112

Study Committee B5 Colloquium

2005 September 14-16
Calgary, CANADA



Considerations on Transformer/ Autotransformer Overload Protection by
Thermal Image Modeling

Onita Calota Anton Ungureanu
calota@icemenerg.ro ungureanu@icemenerg.ro
ICEMENERG
Bucharest, ROMANIA

1. Introduction

The deterioration of transformer insulation in the course of time represents the main cause of
short-circuit occurrence in the network components, leading to important economic losses.
The process of insulation deterioration is a complex phenomenon (of chemical, thermal,
mechanical nature, etc.) and has to be permanently monitored through diverse means and
methods.

Thermal stress, one of the factors that damage insulation as a result of effect cumulation
(aging phenomenon), usually occurs in generators or transformers that are frequently subject
to thermal overloads due to load current increase surpassing the allowable value.

That is why the protection subsystems of this equipment are provided with a special
protection for these working conditions, namely the thermal overload protection.

The protection equipment with microprocessors have introduced a new overload monitoring
concept related to the heating phenomenon of the protected element itself. The principle that
is used is the monitoring of the protected equipment heating/cooling curve described by an
exponential equation, including its thermal characteristics cumulated in the thermal time
constant. As the thermal constant and the load current of each equipment are known, the
heating curve can be monitored in the form of a function = f (, I). By setting the
parameters in the memory of the protection equipment, the thermal image of the protected
object is created and the current measured and, by means of the measured current that is
permanently monitored, the equipment knows the point of the heating curve where the
protected object is situated at a certain moment. The moment a modification of the load
current occurs, in either direction, the modification of the temperature point in the thermal
image starts from its previous value.

This principle, based on creating and monitoring a thermal image, does not entirely reflect
the actual situation of the protected object heating. A clearer evaluation of the actual situation
requires other information, as well, among which mention should be made of environmental
temperature, oil temperature and its properties.
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The paper focuses on these aspects and analyzes them.

2. Overload monitoring by means of the thermal image
2.1. Aspects relating to the thermal process

The main components of the transformer that represent sources /media of heat transmission in
the heating process are the core, the windings and the oil. The heating of these three parts
takes place by different thermal constants. Considering the three parts as homogenous bodies,
the thermal time constant can be defined by means of the following relation:

c c
Q
c m
/ Q
c m
S
c m
=

=


= (1)
where

m is the weight of the element under consideration [kg];
c is the specific heat [W.s/kg.

C];
- is the coefficient of heat discharge (elimination) [W/m
2
.

C];
S- is the area the heat is discharged (eliminated) through [m
2
];
- is the overtemperature of the body [

C];
Q
c
is the amount (quantity) of heat discharged in a second through convection [W].

Figure 1 presents the heating process that takes place by an exponential curve, the
temperature increase practically getting to a steady point in a period of time equal to (34).
This is the point of thermal balance, when the amount of heat generated in the winding/core
is equal to the heat carried through the oil to the surface of the tank. The equation of the
exponential curve becomes:


t
=
in.

t
e 1 (2)
where

t
- is the overtemperature at the time t;

in
is the initial temperature, stabilized, generated by an initial load of the transformer;
- is the time constant.
The heating process of the different transformer components takes place by the same law of
variation, but at different moments in time, due to the different thermal time constants. The
time constant of oil is of the same order of magnitude as the core time constant and the time
constant of the winding is much lower. Due to this, we can consider that, at quick load
variations, the variation of the oil and core temperatures, in comparison with the variation of
the winding temperature, can be neglected.

2.2 The thermal image of the protection functions
The digital protection equipment that have a transformer overload signaling/tripping function
have created a thermal image of the protected object (the transformer) described in an
equation similar to that in (2), where the final set temperature (
fin
) is determined by its rated
current. It should be noted that a protection function utilizing the thermal image strictly
following equation (2), is sensitive to overtemperature surpassing caused by a current
` 112 - 2
compared to the transformer rated current, as the settings are usually set for this function,
overlooking the initial temperature.


Figure 1: The exponential heating curve

In agreement with Figure 1, an increase in temperature due to an increase in load, starts from
the initial temperature determined by the load current existing in the circuit before the
occurrence of the new increase in load. If the previous current lasts long enough so that the
temperature exchange stabilizes (d/dt0), then the initial temperature of the winding is
determined by the cooling medium temperature and the new overheating, that is compared to
the value set with the rated current.

Consequently, consistent with the physical meaning of equation (2), in some pieces of
equipment, the thermal image of the protection function monitors an overheating the value of
which is set with the rated current, without considering the actual temperature of the winding
(these are pieces of equipment that carry out this process by monitoring the cooling
medium/environmental temperatures).

Under these circumstances, tripping may be performed, in the case of external low
temperatures, long before the potentially dangerous temperature is reached.

Based on a transformer loading characteristic varying with external temperature [1], there
results that, in the case of low temperatures when the overload may surpass the nominal value
by 38%, the tripping is performed when there is an approximately 28% reserve (in the case of
a setting that usually surpasses the nominal load by 10%).

Thus, the proper functioning of the overload protection by means of thermal image is
determined, among other things, by the accuracy the mathematical model of the thermal
process of the protected object is defined in the equipment memory. Therefore, several
characteristic elements of these protections should be underlined, namely:

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They monitor the temperature increase, or in the case of some pieces of equipment, even
the absolute temperature of the windings, taking into consideration the temperature of the
cooling medium and environmental temperature;
They utilize the actual value of the fundamental component of the current in order to
evaluate the temperature of the protected object or consider the harmonic contents.

These elements, related to the technical conception of the protection algorithm, together with
the way the protection parameters are established, differentiate the protection elements and
influence their operation.

3. Aspects relating to possible errors in the thermal image monitoring
3.1 Influence of temperature increase monitoring

The majority of modern equipment protection functions monitor temperature increase of the
windings as to the cooling medium without considering the latters temperature. Thus, due to
the fact that the conditions generated by this environment (oil, water, air) are not considered,
the function may order the overload signalling/tripping before/after it becomes dangerous.

Figure 2 presents the heating process of a transformer obtained by mathematical modeling of
the increase in the winding temperature against the cooling medium curve 1 and based on
the winding temperature considering the cooling medium temperature curve 2. The
temperature increase, determined only by the value of the current intensity through the
winding, will be the same, regardless of the season and the transformer cooling conditions.

Figure 2: The heating process of a transformer

Figure 3 presents the simulation of a thermal process in a transformer, and the intervention of
the forced cooling installations of the cooling medium at a certain moment.

In certain loading and technical characteristics conditions of a transformer, the curve of the
temperature increase against the cooling medium temperature takes the form of curve 1. In
the same conditions, if we consider the temperature of the cooling medium as well, we obtain
curve 4. If, for example, the forced cooling installation or environmental conditions (in the
case of natural cooling) makes the cooling medium evolve following curve 2, the
` 112 - 4
temperature of the winding will increase as in curve 3, in such a way as to obtain a decrease
in the maximum temperature attained.

The thermal image created only on the basis of the value of current in the winding (curve 1)
will not sense this modification of the maximum temperature value and, consequently,
tripping through the overload protection by thermal image modeling will be possible to occur,
although it is not required.


Figure 3: Thermal processes in a transformer


3.2 Influence of the fundamental harmonics

In general, the important quantities that are set for the protection by thermal image in the
protection equipment are the rated current of the protected object
(transformer/autotransformer), the CT transformer ratio, the thermal time constant of the
protected object and the signaling/tripping thresholds, that are usually related to the protected
object rated current.

The varying quantity that influences overheating is the load current, which, related to the
rated current, indicates the loading level.
Relationship (3) presents the typical calculation relationship:

=
2
N1
N2
NG/T
loadG/T
I
I
I
I

x 100 [%] (3)

where

I
load.G/T
- the transformer/generator load current at a certain moment;
I
NG/T
- the rated current of the transformer/generator at a certain moment;
` 112 - 5
I
N1
; I
N2
-

primary, secondary, respectively, CT rated currents

Usually, in relationship (3) the currents have the effective value (rms), in which case, in the
presence of certain distorted currents (therefore with harmonic contents), the effective value
is greater (equation 4) than in the case when only the fundamental harmonic is present. Figure
4 presents a sinusoidal current wave of fundamental frequency (curve1) and the same curve
made up with the second, third and fifth harmonic (curve 2), as well as the effective values
(curves on the right of the figure).


Figure 4: Current wave with and without harmonics


I = ... I ..... I I I I
n
+ + + + + +
2 2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
> I
1
(4)

In these conditions, the overtemperature is greater than the one established by parameters,
that takes into consideration only the effective value (rms) of the fundamental component of
the load curent.

The usual tripping steps of the overload protection with thermal image are 5% and 10% of the
winding temperature obtained at the rated current. In these conditions it becomes important
whether the protection algorithm utilizes the effective value of the fundamental component or
takes into account the harmonics, as well. A cumulated content of 55% in harmonics may
lead to an increase of 5% in the effective value of current and implicitly, to an increase in
temperature.

Figure 5 presents several heating curves, in the same environmental conditions, caused by a
current through the windings with a variable harmonic content. Curve 1 represents the
heating at the rated current only for the fundamental. Curve 2 represents the heating at a
current with the fundamental component of nominal value and a 55% harmonic content (the
effective value is by 5% higher than the nominal current). We notice that, in the conditions of
an overload greater than 5%, a 58% content of harmonics intervenes, the effective value of
the current is by 10% greater than the nominal current (heating represented by curve 3) if
harmonics are also considered.
` 112 - 6

Figure 5: Heating curves

It should be underlined that by disregarding the presence of harmonics, they may come to
represent a source of thermal overload protection pick up errors by considering a false value
instead of the load current value.

3.3 Influence of environmental temperature

The expected lifetime/operation time of a transformer is of 20 years, if the operating
temperature is of 98

C in its hot spot [1]. In the case of transformers calculated at the

allowable temperature increase, the hot spot of the windings may reach, at nominal load,
98

C, at +20

C environmental temperature.

At an environmental temperature that is constantly below 5

C, a transformer will be loaded

with a power higher than the rated one, but will still operate for 20 years. In the case of a
transformer with natural cooling, this power is calculated on the basis of an approximation
equation (5) for linear (steady) temperature increases [3].

20 100 =
stat
(5)

On the other hand, if the 20 year functioning time is maintained

aer stat
98 = (6)
from which
100
115
aer

= (7)

This relationship is expressed in the following way: then, when the environmental
temperature is permanently low, being under +20

C, a transformer with oil natural cooling

may be loaded with a power 1% greater than the rated one for each degree the environmental
temperature decreases under 20

C. Consequently, at an environmental temperature surpassing

20

C, < 1 and the transformer may be loaded at a lower power than the rated one.

As regards the forced cooling transformers, it is possible to increase the load at a lower
temperature of the cooling agent [3]:

` 112 - 7
-in the case of transformers with forced cooling by means of blown air, both in the case of
interior forced circulation of oil and in the case of natural circulation, by 0.75% of the rated
power for each decrease by 1 degree in the air temperature below 20

C;
-in the case of water cooled transformers, by 0.75% of the nominal power for each
decrease by 1 degree of the cooling water (at the entrance) below 20

C;

Environmental temperature is taken into consideration for the thermal overload protection
algorithm only in the case of actual protection equipment. The overload protection operation
efficiency could be increased by utilising a set of values for the protection parameters in
agreement with the average temperature of a season. Thus, we can use the opportunity
offered by the digital protection equipment to establish several parameter sets.

4. Possible ways for improving the protection operation

4.1 Correction when the temperature of the cooling agent is not monitored

The temperature of the hot spot, the main element that influences insulation ageing, is
established, in agreement with the standards and design practice, for the 20

C environmental
temperature (stabilised value) and the nominal current. According to these quantities the
temperature of the hot spot is 98

C, and of the oil, in the upper part, is 68

C.

The equipment modelling the thermal image without taking into consideration environmental
temperature by monitoring the oil temperature in its hottest spot, that consider only the rated
current for defining the load, consider, in fact that the transformer is in an environment whose
temperature is permanently below 20

C.

When the average temperatures are below 20

C, the temperature of the hot spot is below

98

C, therefore the transformer could safely function at a load that is higher than the nominal
one. When the average temperatures surpass 20

C, the temperature of the hot spot is higher

than 98

C at nominal load, and, in this situation, the insulation in under stress.

A correction of the operational characteristic, in order to better adapt it to environmental
conditions, without monitoring the oil temperature in the hottest spot, can be obtained by
utilising the sets of parameters existing in the thermal image function.

It is well-known that all the microprocessorbased equipment have several sets of parameters
(usually 4) that can be changed by binary inputs. In these circumstances, a years time may be
divided into four periods corresponding to the zone where the transformer is operating
(eventually the four seasons), each with an established average operating temperature.
According to this temperature the limit load current value is established, equivalent to the
rated current at 20

C. Thus, operating currents greater than the rated current will result for
temperatures below 20

C, and lower currents when environmental temperature is higher than

20
0
C. Within each set of parameters only the necessary ones will be changed, those belonging
to the function of the thermal image. The rest will remain unchanged.

The change of the parameter set will be performed at the established date, when passing to
another period of operation (of environmental temperature). In this way the transformer can
take over the load corresponding to the environmental temperature even if the oil temperature
` 112 - 8
in the hottest spot is not monitored and establish the most suitable operating working
conditions.

4.2 Correction when the input quantity is filtered (harmonic filtering)

This situation should be considered only in a greatly distorted regime and in the case of
protection equipment that filters the input quantities.

From the information given at 3.2 there results a 5% error then, when the total harmonic
content is of about 55%.

In agreement with the real (measured) content of harmonics, we can correct, as a percentage,
the reference current by which the transformer heating is monitored ( usually this is
performed for the nominal current of the transformer as to the rated current of the protection
function), when the parameter values are established.

5. Conclusions

The thermal overload transformer (generator) protection utilising the thermal image, stored in
a digital protection represents the correct technical solution ensuring a certain degree of
accuracy.

As concerns the protection functions that do not take into consideration the temperature of the
cooling medium, the error may be negative or positive, as the temperature of the medium
may be lower or higher than 20

C. This aspect may be improved in operation by utilising the

sets of parameters.

In the case of the currents with a high content of harmonics, the errors that may occur may be
corrected by means of the parameterisation method.

References

[1] CEI 354 Guide de charge pour transformateurs de puissance immerges dans lhuile
[2] Patrick Heavey s.a. , RMS Measuring Principles in the Application of Protective
Relaying and Metering, 30th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, 21-23
October 2003, Spokane, WA USA
[3] E. Jezierski s.a., Electric Transformers: project and construction, Bucuresti, 1966









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