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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Geological considerations for: Tunnels Highways Foundation Dams Reservoirs
TUNNELS
TUNNELS
A tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for entrance and exit, commonly at each end.
TUNNELS
TRAFFIC TUNNELS
HYDROPOWER TUNNELS
TUNNELS
Traffic Tunnel:- It includes all tunnels which are excavated to divert the traffic load of whatsoever type from surface to subsurface routes with a view of facilitating the flow of traffic at a desired depth ,maximum convenience and at min. cost.
TUNNELS
Hydropower Tunnel:- Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric
stations.
Ex:- Beas-Sutlej Link, Yamuna-II.
TUNNELS
Public Utility Tunnels:- Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power. or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment. Ex:- Underground utility tunnel for heating pipes between Rigshospitalet and Amagervrket in Copenhagen,Denmark.
It helps in deciding:
o The method of tunneling. o The strength and extent of lining. o The cost of the project.
granite,basalts,gabbros,limestones,sandstones,marbles,quartzites.
These rocks are not self supporting, so temporary and permanent support becomes
necessary. Rocks in this group include Shales ,friable and poorly compacted sandstones ,chalk ,slates and phyllites with high degree of cleavage.
Tunneling in such rocks is always hazardous and very challenging job for an engineer.
Excavation in such rocks require large scale timbering for temporary support. Sometimes groundwater is also encountered, so adequate arrangements for drainage should also be provided.
Shear zones
Joint systems
(i)
(ii)
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
AN EARTHQUAKE is the motion or vibration, sometimes violent, of the earths surface that follows a r
elease of energyin the earths crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden
dislocation of segments of the crust by a volcanic eruption or even by manmade explosions.
EARTHQUAKE
Terminology:1. Focus- The place or point of origin of an earthquake below the surface of the earth is termed as its
focus or hypocenter. 2. Epicentre- The point or place on the surface vertically above the focus of a particular earthquake is
seismographs.
EARTHQUAKE
Types of Seismic Waves
There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves. BODY WAVES
P-waves; also known as primary waves or pressure waves
S-waves; also referred to as secondary or shear waves
SURFACE WAVES
Love and Raleigh waves
The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air. Sometimes animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake. Usually we only feel the bump and rattle of these waves.
S Waves The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock. This wave moves rock up and down, or side-to-side.
SURFACE WAVES
(These produce all the damage!)
Love Waves The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician. It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Rayleigh Waves The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.
Earthquake intensity:- It describes the surface ground shaking and damage caused by an earthquake. There are currently two measuring schemes used to quantify or qualify the destructiveness or power of an earthquake. 1) The Mercalli Intensity scale (it is qualitatively based) 2) The Richter Magnitude scale (it is quantitatively based)
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent.
Richter Magnitude
-1.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Breaking a rock on a lab table Large Blast at a Construction Site Large Quarry or Mine Blast
Example
Little Skull Mtn., NV Quake, 1992 Double Spring Flat, NV Quake, 1994 Northridge, CA Quake, 1994 Hyogo-Ken Nanbu, Japan Quake, 1995; Largest Thermonuclear Weapon 160 million tons Landers, CA Quake, 1992 1 billion tons San Francisco, CA Quake, 1906 5 billion tons Anchorage, AK Quake, 1964 32 billion tons Chilean Quake, 1960 1 trillion tons (San-Andreas type fault circling Earth) 160 trillion tons (Fault Earth in half through center, OR Earth's daily receipt of solar energy)
To determine the motion of the earth during an earthquake, ground motion must be measured against something that remains relatively fixed (i.e., not affected by the shaking). In a seismometer, the fixed object consists of a mass suspended on springs within a case. During an earthquake, the mass remains still while the case around it moves with the ground shaking. Most modern seismometers work electromagnetically. A large permanent magnet is used for the mass and the outside case contains numerous windings of fine wire. Movements of the case relative to the magnet generate small electric signals in the wire coil.
Earthquake waves decrease in strength as they travel through the earth. Instruments sensitive to seismic waves that vibrate several times per second, called short period seismographs, are used to record local earthquakes, during which the waves reaching the seismograph are still very rapid and close together. Long period seismographs respond to lower frequency waves and are used to record distant events. Modern broadband seismographs perform both functions.
To completely characterize the earth's movement, the motion must be measured in three perpendicular directions. Consequently, seismographs often employ three sensors, recording in each of the north-south, eastwest and vertical (up and down) directions.
World's Largest Recorded Earthquake 9.5 Magnitude - May 22, 1960 near Valdivia, Chile
Earthquake
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