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ASPECTS OF THE HISTORY OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST SECTION II POST-WAR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST 19452000 WEEK 8 (link with Paper 1 Suez Crisis) EGYPT UNDER NASSER, SADAT and MUBARAK TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION A : Egypt under Nasser: (i) (ii) (iii) nature of the state; political developments; economic and social policies

SECTION B : Egypt under Sadat: (i) (ii) (iii) nature of the state; political developments; economic and social policies

SECTION C : Egypt under Mubarak: (i) (ii) (iii) nature of the state; political developments; economic and social policies

SECTION D : IB ESSAY QUESTIONS

The main things to consider are: the impact of nationalism, communalism, modernization and westernization. In other words the major political, econmic and social changes. It will also consider the delcine of European influence and the rise of US influence

SECTION A Egypt under Nasser (i) (ii) (iii) (i) nature of the state political developments economic and social policies nature of the state

(a) Rise to power of Nasser (the following paragraph contains all the main causes of the revolution) The Wafd led by Zaghlul had inspired a nationalist uprising against the long-term imperial rule of Great Britain. Eventually King Fuad was placed on the throne of an independent Egypt in 1922. 1923 saw a constitution, with Zaghlul elected Prime Minister, but with continued British interference. 1936 saw King Faroul take the throne. Anglo-Egyptian Treaty still gave GB much control. 4th February incident, 1942. Led to the humiliation of the Wafd party as a vehicle, for nationalism. Britain could not leave because of Suez Canal. (1875 GB bought all Egypts shares). Troops there was the source of permanent friction and Egyptian discontent. As was econmic situation and growing gap between rich and poor see figures on % of landholding. Humiliation of 1948-9 was also a factor of discontent. Rise of Muslim brothers (1928) and Free Officers (1949) pro ousting imperial power and establishing social justice and equality. 1951 Wafd annonce abrogation of AngloEgyptian treaty. 1952, January 26th, Black Saturday riots in Cairo. 22-23 July 1952 Free Officers seize army hq and oust King Farouk. 1953, June, monarchy abolished and constitution withdrawn. Egypt declared a Republic, but with 1 party as the only 3 year transitory power. RCC forbad those who had posts from 452 to enter politics. Naghib was made President, nasser Vice-President. February 1954 Nasser becomes President. We must fight imperialism, monarchy and feudalism because we are opposed to injustice, oppression and slavery. A republic, but single party. Populist: and a co-operative state

RESUME
EGYPT 1952 Military coup Nasser seens as unifier of the Arab world. Suez Canal (1869) Britain was the imperial force. After Wafd party inspired an anti-british uprising just after World War 1. 1922: This led to Egpytian Indepdence and a constutitional monarchy set u p under King Fuad, though the British continued to interfer. 1936 King Fuad dies, and is replaced by King Farouk. 1936 The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty is signed. 1939-45: Egypt was neutral in World War 2. 1942: 4th February incidient helped Nassers rise in that it humiliated the King and undermined Egypts sovereignty. And led to the rise of Egyptian Nasserism. British presence in the Suez Canal was and always had been a source of tension. ECONOMICS The gap between the rich and poor in Egypt was huge. Half a percent of the landowners owned 35% of the countrys cultivatable land. Whilst 94% of thepopulation owneded 35% of the land. Moreover, the sizes of the holdings varied dramatically. This create increasing social tensions. All the more so because the main policiticsn were the biggest landowners. Humiliation of the 1948 1st Arab-Israeli war convinced the officers of the weakness of the government. This led to the rise of the Muslim bortherhood; whose aim was to united Lusmils in the arab world. It also led to the rise of the Free Officers and their proposal of an Egyptian national revival., and bring about social justice and social reforms. 1951 Wafd government abrogated the 1936 treaty. This led to clashes known as Black Satruday on January 26th 1952.. The actual coup took place in 22-23rd July 1952. RCC set up.

4 June 1953 monarchy abolished, and Egypt claimed a Republic but it was only a one party state. Orginally Naghib was President. But by 1954, after falling out, Nasser was made President.

Much stronger than under King Farouk. Much better organised, and though led by militazry officers, not too oppressive. The social make-up of the government was more respresentative of the country as a whole, unlike the Wafd party. Cliamed ot be the guardian of the peoples interests. It was a populist regime. But it was a one party system. He banned politicla parties and called it a co-operative state. So, in Januart 1953 the RCC set up the National Liberation Rally and became its Secretary General. 1956 saw the end of the 3 year transition. But the next constitution did not allow other politicla parties. In 1957 the National Liberation rally was replaced by the NaitonalUnion. 1962 Which was replaiced by Arab Socialist Uninon in 1962. Though it always continued to be a one party state, elections were permitted. He said he would redistribute wealth, modernise and bring social justice, especially agrarian refrom from 1952 onwards. In 1962 he announced the National Charter.

Anti foreign domination. As he said We must fight imperialism, monarchy, and feudalism. Arab Socialism: A state-run pallned economy he tried to export these ideas in the Middle East. 1956 consitution said egypt was an Arab country and par tof the Arab Nation. By 1958 Egypt had entered into a union with Syrai into the United Arab Republic. But perhaps he underextimated the Muskim Bortherhood and Egyptian nationalism. 1954 execution of six of its leaders (though they had tried ot assassinate him), and the crushing if the strike organised by the communists in 1957. Strict control of press. Perhaps a little too much of the cult of Nasser.

(b) POLITICS 1953 Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) forms the National Liberation Rally - the only political organ that represented the people. Nasser was the SG. They crushed a strike harshly in 1954. and exercised strict censorship of the press. 1956 a new constitution was drawn up, but still did not permit political parties. 1957 NLR replaced by National Union. 1962 NU replaced by Arabic Socialist Union. There were elctions, but the party chose and screened everyone who took part.

1958 UAR set up. FOREIGN POLICY: 1955 Baghdad Pact (countries on southern borders of Soviet Union) Egypt refused to sign. He was more for the non-aligned aoct. Also convinced Syria and Jordan not to sign. The Suez crisis 1956: (Aswan Dam)(Tripartie agression). triumph 29th October 1956 Attack halted on 6th November 1956. SUEZ: Military defeat, but a politicla triumph for Nasser. The biog tree powers had not overthrown him. It improved Egpyts relations with the communist world (1958 USSR loans him the money of Aswan Dam), if distanced him from the West. It elevated Egypt to az leadership role n the Arab world. But it also can be seen as cause of the 1967 war. 1967 War/Six Day War. - disaster

(ii) economic and social policies NASSERISM Anto monarchy and feudalism, and to imporve the lives of the rural poor as wella s industrialise and modernise. 1952 extensive agrarian reform. RCC enact the first Agrarian Reform act. Set a limit on maximum holdings. 200 feddans. The surplus sold to those who owned less than 5 feddans. The owners compensated with government bonds. Minimum wage introduced for agricultural workers.

1954 he confiscated the land of the royal family. New Labour Laws: raised minimum wages, lowered working hours, created public works jobs, controlled rent and started building houses MODERNISATION 1960 1st Five Year Plan: By 1974 70% of industrial producton was public. The dam at Aswan, to be the source of hydro-electricity. Education: 2 new schools every 3 days. Doubled enrollment in primary schools. Re.dused illuteracy. Women: Daughter of the Nile was progressive but go nowhere, until hunger strike. 1957 2 women elected to National Assembly; 1962 Naitonal Charter said women were equal to men and given access to unversity. 1963 eqaul pay. But did nothing about famly laws. Mary Ann Fay an imperfect and unifinsihed revolkution . Arab socialism: state-run centrally planned economy, plus social welfare, plus export the ideas to other Arab countries.

SECTION B Egypt under Sadat (i) (ii) (iii) nature of the state; political developments; economic and social policies

SECTION C Egypt under Mubarak (i) (ii) (iii) nature of the state; political developments; economic and social policies

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SECTION D IB ESSAY QUESTIONS NASSER With Nasser they sometimes ask about his rise to power
A classic question on Nasser is: Analyse the reasons for the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 and the emergence of Nasser as leader by 1954. Look at the question. Can you see that it is not a question about Nasserism? Nasserism is the name given to the things he did (in skull talk the policies he implemented) once he was in power.It does not ask about what he did once he was in power, it makes no reference to the rise of Nasserism as a set of ideas/policies. It asks about the revolution and Nasser.Therefore this is a question of about how he came to take power. Nasser did not take power immediately as a consequence of the revolution in 1952. The revolution helped put Nasser in a position where he could take power in 1954. In other words Nasser was a consequence of the revolution. Therefore, it is a question that asks about both the revolution and Nasser. Therefore, your essay must include an attempt to answer both parts of the question about the revolution and Nasser. Therefore, split your essay answer into two parts. In the first half of the essay you should discuss with the reasons for the revolution. In the second half of the essay you should examine the reasons for the emergence of Nasser as leader by 1954. TRY THE FOLLOWING EXERCISE

11 PART 1 TASK 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Take a piece of paper. Draw a line down the middle of it. Above the left hand column write the heading REVOLUTION Above the right hand column write EMERGENCE OF NASSER AS LEADER You now have two minutes to BRAINSTORM first part of the essay. In that time you must make a list of the most obvious causes of the revolution of 1952 are: Once you have written them down try then, if you can, to label each one as one of the different types of reasons that we are always looking for in historical explanation (political, social, economic, religious, military, diplomatic etc). In other words, ask yourself which of those reasons could be labelled a political reason, which could be labelled a social reason, which economic, which religious, which military, which diplomatic etc.. Once you have done this, you must then look at them and decide which of them, in your opinion, or the opinion of someone you have read or heard, ranks as the most important, and which the least. Once you have decided that, you must rank them in ascending order of importance, beginning your list the least important (refer to it as Number 1) and ending with the most important.

6.

7.

8.

ANSWER: The 4 most obvious causes of the revolution of 1952 are 1. 2. 3. 4. Militant nationalism (against the British who were still in occupation); Social and economic stagnation. Weak corrupt government and monarchy. The military defeat of 1948 etc. PART 2 TASK You have two minutes to BRAINSTORM the second part of the essay

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1. 2. 3.

In that time, in the right hand column labelled REASONS you list three reasons for the emergence of Nasser as leader of Egypt Then you must distinguish between the different types of reasons: which one is political, social, economic, religious, military, diplomatic etc.? then decide which were the minor reasons and which were the main reasons and argue accordingly.

ANSWER The 3 most obvious reasons for the emergence of Nasser as leader of Egypt are: 1. 2. 3. His dominance of the Free Officers and his support in the army. Najib a figurehead. Regent in 1952 monarchy abolished in 1953 and Nasser deputy PM in a government dominated by Free Officers.

These are the main things you will discuss in your essay. In other words, these are the bare bones of the essay. You will need to flesh each one of them out with some detailed facts relating to each one. In your essay, you should also try to assess the significance of each. Which one was the key factor? Which the least important? You might even try to argue that 195254 was a transitional period.

After the revolution and Nassers coming to power, other classic questions on Nasser are usually about the impact of him and his policies on Egypt and the Middle East.
Assess the impact of Nasserism on Egypt and the Middle East. To answer this you need to know the key components of Nasserism 1. social justice and state socialism (domestic social and economic policy) 2. 3. 4; republicanism. (domestic political policy) anti-imperialism. (foreign policy) pan Arabism. (foreign policy)

13 5. non-alignment (foreign policy).

Then you need to make sure you examine their impact both inside Egypt and their impact outside Egypt on the Middle East as a whole. Another way of putting the same question would be: To what extent did Nasser adhere to the ideas of Nasserism both in Egypt and the Middle East region? Include supporting detail. Give a critical analysis of impact. Link critical analysis of impact to Nassers dominating personality e.g. UAR collapsed because he wanted Egypt to be dominant partner. You could be asked a question that focuses solely on Nassers foreign policy. References to his foreign policy could be included in the previous one, but you would need more explicit reference to his relationship with Russia and US and GB. Outline and critically assess the domestic policies pursued by Gamal Abdul Nasser from 1954 to 1970. When thinking analytically in History, we always think in terms of political and social and economic things. Make a list of all the political, social and economic policies pursued by Nasser between 1954 and 1970. Once you have made a list of them, assess them. In other words say what turned out to be good and bad about them. 5. Analyse the reasons for the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 and the emergence of Nasser as leader by 1954. Causes of the revolution of 1952 could include: militant nationalism (British still in occupation); social and economic stagnation; weak corrupt government and monarchy; military defeat of 1948 etc. Emergence of Nasser his dominance of Free Officers and support in the army. Najib a figurehead.

14 Regent in 1952 monarchy abolished in 1953 and Nasser deputy PM in a government dominated by Free Officers. Do not just write about the causes of revolution. There should be some comment on Nassers emergence for higher marks. This is not a question on Nasserism. Try and assess significance of each and which may see 195254 as a transitional period. 6. Outline and critically assess the domestic policies pursued by Gamal Abdul Nasser from 1954 to 1970. Policies which could be referred to could include industrialisation to promote social change, nationalisation of Suez Canal and other industries, his references to Arab Socialism, and establishment of a one party-state. Do not allow foreign relations to dominate. Make a critical assessment of the real impact on Egypt, both politically and socially and economically. It is not just about the sequence of events. You need to offer focused analytical comment on these events. 7. Assess the impact of Nasserism on Egypt and the Middle East. Identify the key aspects of Nasserism ( e.g. social justice and state socialism, republicanism, anti-imperialism, pan Arabism, non-alignment) and examine the extent to which Nasser adhered to these ideas, both in Egypt and the region. Cover Egypt and Middle East. Include supporting detail and more critical analysis of impact. Llink critical analysis of impact to Nassers dominating personality e.g. UAR collapsed because he wanted Egypt to be dominant partner.

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16 MUBARAK COMPARING 2 OR 3 OF THEM 9. Compare and contrast the relationship of Nasser and Sadat with the superpowers. Do not simply take a superficial view that Nasser was pro Soviet and Sadat pro US. Identify changing attitudes by fully comparing and contrasting. Comparisons: both had close links with Soviet union (aid, advisers etc. Egypt often perceived as a client state. However both were also assisted to some extent by US (Suez, Camp David). Contrasts: Nasser never willing to compromise on the issue of Israel, therefore limited relationship with US. Sadat, post-1973 willing to consider compromises and this led to Camp David plus a much friendlier relationship with US. Try to give a detailed balanced answers. Analysis may begin to explore changing relationships If you can go for a wide ranging answers which compare and contrast with full analysis. May consider changing attitude of Superpowers as significant. 10. Compare and contrast the domestic policies of Sadat and Mubarak in Egypt up to 1995. Comparisons: Both allowed an element of opposition activity although limited and controlled by security forces and military both allowed elections both followed liberal economic policies both encouraged closer links with the West. Contrast: Mubarak had to contend with more overt criticism from Muslim groups Mubarak controlled elections much more closely than Sadat by altering electoral system.

17 GENERAL QUESTION COVERING ALL 3 You could get asked a question which will cover a long period in Egyptian history, covering several rulers. For example, Analyse the political developments in either Libya or Egypt from the Second World War up to 1990. (May 2002) Egypt In Egypt, political developments covering Nasser, Sadat and Mubarak should be examined. You should be aware of the emergence of a pluralist party system within certain limits. Whilst it mentions only political developments, there is a way to do this which will include addressing economic and social issues such as economic nationalism, welfare state etc. Libya There are similar issues with regard to Libya, such as the deposition of the monarchy, the setting up of an authoritarian state dominated by the personality of Quadafhi (Gaddafi), its undeveloped economy, its high dependance on oil, It pan-Islamic attitude. General Make sure you do not just tell a story from 1945-1990. Be analytical. Show an understanding of relative stagnation at all levels. Make sure you are clear about what has changed and what remained the same. (For example, there are still vast disparities of wealth, Islam is still of major significance, especially in Libya).

18 They should not ask a question about Foreign Policy How justified were Egyptian or Indian claims that they pursued a policy of non-alignment in the Cold War period? You must be able to define non-alignment before you can make a judgement, and you will need to make a judgement in order to attain the higher marks. At the very least be able to accounts of foreign policy linked to the Cold War situation. The best answers will be able to make a judgement based not only on the diplomatic position but on other indicators such as economic dependency on the superpowers or in the case of India non-alignment affected by regional issues (relations with Pakistan, China). Egypt similarly has had a fluid relationship with the US which was often a consequence of her relationship with her neighbours. Compare and contrast the relationship of Nasser and Sadat with the superpowers. A superficial view that Nasser was pro Soviet and Sadat pro US. Better answers will be able to identify changing attitudes by fully and explicitly comparing and contrasting. Begin with the comparisons: both had close links with Soviet union (aid, advisers etc. Egypt often perceived as a client state. However both were also assisted to some extent by US (Suez, Camp David). Then spend the second half of the essay on the differences or contrasts: Nasser never willing to compromise on the issue of Israel, therefore limited relationship with US. Sadat, post-1973 willing to consider compromises and this led to Camp David plus a much friendlier relationship with US.
Compare and contrast the domestic and foreign policies of Nasser and Mubarak. Comparisons: In politics both powerful dominant presidents in a one-party state although there has been some relaxation under Mubarak and an element of party activity has been allowed. Although still repression of Muslim Brotherhood still basically an authoritarian state.

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Contrasts: Economic policies Nasser pursued Land reform and nationalisation of some industries, seemed to be an element of socialism. Mubarak very much more capitalist and favours privatisation and less protection for workers. Foreign Policy Nasser was non-aligned and after Aswan Dam issue and Suez Crisis on poor terms with Western powers. Very keen on Pan Arabism (UAR), hostile to Israel (Six Day War). Mubarak: more moderate on Israel, rejoined Arab League in 1989. Cooperated with coalition forces in Gulf War 1991 and as a consequence US and European powers cancelled millions of dollars of Egyptian debt.