A centrifugal pump converts the input power to kinetic energy in the liquid by accelerating the liquid by a revolving device

- an impeller. The most common type is the volute pump. Fluid enters the pump through the eye of the impeller which rotates at high speed. The fluid is accelerated radially outward from the pump chasing. A vacuum is created at the impellers eye that continuously draws more fluid into the pump.

The energy created by the pump is kinetic energy according the Bernoulli Equation. The energy transferred to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, the higher will the velocity of the liquid energy transferred to the liquid be. This is described by the Affinity Laws.

Pressure and Head

If the discharge of a centrifugal pump is pointed straight up into the air the fluid will pumped to a certain height - or head - called the shut off head. This maximum head is mainly determined by the outside diameter of the pump's impeller and the speed of the rotating shaft. The head will change as the capacity of the pump is altered. The kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is obstructed by creating a resistance in the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump casing which catches the liquid and slows it down. When the liquid slows down the kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy.

it is the resistance to the pump's flow that is read on a pressure gauge attached to the discharge line

A pump does not create pressure, it only creates flow. The gauge pressure is a measurement of the resistance to flow. In fluids the term head is used to measure the kinetic energy which a pump creates. Head is a measurement of the height of the liquid column the pump could create from the kinetic energy the pump gives to the liquid.

the main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump's energy is that the pressure from a pump will change if the specific gravity (weight) of the liquid changes, but the head will not

The pump's performance on any Newtonian fluid can always be described by using the term head.
Different Types of Pump Head

Total Static Head - Total head when the pump is not running Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) - Total head when the pump is running Static Suction Head - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is higher than the pump impeller Static Suction Lift - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is lower than the pump impeller Static Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with the pump off Dynamic Suction Head/Lift - Head on suction side of pump with pump on Dynamic Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with pump on

The head is measured in either feet or meters and can be converted to common units for pressure as psi or bar.

it is important to understand that the pump will pump all fluids to the same height if the shaft is turning at the same rpm

The only difference between the fluids is the amount of power it takes to get the shaft to the proper rpm. The higher the specific gravity of the fluid the more power is required.

Centrifugal Pumps are "constant head machines"

Note that the latter is not a constant pressure machine, since pressure is a function of head and density. The head is constant, even if the density (and therefore pressure) changes. The head of a pump in metric units can be expressed in metric units as: h = (p2 - p1)/( g) + v22/(2 g) where h = total head developed (m) p2 = pressure at outlet (N/m2) p1 = pressure at inlet (N/m2) = density (kg/m3) g = acceleration of gravity (9.81) m/s2 v2 = velocity at the outlet (m/s) Head described in simple terms

(1)

a pump's vertical discharge "pressure-head" is the vertical lift in height - usually measured in feet or m of water - at which a pump can no longer exert enough pressure to move water. At this point, the pump may be said to have reached its "shut-off" head pressure. In the flow curve chart for a pump the "shut-off head" is the point on the graph where the flow rate is zero

Pump Efficiency

Pump efficiency, (%) is a measure of the efficiency with wich the pump transfers useful work to the fluid. = Pout / Pin (2) where = efficiency (%) Pin = power input Pout = power output

ARTICLE #44: HOW TO EVALUATE VFD SPEED EFFECT ON HYDRAULICS

By Dr. Lev Nelik, P.E. Few would dispute that VFD drives save energy, but how much exactly depends on a system. Hydraulically speaking, the main difference between a variable frequency (speed) drive and a discharge valve is that a VFD changes a pump curve only, while a valve changes a system curve only. A pump operates at the intersection between its H-Q curve and a system curve, and a change in either moves operating point to a new intersection. Consider an example of a centrifugal pump operating at 4,000 gpm and producing 300 feet of head at 1800 rpm. According to its curve (Fig. 1), pump efficiency is 82%. (Here, this happens to be a BEP point, but, in general, the same logic would apply to any operating point). Suppose we want to reduce the flow by 50%, to 2,000 gpm. By closing the discharge valve, we would change a system curve, which would intersect the same pump curve at 370 feet of head, 61% efficiency. Such control process is simple, quick and easy. But it has issues too, which we will review in a minute.

Fig. 1 Flow control by throttling discharge valve

Hydraulically, the system above is referred to as predominantly friction (no static head). Such system is ideal for application of the VFD for flow control. The main reason for that is at the heart of the nature of affinity laws, which state that pump flow changes directly with the speed ratio, head as a square, and power as cube. That implies the relationship between head and flow as H=aQ2 a parabola. Since a system curve is also a parabola (H = bQ2), then a given point on a pump curves scales down with speed ratio, and at the same time slides down along the system friction curve, and coefficients a=b for a given system setting. Fig. 2 shows how pump flow is reduced by exactly 50% with RPM reduced in half, while pump head is reduced as a square of a speed ratio (900/1800)2, i.e. 0.25 x 300 = 75 feet. Notice that efficiency does not change, as entire efficiency curves slides to the left, and remains at a peak of 82%.

Fig. 2 Flow control by VFD speed reduction, friction system head example But what would happen if a pump operates against constant (static, or mostly static) head, such as a lift station application? Consider Fig 3:

Fig. 3 Flow control by VFD, static system head example In example above, 300 feet is a constant static head, with friction losses assumed to be negligible in comparison. A range of RPM variation is significantly reduced now, in order not to drop the entire pump H-Q curve below the contact H=300 feet. By applying affinity laws, we will find that at RPM=1650, a new pump curve (H-Q) intersects a constant 300 feet head line at desired 2,000 gpm, and efficiency at that point is 62%. Table 1 is a comparison of these (3) cases:
Throttling 1800 2000 370
61%

RPM Flow, gpm Head, feet Eff, % Power, hp Energy cost, $/KW-hr Energy used per year, $ BEP Flow, gpm Operation %BEP

VFD (friction) 900 2000 75

82%

VFD (static) 1650 2000 300

62%

306 0.10 $200,193 4000 50%

46 0.10 $30,187 2000 100%

244 0.10 $159,701 3667 55%

Table 1 comparison of valve throttling, VFD (friction), and VFD (static head) examples Observations: For friction-dominated systems (long pipes, flow transfer cases) VFD saves a very substantial amount of energy, and operates pumps reliably due to close proximity to BEP flow (100% in example shown) For static-dominated systems (injection against constant pressure, lifting against constant head) the energy savings are substantially less, and the pump operates, surprisingly, substantially off-BEP position, not significantly different from a valved flow control case For cases where both systems are present, an in-between scenario would result VFD drives are not inexpensive devices and require certain knowledge of controls, proper electrical and electronic maintenance and care. Flow control by VFD requires programming, training, and is more complex then a simple control by throttling a valve. These are some considerations against the VFD applications, but, on the other hand, they offer convenience of remote control (although so do some valves), energy savings when operated in frictiondominated systems, as well as more reliable pump operation (closer to the BEP means less loads, better seal life, lower vibrations, and improved suction recirculation conditions). Each system requires specific and detailed understanding of its hydraulics, with unique H-Q curves and flow control requirements, to make sure the money to be invested are justified. Organization making a VFD implementation decision must be prepared to deal with the added complexity, with the realization that the anticipated benefits are supported by the efforts, training and commitment to operate, maintain and appreciate the usefulness such systems offer. For organizations that leave these issues to chance or a promise, the anticipated benefits can quickly turn into headaches, and that is not a good thing.

As always, a parting Quiz! at what RPM will a pump completely stop delivering flow to the system in case shown on Fig. 3? The first three answers will get you a free pass to the Pump School session, per schedule posted at our web site: www.pumpingmachinery.com/pump_school/pump_school.htm

Dr. Lev Nelik, P.E., APICS Pumping Machinery, LLC Pump School Training Services
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