9
0.000 0.000 -850.1 E-9
-1.198E-
6
0.000 0.000 -1.1 98E-6
EUROPA_MODIF_ROVER_EUROP:wheel_3 0.000 1 93E-9 0.000 0.000 1 93E-9
-98.55E-
9
0.000 0.000 -98.55E-9
4.868E-
6
0.000 0.000 4.868E-6

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2010:051

is the rate of change of temperature

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