Responses to Rapid Social Change: Populist Religion in the Philippines Author(s): Christl Kessler and Jrgen Rland Reviewed

work(s): Source: Pacific Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 1 (Spring, 2006), pp. 73-96 Published by: Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40019304 . Accessed: 02/02/2012 07:13
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toRapidSocialChange: Responses in the Populist Religion Philippines

Christl Kessler andJurgen Ruland*

tides such as "Christianity with Re-Born: TheGlobal publications in of the Twentieth "TheNext Expansion Evangelicalism Century,"1 Christendom. TheComing ofGlobal and "Charismatic Christianity"2 3 reflect inits as a Global Culture" thefact that EvanChristianity Christianity version is and worldwide. Pentecostal/Charismatic gaining gelical ground tothe Christian these strands ofChristianity World According Encyclopedia, in themid-1970s for4.5 percent of all Christians and for11.8 accounted in in 1995. The increase Pentecostals/Charismatics and,to greatest percent in a lesser has taken Africa and Latin In America. extent, Evangelicals place ofPentecostals/Charismatics rosefrom 4.8percent Africa thepercentage of in the mid-1970s in 1995. The shareof to 15.9 percent the population increased 4.6 percent to 8.8 duringthe same periodfrom Evangelicals for Latin America are The Pentecostals/ equally impressive: percent. figures from 4.4 percent in mid-1970 in Charismatics to 27.1 percent multiplied 3.4 to 7.6 percent. In Asiathesuccess 1995and Evangelicals doubledfrom is one ofPentecostal/ Charismatic as itssharerosefrom Christianity, story in 1995, in themid-1970s to 3.6 percent while theEvangelicals 0.5 percent at 0.5 and 0.8 remained virtually unchanged percent, respectively.4
* The authors thanktheWorking of the CatholicBishops Groupon Global ChurchAffairs on whichthisarticle is based. Theyalso wishto of Germany forfunding theresearch Conference their to theInstitute ofPhilippine Culture for (IPC) , Ateneode ManilaUniversity gratitude express and conducting theempirical from this article theauthors and preparing which draws. survey hosting In particular, thedirector ofIPC, Dr.Filemon and Dr.Milagros Tolentino we thank and Aguilar,Jr., Dr.Katharine L. Wiegeleand three herassistants. Wewouldalso liketo thank reviewers anonymous on this article. forhelpful comments 1 Donald Lewis, Re-Born: TheGlobal in the Twentieth ed., Christianity of Expansion Evangelicalism MI: Eerdman's, (GrandRapids, 2004). Century 2 Philip The The Global Oxford Next Christendom: (Oxford: Coming of Christianity Jenkins, University Press, 2002). 3 KarlaPoewe,ed., Charismatic as a Global Culture of South (Columbia:University Christianity Carolina Press, 1994). 4 DavidB. Barrett, Christian eds., World GeorgeT. Kurianand Todd M.Johnson, Encyclopedia Oxford Press, 2001),pp. 13-15. (Oxford: University

Introduction

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conservative as religiously hasdescribed these churches Jenkins growing inwhich haveemerged andFreston hasshedlight on thediverse they ways In Asia,South as a political in many countries oftheglobalSouth.5 force as countries ofEvangelical KoreaandChinahavegained academic attention and Pentecostal church growth.6 asidefrom Thefollowing inthePhilippines, article examines thesituation intheregion. East Timor theonly Christian Although predominantly country here as well,the Pentecostal and Evangelical churches haveflourished - show - the"Pentecostal themost Catholic Catholics"7 Charismatic groups El Charismatic The two Catholic layorganizations, striking growth. biggest million Shaddaiand CouplesforChrist, claim three registered together all overthe globe and their bothmaintain overseas members; chapters In thearticle missions foster thegrowth ofAsianChristianity. wearguethat character.8 theenormous ofthesegroups is due to their success populist in The discussion the draws on a study of religious change Philippines in 2003.We start outlineof the conducted witha brief by the authors and terminology The mainsections usedinthestudy. present methodology in the Charismatic movement data on the of the quantitative survey scope of elaborate on the transfer and,using data, populist Philippines qualitative the discusses and topicsto thereligious thearticle styles sphere. Finally, in the ramifications of the Charismatic Renewal potentialpolitical Philippines.
ResearchMethodology

in the Our analysis restson more thansevenmonths of fieldwork in 2003. It draws on a nationalsurvey on religious change Philippines
5 Jenkins, TheNext inAsia,Africa, andLatin Paul Freston, andPolitics Christendom; Evangelicals America Press, 2001). (Cambridge: University Cambridge 6 Boo-Woong amMain:Peter Pentecostalism. ItsHistory andTheology Yoo,Korean (Frankfurt Lang, in the A. Rubinstein, and Charismatic Taiwan: Pentecostal 1988); Murray Christianity "HolySpirit ofChina," inDanielH. Bays, inChina. From the tothe Present ed., Christianity Republic Eighteenth Century CA: Stanford "The QuestforMeaning:Religion in the (Stanford, 1996); Tu Weiming, University, ofChina," in Peter L. Berger, Desecularization the World. ed., The People'sRepublic Religion of Resurgent and World Politics and (GrandRapids,MI: Eerdman's, 1999), pp. 91-94;GraemeLang, "Religions in China," in MadeleineCousineau, in a Changing World. Studies in ed.,Religion Regimes Comparative CT, London: Praeger,1998); WalterHollenweger, Sociology (Westport, Charismatisch-pfingstliches Christentum Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1997), p.Ulff; Li Yue Hong, "The Decline of (Gottingen: Confucianism and theProclamation oftheGospelin China," inWonsuk Ma and Robert P. Menzies, in Context. in Honor W Menzies Sheffield Academic eds.,Pentecostalism (Sheffield: Essays ofWilliam Pentecostalism Press, Press, 1997); AlanAnderson, 2004), pp. 132(Cambrige: Cambridge University in China, and culture: Christian 139;Philip commitment, Yuen-Sang Leung,"Conversion, experience in Donald Lewis,ed., Christianity Re-Born: TheGlobal in the 1849-1999," Expansion ofEvangelicalism Twentieth MI: Eerdman's, (GrandRapids, 2004). Century I Meredith B. McGuire, Pentecostal Catholics. Charisma and Order in a Religious Movement Power, Press, 1982). (Philadelphia: TempleUniversity 8 The conceptof political has been applied to the study of religious populism phenomena before. NathanHatch,forexample, in theUnited an analysis of the Second Awakening provides

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conducted ofPhilippine Culture (IPC) of theAteneode bytheInstitute ManilaUniversity and November between 2003.The questionnaire August inFreiburg, wasdeveloped bytheArnold-Bergstraesser-Institute Germany,9 in cooperation and adaptedto Philippine circumstances with theIPC. It consists of125questions beliefs, covering religious practice, religious religious theroleofreligion in politics and society at attitudes, tolerance, religious and socioeconomic attitudes. largeas wellas moregeneral sociopolitical The questionnaire waspresented tothree ofrespondents. The main groups of1,200respondents wasselected ranbya nationwide sample multi-stage dom sampling Additional of 200 non-Catholic Christians design. samples and 200 Catholic Charismatics werechosenusingthesnowball technique, from themainsample. with starting respondents ofthemainsample included four of design Multi-stage sample provinces thefour ofthePhilippines Luzon, (National major regions Capital Region, and Mindanao).However, due to security somerandomly reasons, Visayas had tobe replaced. The dataofthis selected sites mainsample isweighted for rural distribution on thesub-regional leveland for age,sexand urban/ distribution between themajor nationwide to regions population according inthe thenational census datafrom ofrespondents 2000.Fifty-nine percent inrural inurban main live areasand41 percent areas. Metro Manila sample for13 percent ofthesample; residents account thebiggest 43 proportion, inLuzon, inthe inMindanao. and24percent live 20percent Visayas, percent, The age groups Gender is equally distributed. are as follows: of 23 percent arebetween 18and24years between 25 and34 old,26percent respondents are aged 35 to 49 years and 22 percent are morethan50 28 percent years, old. One-third oftherespondents havecompleted their years elementary from 39percent havegraduated school and 16percent hold education, high a college or university degree. Only 12 percenthave not completed education.About two-thirds of the respondents elementary actively in are the labour one-third force, retired, studying, participate housekeeping To assessthesocioeconomic ofrespondents, or unemployed. background
Nathan O. Hatch,The Democratization American States as religious (NewHaven, of populism. Christianity CT: Yale University Press, 1989). 9 Manyofthesurvey havebeen developed questions byTheodorHanf, Arnold-Bergstraesserofthequestionnaire and constitute a slightly revised version Institute, Germany, Freiburg, appliedin on religious Ulrich an earlier Bastian, Wehr, study changein CostaRica (Jean-Pierre Fanger, Ingrid
Nikolaus Werz,ReligidserWandelin CostaRica. Eine sozialwissenschaftliche [Mainz: MatthiasInterpretation

takepartin the International Social Science Panel 2000]). As the Philippines Grunewald-Verlag, several from theISSP on religion. The ISSPs are conducted we integrated (ISSP) surveys, questions SocialWeather thedatafileand questionnaire institute which Stations, kindly provided bythesurvey One additional in thequestionnaire is taken from ofthe1991and 1998panelson religion. question from The questionnaire alsobenefited discussions with staff oftheSocialWeather theEurobarometer. alsoliketothank Father Herbert Schneider for hishelpinidentifying andPulseAsia. Wewould Stations Christians thesurvey and Dr.Reinhard ofCharismatic within from the characteristics Hempelmann for hisadvice inclassifying Zentralstelle fur non-Catholic Berlin, Weltanschauungsfragen, Evangelische as Charismatic/non-Charismatic. churches

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an indexof household incomewith we combined thedata on monetary with both of whichcorrelate and educational attainments, possessions of status of17percent income. Basedon these thesocioeconomic variables, of of7 percent status isclassified as low, andthesocioeconomic respondents is classified as high. respondents The data gainedfromthissurvey was complemented by qualitative and ofPentecostal interviews with 22 members usinginterview guidelines in Catholic Charismatic theseinterviews wereconducted Tagalog groups; IPC. The authors themselves interviewed from 22 leading byinterviewers All interviews were members and clergy of thesegroupsand churches. The data into translated English. transcribed and theTagaloginterviews were interviews and derived from standardized questionnaires in-depth invarious observation religious supplemented bydatagained byparticipant in talks with and seminars and background information services acquired of the academicexperts. coveredall majorregions Whereasthe survey and participant interviews data (interviews, Philippines, qualitative expert restricted to Metro Manila. was observation)
ConceptualClarifications

in the movement The subject ofourstudy is theriseoftheCharismatic to be in context needs term this The use of the Charismatic Philippines. to Max Weber's Charismatic as socialscientists relatethe term clarified, of religious in thecontext of rule,which wouldbe misleading sociology movements on religious movements The literature and denominations. and Pentecostal in how the labelsEvangelical, reveals an inconsistency areevenusedas synonyms. Charismatic areemployed; sometimes theterms are sometimes To further confuse all oftheseChristian traditions readers, A short on theorigins subsumed excursion under theterm fundamentalists. this ofthesedifferent ofChristianity strands willhelpto clarify seemingly arbitrary labelling. is rootedin the US-American Charismatic Christianity Historically, Holiness Movementand its successor, the Pentecostal churches. inthe ofthetwentieth Pentecostalism United States atthe beginning emerged Protestant churches Itsaimwastorenew theexisting "mainline" by century. the on the individual concentrating spiritual experienceof believers, in theBibleand theworks charismatic mentioned oftheHolySpirit. gifts to the establisheddenominations reacted ratherhostilely However, itsown Pentecostal movement formed therenewal practices. Consequently inthe churches.10 Pentecostal churches around theworld grew enormously secondhalfof the twentieth In addition the to thisexpansion, century.
the MA:Addison-Wesley 1995). Twenty-First Century (Reading, Publishing Company,
10 Harvey G. Cox, Fire in Heaven. TheRise ofPentecostal and the from Reshaping ofReligion Spirituality

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on theHoly Pentecostal andon individual emphasis Spirit spirituality spread as a Charismatic to mainline movement Protestant denominations under theleadership ofDennisBennet, an Episcopal in 1959,and to the priest, inPennsylvania Roman Catholic andMichigan Church, beginning University circles. Today'sEvangelicalscan trace theirrootsback to the Protestant a movement that in thetwentieth Fundamentalists, emerged early century, after thePentecostal movement. Pentecostals and Fundamentalists slightly can be seenas twodifferent reactions to therapidsocialchange religious in North induced and urbanization America after the byindustrialization onindividual Civil War. With their Pentecostals emphasis spiritual experience, offered a religious while Fundamentalists to restore strove the innovation, and socialorder.11 old religious Pentecostals and Fundamentalists differences, Despitetheir agreedon suchas a literal in theBibleand opposition most ofdoctrine, belief points ButPentecostal intrance, toliberal likefalling theology. practices, speaking in tongues, and laughing out loud during were services, crying weeping, as improper inGod'shouse, behaviour andby regarded byFundamentalists activities. somecommon someevenas satanic Pentecostals ground, Despite theFundamentalist excluded from movement.12 weretherefore strictly Up orFundamentalist tothe1950s, meant thesame being Evangelical virtually intheUS. After World WarII, someFundamentalists optedfor cooperation souls for Christ. thenameEvangelical for thesakeofwinning They adopted intheir effort with mainline andcooperated denominations that missionary Fundamentalists Fundamentalists regardedas apostate.Consequently, from distanced themselves eventually Evangelicals.13 on theological Giventhe broad agreement and issues,Pentecostal In thePhilippines havecomecloser toeachother. churches this Evangelical that Pentecostal churches are members is demonstrated ofthe bythefact - a council Council ofChurches calledthe formerly Evangelical Philippine Churches. Council of Fundamentalist Philippine The term Charismatic issometimes usedina narrow sensetodistinguish Christians within non-Pentecostal denominations from the Charismatic churches. In our of to Pentecostal use the term Christians we belonging Charismatic the suggestion of Poewe,who defines as follow Christianity
11 MartinRiesebrodt,Fundamentalismus alspatriarchalische Amerikanische Protestanten Protestbewegung. (1910-28) und iranischeSchiiten(1961-79) im Vergleich (Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1990); Nancy T.

inMartin American Protestant E. Marty and Scott R.Appleby, "North Fundamentalism," Ammermann, London:University ofChicagoPress, Observed eds.,Fundamentalisms 1991). (Chicago, 12 GeorgM. Marsden, and American Culture Brace (San Diego, NewYork:Harcourt Religion American Protestant North Fundamentalism; 1990), p.153 ff,p.182 ff;Ammermann, Jovanovich,
Christentum, Hollenweger, Charismatisch-pfingstliches pp. 217-218. 13 Marsden, Religionand American American Protestant Culture, pp. 217-18; Ammermann, North Fundamentalism, p. 37.

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and allChristian that spiritual experience "encompassing groups emphasize the activities of the Holy Spirit."14 Whenwe speakof the Charismatic movement in thePhilippines includePentecostal we therefore churches, Protestant Charismatic aswell as Charismatic mainline Christians, Evangelical and Charismatic Roman-Catholic Christians. actors The acknowledgement ofsimilarities bythePhilippine expressed as part ofthe themselves alsolegitimizes ofthedifferent ouranalysis groups same arekeentoclarify Catholic Charismatic leaders phenomenon. Although the often mention that adhereto Catholic beliefs and practices, they they As Pentecostal oftheir movement. for and Protestant Charismatic origins at a in a an 19 of non-Catholics, survey astonishing percent thedelegates Council the above-mentioned Philippine missionary congress organized by ofEvangelical Charismatics as saved Churches Catholic optedfor counting soulsin theEvangelical sense.15
The Charismatic in thePhilippines Movement

in Pentecostal and Charismatic area relatively newphenomenon groups colonial thePhilippines. RomanCatholicism is a legacy oftheSpanish past andmainline American colonizers Protestantism first entered theislands with in 1899. But substantial also and Pentecostal missions, Evangelical II. War of US-American did not start before World predominantly origin, andFilipino Pentecostal andEvangelical churches soon"Filipinized," were as tookthelead. The Catholic Charismatic which, movement, preachers in the UnitedStatesin 1967,reachedthe mentioned above,originated the in the early1970s.One of our interview traces Philippines partners contact Catholic toa Filipino hadcomeinto Renewal movement couplethat theCatholic in theUnitedStates. Mostof the with Charismatic Renewal in thelate1970sorearly studied groups byus wereestablished byFilipinos 1980s. is Lord,one of thebiggest Protestant Charismatic Jesus groups,16 with an estimated ofnearly one million, wasfounded byEddie membership in 1978.Mike Villanueva El Shaddai a former started Velarde, businessman, in1983. El Shaddai tobe thelargest Charismatic claims oftheCatholic Today with two million million members andan estimated seven groups, registered followers. 1.4 million unregistered registered CouplesforChrist reports membersin 2001.17Othergroupsreport in the tensof memberships thousands.
14 Poewe, Charismatic as a GlobalCulture, Christianity p. 2.

15 "So muchmoreto do! Evaluating DAWN2000 Philippines," article availableon the Dawn Ministries Website, at <http://www.dawnministries.org/ June20,2003. old_home/phil_eval.html>, 16 JoseA. Carillo, "Aprimer on political at ManilaTimes, 29 March2004,available propaganda," (30 March2004). <http:www.manilatimes.net>, 17 According to ourdata,CouplesforChrist of exceedsEl Shaddaiin membership: 0.8 percent in themainsampleare members ofEl Shaddaicompared to 3.7 percent members of respondents

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In contrast to the"explosion ofProtestantism in Latin which America,"18 a Catholic colonial shares with thePhilippines, therecent of legacy growth in thePhilippines and Pentecostal did notresult in a Evangelical groups in theProtestant substantial increase In our survey, we finda population. RomanCatholic of 83 percent and a non-Catholic Christian population
1 Figure toRapidSocialChange: in the Responses Religion Populist Philippines

ofCommerce and Industry, 1948/1960:BureauofCensusand Statistics, Department ofthePhilippines, "CensusofthePhilippines 1960Population Republic " vol. and Housing, II, Summary Report(Manila:1963) table19,p. 17. Thereare no data on religion available forthe1970and 1980census. Statistics ofthePhilippines, 1990: National "1990Censusof Office, Republic and Housing, No. 3: Socioeconomic and Demographic Report Population Characteristics," (Manila:1992). NationalStatistics ofthePhilippines, 2000: "2000Censusof Office, Republic and Housing, No. 2: Demographic and Housing Population Report Characteristics," (Manila:2003). Ownsurvey 2003:
Thisfinding confirms theresults oftheSocialWeather Stations National Survey CouplesforChrist. of 2.7 percent forCouples of Christ and 0.5 percent El Shaddai of 2001,whichgivesthe figures (Manila,2002),p. 4.

Sources:

A review conducted members. SWS Survey vol. II, no. 3 Stations, ofsurveys bySocial Weather Snapshots.

18 David Martin,Tongues Fire.TheExplosion Protestantism in Latin America (Oxford, Cambridge, of of MA: Blackwell, 1990).

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2006 Volume 79,No. 1- Spring Affairs: Pacific 2 Figure Protestants Philippine

and Industry, ofCommerce 1948/1960:BureauofCensusand Statistics, Department 1960Population ofthePhilippines, "CensusofthePhilippines Republic " vol. and Housing, II, Summary Report(Manila:1963) table19,p. 17. between Censusdata of 1948and 1960differentiates Protestants, only here The figure forNCCP churches and Iglesiani Cristo. given Aglipayans is thefigure for Aglipayans. ofthePhilippines, "1990Censusof 1990: NationalStatistics Office, Republic and Demographic and No. 3: Socioeconomic Population Housing, Report Characteristics," (Manila:1992). NationalStatistics ofthePhilippines, 2000: "2000Censusof Office, Republic and Housing, and Housing No. 2: Demographic Population Report Characteristics," (Manila:2003). Ownsurvey 2003:

Sources:

1 and2 suggest that the of16percent.19 infigures Thedatashown population in decades. of the Catholic has been stable recent percentage quite population and Pentecostal under"other Protestant subsumed churches, Evangelical at the of Protestant mainline denominations. churches," grew expense
19 Asmentioned ofsecurity Muslim areasin for reasons wehad toreplacepredominantly above, thesurvey. Thisexplains A SocialWeather Stations theunderrepresentation ofMuslims (1 percent). A of2001reports for4 percent ofthepopulation that Muslims account (SWSSurvey Survey Snapshots.
review conducted Stations, ofsurveys bySocial Weather p. 4) .

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Data on church is ofonly limited valuewhenit comesto membership Charismatic as theyare foundin virtually all Christians, identifying askedall Christian denominations. We therefore in themain respondents in Charismatic forCharismatic and membership practices sample groups. on active Charismatics The resulting showthe"pentecostalization" figures More than one-third of all non-Catholic of PhilippineProtestantism. in thePhilippines ofa Pentecostal Christians are members church or a lay These results buttress the practices. groupthathas adoptedCharismatic census on church that therise ofPentecostal membership, indicating figures churches and Evangelical between changednot so muchthe relations and non-Catholic but the religious Catholic within Christians, landscape Protestantism. Philippine this assessment is misleading insofar as ittakes thelossof However, only intoaccount. The Catholic Church isas muchaffected church members by as theProtestant In the movement churches. theriseof theCharismatic be evenmoreaffected, as Catholics are simultaneously longrunit might and members oftheCharismatic movement and therefore Catholic affect Church from within. The most result ofthesurvey theCatholic is striking 15percent ofCatholic Charismatics: ofall interviewed thehigh percentage intheCharismatic areactive movement. Catholics Thus, although Philippine Protestantism has a strongCharismatic wing,the bulk of Philippine Charismatics belong to the RomanCatholicChurch.The Charismatic
3 Figure Charismatic Engagement

Source: 2003, Own survey.

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in thesurvey and only 30 Christians of70 percent Catholics arecomprised In terms ofnumbers, themost Christians. Pentecostal/Protestant percent in the Philippines is therefore the Catholic successful current religious Charismatic movement. the Thisresult incomparison isalsoremarkable toLatin where America, thenumber of success ofPentecostal churches has substantially increased in Latin Protestant Renewal Christians.20 Thereis a Catholic Charismatic in America as wellbut,unlikein thePhilippines, it seemslesssuccessful from toPentecostalism. conversions Catholicism preventing Theroots ofthis "Catholization" ofthePentecostal/Charismatic religiosity can be traced in which dealtwith backto theway thePhilippine hierarchy thebeginnings ofCatholic initial and suspicion, Renewal. After reluctance The the RomanCatholicChurchwelcomed Charismatics. the Catholic into the Church structure themovement hierarchy successfully integrated and ensured that doctrine theCharismatic stuck to Catholic while groups a Pentecostal of and simultaneously adapting style worship religious practice. Catholics thus do nothavetodismiss thefaith were they brought Philippine tolivetheir theCharismatic wish up in,ifthey religiosity way. Most tend for theCharismatic movement observers toaccept that support isstrongest the strata of it as a lower among society, phenomenon depicting oftheuneducated urban Thisimpression stems from mediacoverage poor. of El Shaddai prayer of the rallies,attendedby the poorersegments in Metro studies on Pentecostal and is Manila, population supported by churches inAfrica is notborneoutby and Latin America. Thisassumption our data. Poor respondents in the Charismatic are not over-represented in theopposite movement. direction. residence evenworks Metropolitan members of to the other the of active Compared major regions, percentage to our the Charismatic is smallest in MetroManila.Contrary movement education are slightly overwithtertiary expectations, respondents The same holds true for but much less than women, expected. represented. The genderdifference is not significant. This difference betweenthe is Charismatic movement and Charismatic Christians elsewhere Philippine In due to Catholic dominance. the becominga probably Philippines, buta subgroup Charismatic is notequivalent tojoininga socialminority, to the within theCatholic culture of themajority. Thismight contribute ofCharismatic all one hasto attractiveness for social strata. However, groups in in are mind that the the vast of the keep majority population Philippines of Charismatic the vast standards; poor by any consequently, majority in Christians arepoor. thesuccess oftheCharismatic movement Therefore, the Philippines of otherstudies, which does not contradict thefindings
20 Paul Freston, ofLatinAmerican in DonaldLewis, "Contours ed., Christianity Pentecostalism," TheGlobal MI: Eerdman's, Re-Born: in the Twentieth (GrandRapids, Expansion of Evangelicalism Century 2004),pp. 227-229.

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Charismatic tothelower strata ofsociety. Itqualifies connect these religion that Charismatic is attractive for thepoor, but findings byshowing religion for them. notexclusively To evaluatereligious of change,one has to go beyondmembership churches and laygroupsand ask about religious and beliefs, practices A principal ofourdatareveals attitudes. that thehigh analysis component in theCharismatic rates movement alsoreflect a specific participation type Charismatic includes and beliefs that ofreligiosity. are religiosity practices inreligious inthePhilippines, suchas tithing, new comparatively expression in theHolySpirit, in Charismatic seminars, participating beingbaptized in religious etc. one'sfaith services, testifying publicly The Charismatic factor consists of16items (Cronbach's religiosity alpha intense Charismatic 0.81),covering religious religious practice, experiences Pentecostal beliefs. Weclassify thetopquartile of or Charismatic/ religious as showing a high whoagreeto at leastsevenoftheseitems, respondents, ofall respondents in themainsample). Charismatic (26 percent religiosity this share theProtestant Within respondents jumpsup to64percent. Among in 19percent wefind a high Charismatic theCatholic religiosity respondents of all Catholics. stillalmostone-fifth The Pentecostal of respondents, in thePhilippines is obvious ofProtestantism here.The reverse character of the mainsample is at the otherend of the scale: 24 percent picture on Charismatic butonly score one or none 3 percent religiosity, respondents as to of the Protestant Catholic of respondents, opposed 27 percent are either Socioeconomic factors irrelevant for Charismatic respondents. in an unexpected as respondents orwork with direction, tertiary religiosity are education slightly over-represented among thosescoringhigh on andMetro Manila dwellers areunder-represented in Charismatic religiosity no correlation between this There is socioeconomic status significant group. Our qualitative data suggest or incomeand Charismatic that religiosity. tendto cater tospecific Charismatic communities socioeconomic different isrestricted toneither thepoorandlowerbutCharismatic religiosity groups, El of Shaddai nor the elite members of the middle-class constituency of Christian Businessmen and Professionals. to Brotherhood Contrary Manila residents are less to CharisMetro be conventional wisdom, likely but in otherregionsthe urban/rural matics, splitdoes not segregate thanexpected.Some groupsof Genderis less important Charismatics. aremore than others tobe Charismatic, buteducation Catholic women likely are more than attitudes decisive and certain gender. sociopolitical Charismatic is clearly relatedto active Not surprisingly, religiosity intheCharismatic . Thesefigures movement V 0.6**) involvement (Cramer's in thePhilippines movement is based on a indicate thattheCharismatic a set of and beliefs that has thepotential of certain practices type religiosity, in the movement's weaknesses to survive organization, leadership possible ofthecausesofthis success. raisethequestion etc.Theseresults changes,
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so attractive WhatmakesCharismatic comparedto other, religiosity forms ofreligiosity in thePhilippines? older, presumably
The Charismatic Movement as PopulistReligion

and populist We proposethethesis thatthetransfer of populist styles of Charismatic into the accounts for the success topics religious sphere in the It is of Charismatic the religion style preachers Philippines. populist that renders and thepopulist character ofCharismatic and belief practice this in of so successful the type religiosity Philippines. Populismas a politicalphenomenoncombinesa certainstyleof of a certain and a specific standon theeffects setoftopics, mobilization, modernization,understood as complex, interrelatedprocesses of industrialization and individualization. urbanization, mobilization draws on charismatic (in the leadership Populist political methods Weberian sense oftheconcept) skills andunconventional ,rhetorical theeliteand toattract articulate against publicattention. Populists protest classthesystem from that this elitesupports, while refraining propagating and basedinterests. in call for a reduction (institutional) complexity They in a mass idealize thepast. Instead ofcomplicated representative procedures face-to-face democracy, populistspropagatepersonal relationships, in whichgrass-roots can interaction and smallcommunities democracy flourish andleaders arepersonally accountable totheir followers.21 Populists in a sharedmoral fora society strive and a statethatis firmly grounded institutions. that aswell aspolitical andeconomic system encompasses private In other of to the sacred cosmos want reinstate words, premodern populists that societiesand get rid of the complexity, and pluralism insecurity a "revolt has been considered modernization. therefore accompany Populism against modernity."22 do notsimply thisequationfailsto recognize thatpopulists However, stick toa backward vision ofa lesscomplex, traditional, society. premodern bureaucracies andarrogant elites, Populists fight against corrupt anonymous on behalf man.Theylegitimize their actions with oftheordinary experts

21 Hans-Georg Radical inWestern Macmillan, Betz, 1994); Right-Wing Populism Europe (Basingstoke: Torcuato S. Di Telia, intotheTwenty-first Government andOpposition, 22:46 (1996), "Populism Century," Political "Trust thePeople!Populism and theTwoFacesofDemocracy," Canovan, pp. 187-200; Margaret vol.XLVII(1999),pp.2-16; "TheConstitutive ofPopulism," Yves andYves Studies, Surel, Meny Ambiguity inYves andYves andthe Surel, eds.,Democracies 2002); Meny Challenge (Basingstoke: Palgrave, Populist inMeny Yannis theDemocratic and Contemporary Governance," Question, Papadopoulos, "Populism, and Surel,Democracies of and the Paul Taggart, Populist Challenge; "Populismand the Pathology in Meny and Surel, Democracies andthe Puhle, Politics," Representative Challenge, Hans-Jiirgen Populist in Nikolaus "Zwischen Protest und Politikstil: und Demokratie," Werz, Populismus, Neo-Populismus in Ubersee ed.,Populismus. 2003). Populisten undEuropa (Opladen:Leske+Budrich, 22 Betz,Radical in Western Right-Wing Populism Europe, p. 22.

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reference totherights ofordinary this people.The assumption underlying - that to defend and that rulers legitimization ordinary people have rights - is based on quite modernconceptsof areaccountableto the ruled and democracy. therefore reacts to modern societal citizenship Populism andplurality themodern notion ofcitizens' complexity bycombining rights withthe imagined societies based on personal qualitiesof premodern relations and sharedethicsinsteadof procedural governed bymorality agreements. thepolitical ofpopulism tothereligious field isnot Transferring concept a novelidea. The above-mentioned Nathan forinstance, Hatch, fruitfully theconcept of"religious inhisseminal oftheSecond applied populism" study intheUnited States 1780and1830.23 between Weprefer tospeak Awakening ofpopulist instead ofreligious inorder toemphasize that religion populism - suchas a hyphenated wearenotdealing with version ofpolitical populism - butwith orleft-wing thetransfer ofa certain right-wing populism populism to the religious As a result of external influences, style political sphere. exacerbated institutional are factors, byhomegrown populist techniques inPhilippine entrenched culture andready tobe picked deeply political up and usedbyreligious movements. The Philippines inherited from theUS a political that system provides Presidentialism andplurality for instance, ample spacefor populism. voting, and populist ofelectioneering. In theabsenceof favour personalism styles candidates election programmes, usuallyoperatewithsimplistic party which address ofordinary keyconcerns platforms peoplewithout solving them: shelter and publicsafety. The enormous success of jobs, prosperity, in politics washighlighted strategies bythepresidential populist campaign in1998. E. Estrada Itwasnocoincidence that ofhissupporters ofjoseph many El also followers of the Charismatic Shaddai were movement. Political tothedeepdistrust andcynical attitudes ofmany responds populism ordinary in their their towards which view havebeen institutions, political Filipinos a elite and are of the of hijacked by corrupt incapable mastering challenges world. have neither a rapidly sustained economic They produced changing nor a modicumof socialjustice. Not surprisingly, distrust of growth, institutions and towards is generalcynicism Philippine political politics El Shaddai members.24 This coincides with the results of among widespread inwhich institutions rank other whereas churches low, polls political opinion score well.25

24 GraceGorospejamon, "TheEl ShaddaiPrayer Movement: Political Socialization ina Religious Science vol.20,no. 43 (1999), pp. 83-126 and pp. 116-117. Political Context," Journal, Philippine 25 JoseV.Abueva, Democratization and theConsolidation ofDemocracy Sincethe "Philippine Trends in FelipeB. Miranda, An Overview oftheMainIssues, and Prospects," 1986Revolution: ed., ofthePhilippines Democratization: Press, 1997),p. 77. (Quezon City: University Philippine Perspectives

23 Hatch, TheDemocratization ofAmerican Christianity.

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that has shown movement The enormous attraction oftheCharismatic the from be transferred can successfully of mobilization styles populist this transfer sections describe tothereligious Thefollowing political sphere. ingreater miracles as unconventional features: detail for thecentral populist of the structure methods of gaining massmedia,theinternal attention, ofcomplexity. andreduction movement andthetopics ofanti-system protest
Miracles Supernatural powers:

on powerful Likepolitical Charismatic leadersrely language populists, with rhetorical andjoyful rites. The persuasiveness oftheir appealincreases from a derived of their toinduce an aura extraordinary ability power, power tothegreat cited as testimony oftheir closeness toGod.Miracles areoften oftheHolySpirit. power One favoured domainformiracles is healing.Leadersoftenhave a ofEl Shaddaiand the as healers. Mike Velarde successful While reputation on CatholicCharismatic chairman of the NationalServiceCommittee all in thisrespect, Father are outstanding Renewal, nearly JoeyFaller, of the Charismatic and Pentecostal experiences groups highlight healing of a kind their The invitation to a "Lifein theSpirit followers. Seminar," states: seminar intotheCatholic Charismatic movement, "Healings entry in thelives ofthose whoexperienced and miracles havebeen manifested life will never theBaptism intheHoly a surprise ... your Youareinfor Spirit. inwhich benefits for themajority be thesameagain." In a country healthcare the prospect of miraculous of the population are virtually nonexistent, are to to this must have a healings strong Adding appeal affinities appeal.26 was sickness and traditional Involvement with healing a religious practices. thus and central element ofPhilippine Tuggy Toliver religion. pre-Christian in tongues notedthathealingis moreimportant thanspeaking among Pentecostals.27 Filipino are ofthepreachers Testimonies ofmiraculous andthemessages healings El In and broadcast toa wideaudience radio televangelism.fact, Shaddai, by In the the largest Charismatic movement, began as a radio apostolate. and has hours a Velarde's radio station broadcasts DWXI 24 meantime, day El also has in Metro Manila. Shaddai become oneofthemost stations popular all 14hours channels ofTV time it a on several which weekly, gives presence El 's over the Radio and TV cover Shaddai with rallies, people country.28 prayer rallies.29 tolive onthe toorattending broadcasts even while listening way prayer
26 Jenkins, The Next Christendom, p. 73. 27 LeonhardA. Tuggy in the and Ralph Toliver, theChurch (Manila: O.M.F. Seeing Philippines Publishers, 1972),p. 80. 28 LeonardoN. Mercado, A Study SVD,El Shaddai. 2001),p. 10. (Manila:LogosPublications, in the ofHawai'iPress, (Honolulu:University 2005),p. 43 ff. Philippines

29 KatherineL. Wiegele, Investing in Miracles: El Shaddai and theTransformation of PopularCatholicism

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Charismatic hasitsownradioprogramme and virtually every group Today, reacha substantial of thepopulation. Christian programmes proportion in themainsample oftherespondents reveal that Thirty-one percent they on radioorTVweekly listen toreligious services and 8 percent do so daily. Electronic mass media have created "virtual Christian which communities,"30 to those alsocater whohavenot Their joined a parish-based prayer group. effect is supplemented mobilizing by othermedia such as newsletters, and books.El Shaddai, forinstance, videocassettes distributes pamphlets, free which contains 300,000 monthly copiesofits BagongLiwanagmagazine, Velarde's sermons.31 and churches stress WhiletheCharismatic and, usually groups equality inkeeping with theidealsofearly choosecongregational forms Christianity, inpractice onhierarchical oforganization. oforganization, they rely patterns andPentecostal Most Charismatic interviewed neither groups byuspractice recruitment nordemocratic decision democratic Often leadership making. ofthegroup orchurch, theleaderisthefounder supported byan oligarchy are usually with a longtrack in thegroup ofelders. record Elders persons in an informal and nominated and top-down whoareproposed process by thegroup's leaders. theauthority ofleaders isbasedon theBible. Ultimately, foundin a survey Not surprisingly, of 200 El Shaddai Gorospe-Jamon in that 70.5 believed that members Mike leader, percent everything their if occur within thecongregation, Nevertheless, Velarde, disagreements says.32 endin schism, is one reason for thespread ofvarious often which new they communities and organizations. However, althoughone could sense inourinterviews, conflicts between different Charismatic underlying groups cause of and Charismatic thecommon renewal revival seemsto spiritual internal differences andfractions. outweigh
Anti-elitism and anti-system protest and authoritarian structures Strong leadership

anti-elitism isanti-system Itmay The populist be directed protest. against of a particular business bureaucracies, system government, political parties, or even established churchorganizations. The factthat conglomerates are unable to the institutions interests of existing represent ordinary people thekey the ofthe arethe leaders delegitimizes system, although targets protest elites of these institutions. Their poweris viewedas and functional thus have no chance toprotect their interests Ordinary overwhelming. people are as and these which and to blame elites, against perceived arrogant corrupt
30 Gorospe-Jamon,TheEl Shaddai Prayer Movement, p. 100.

31 Mercado, El Shaddai, p. 11.

32 Gorospe-Jamon,TheEl Shaddai Prayer Movement, p. 109.

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for interests of thus actas advocates ofthesuppressed hardships. Populists thecommon seekto create their people.With appeal to thepeople they and to transcend socialclasses. unity Ifpopulism so is theCharismatic is an assault on established authority, movement. Whilepolitical theantiauthorities, populism targets political elitismof the Charismatic movement challengesestablishedchurch hierarchies. TheCatholic Charismatic hierarchies movement even challenges from within. Aselsewhere, inthePhilippines isdirected their criticism mainly theCatholic Church. ButProtestant mainline churches arenotspared against from criticism. liberal to task fortheir cold,cerebral, Theyare also taken which hasno placefor emotion and spiritual theology, experience. In thePhilippines, in intensity. criticism of theCatholic Church varies Charismatics and Pentecostal are morevocalin their Evangelical groups criticism of theCatholic Mostof the Church thanCatholic Charismatics. El Shaddai, dominant Charismatic the Catholic numerically including groups, accentuate their and the doctrinal ofthe Catholic identity accept guidance Roman Catholic Church. But apartfromthisstreamlining in doctrinal Charismatic matters, Catholics seemtomaintain In oursnowball a sense ofdistinctiveness. sample of200 Catholic Charismatics observation that12 we madetheinteresting themselves not simply as "Catholic" but as "Charismatic percent identify some even "El none of the members of nonas Catholic," Shaddai"; Charismatic Catholic for their when asked were layorganizations specific affiliation. This indicates that a Charismatic somehow religious being qualifies in scope, one's "Catholicness" as different from notonly fellow Catholics, butalsoin quality. serado" devoted Charismatics arenotonly "Katoliko very but are Charismatic Catholics. this as a subtle We Catholics, they interpret of Church as such. oneself from the Catholic recognizable way distancing ofCharismatic What then iswrong Catholicism from theperspective with a hint she El Shaddai leader Velarde as when groups? Wiegele gives quotes of that he to free from the because wants saying bondage religion, people Thisis echoedbyone blocks therelationship with theHolySpirit. religion ofourCatholic can't Charismatic when she says, "My religion respondents, are me." she and saveme,only faith ... can save What Velarde my through its to here is Catholic ritual and tradition, preoccupation obviously referring is mediated with sacraments and itsneglect of evangelizing.33 Spirituality in stand the of a direct and who relationship through way personal priests God. "Weare theChurch and theChurch doesnotbelongtobishops with and cardinals," said the leader of anotherCharismatic group when interviewed.34 Catholics wentoverto "Born VelardeclaimsthatFilipino for these reasons. Again" groups precisely
33 Wiegele, inMiracles, Investing p. 50. 34 In-person interview with theleaderofa Charismatic 2003. Manila,September group,

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of the churchfrom the faithful is a common Whilethe remoteness El Shaddai Velarde's went further denominator ofCharismatic discontent, inits from Church than most other Charismatic distance theCatholic groups. suchas LovedFlock, Unlikethemoremiddle-class-based groups Couples totheinstitutional andBukas Loob sa Diyos, which adhere for Christ strictly been at loggerheads church's agenda,El Shaddaihas repeatedly political in the political arena.In the 1992 and 1998 withthe churchhierarchy El Shaddai supported forinstance, elections, presidential presidential E. Estrada.35 Bothwere FidelV. RamosandJoseph candidates vehemently ofManila, Cardinal C. Sin,then themost Jaime opposedbytheArchbishop in the Philippines, and the Catholic Bishops senior Churchofficial of President of the Philippines Conference (CBCP). The impeachment of corruption, led to another three based on charges Estrada later, years El Shaddaiand theCatholic Church. confrontation between While serious mainline Protestant the thelatter, likemany churches, strongly supported Estradaout of office, the eventually forcing people's powermovement, intheir Estrada were members ofEl Shaddai mobilized by majority supporters In ni their President Estrada wasa man Church. view and theIglesia Cristo but to do better with the who mayhavefailed, waswilling help of his Brother Mike Velarde. Velarde adviser gave the trustworthy spiritual to Estrada as someone he to be that wassimply trying loyal seeking impression - a sinner, butan honest seeker. Hisopponents hisspiritual maybe, support In this of the as simply forpower. viewanymember wereviewed striving as other for elite was Blaming politicians regarded beingcorrupt. political to seize as a veiled for was thus regarded thinly attempt power corruption to have but Estrada wasnotnecessarily oneself. President thought integrity, toprotect anddemocratic hisopponents, whoclaimed neither were political abstract democratic whereas Velarde morals. Theyadvocated principles, in times of ties demonstrated crisis, loyalty putting personal above personal abstract principles. ofmany Charismatic issupplemented The anti-elitist outlook groups bya needsofordinary for the(religious) another central feature concern people, massmovements suchas El Shaddaiin particular Charismatic ofpopulism. theemotional andreligious needsofthemasses claim tomeet neglected by Thisincludes a strong theofficial church. social questforunity, denying the equality of richand poor.The onenessof and stressing differences in prayer is symbolized likeholding followers hands meetings bypractices and hugging eachother.36 in a circle

35 EdgardoE. Dagdag,"ThePoliticization ofthePhilippine Catholic Asian vol. Church," Studies, The El Shaddai issue (1998), pp. 50-77, 34, centennial Movement, p. 55; Gorospe-Jamon, Prayer p. 89; see also Today, 28January 2003,p. 1. 2003,p. 2, and 7 February 36 Mercado, El Shaddai, pp. 8-9.

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that theCharismatic Asalready oursurvey datashow mentioned, populist claim oftranscending social classes isnotsimply However, although ideology. for offers common theCharismatic movement peoplefrom definitely ground socioeconomic Different all socialstrata, it does so in a fragmented way. in different classesconcentrate WhereasEl Shaddai is organizations. caters dominated of society, CouplesforChrist bythe poorersegments suchas the audience. Other toa middle-class organizations predominantly to restrict "Brotherhood of Businessmen and Professionals" membership is in Christ and oneness theupperclass.In reality, thepronounced unity maid but the social with attending background, practiced peopleofone'sown breakfasts with rallies canrelate toherboss's Velarde's mass Saturday prayer as manifestations ofthesamespirituality. hisBrotherhood ofBusinessmen
Reductionofcomplexity

istheresult Thiscomplexity isusually with Modernity equated complexity. norms ofinstitutions, ofongoing and differentiation diversification roles, to are forced to modernization andinterests. adaptto Peopleexposed rapid norms new inunfamiliar roles institutions andfind themselves new by shaped and the and interests. have to with complexities growing They cope render These technicalities ofa modernizing populist society. experiences and undermines viewssuch as "complexity onlyblursresponsibilities and attractive. accountability"37 acceptable solutions. is a return to simple to thesegrievances The populist answer of are of common thus to the wisdom sense, suspicious Populists appeal on the thrives If and hostile to deliberation.38 political populism experts, in the Philippines reduction of complexity, the Charismatic movement to this of behaviour. With regardto the complex corresponds pattern a simple in the Charismatics domain, explanation: provide challenges worldly The own the modernworldhas turnedawayfromGod and his ways. life. isthen tothis of movement seenas reaction Byinterpreting godless way inmoral leaders socialchange terms, worldly why religious explain populist to rapid to respondadequately institutions are seemingly unprepared is so urgently needed.In fact, modernization and why a Christian renewal thesinful are an of the institutions problem. worldly integral part to all The solution remedies correlate with Simple simple explanations. as as as economic and well societal, temporal problems hardships, personal inGodandreliance on thepower oftheHoly well as political, issimply trust ofthesermons this is a recurring theme Spirit. message Correspondingly, itworks!" andprayers inCharismatic andPentecostal hard, meetings. "Pray Manila. This is an readsan advertisement on one ofthemajor of highways
37 Papadopoulos, Populism, the Democratic and Contemporary Governance, Question, p. 53.

38 Papadopoulos, Populism, p. 51.

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from the pastoral letters of the Catholic markedly approachthatdiffers a structural ormainline Protestant which churches, analysis provide bishops and callfor solutions. political forinstance, is famous forhis "prosperity MikeVelarde, gospel."He hisfollowers to makeprayer and loveofferings or to requests encourages - giving10 percentof one's income to one's religious tithe.Tithing - ispracticed ofrespondents with Charismatic community by36percent high in ourmainsample, to 13 percent ofall respondents. compared religiosity ina very that Godwill reward these material Velarde literal, offerings preaches isthus little morethan a religious of The prosperity way.39 gospel equivalent in God. In a society itpaysto invest a most basicentrepreneurial premise: isbelow thepoverty suchprospects 40 percent ofthepopulation where line, area source ofhopefor a better havea powerful must certainly appeal.They In other for a placeinheaven. leaders future anda guarantee words, worldly to their thatthereis practical, followers of Charismatic groupssuggest Unlikethe distancedGod of problems. otherworldly help forworldly or unreliable candidates mainline churches presidential usingpopulist in theirelectioncampaigns, the God proclaimed bypopulist promises a personal hisfollowers, leaders notonly maintains with relationship religious inworldly on behalf ofthefaithful intervenes affairs like visa he alsoactively examinations. and university applications thewidespread Thisidea ofan active God corresponds with belief that There is no place foran intellectual the Bible mustbe takenliterally. and wonders or demons and Satan.Whatever the away signs interpreting andrequires notexegesis. us aboutGod'sdeedsis true The Bibletells faith, scientific for ofsomebiblical wholookfor scholars, explanations approach in the Bible,is entirely rejectedby phenomenareported supernatural in oursurvey ofactive Charismatics takethe Charismatics. Fifty-five percent 50 of all share this as percent respondents Bible However, literally. perception, canrelate toa pre-existing instead of Charismatic leaders belief, widespread is their audience.40 Active involvement not confined to to convince having in are and much active the modern Satan and demons God: present very in tongues, forexample, is suchan important ofthe world. gift Speaking "this is to Charismatic Christians because the Satan only language Holy Spirit in seminars and as we learned Charismatic services. cannot understand," be faultedforconcludingthatCharismatic Poewe can thushardly "reverses the thatwe have takenforgranted: the emphases Christianity the of calculated of articulate verbal of of rational, skills, doing, centrality

40 The question in theBiblewastakenfrom literal belief thequestionnaire ofthe concerning in 1991and 1998,administered in thePhilippines SocialSciencePanelon religion International by Stations. SocialWeather

39 Wiegele, Investing in Miracles, p. 17 ff.

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isnot andofthings Thisre-enchantment oftheworld Western."41 doctrines, a solution in a modernizing butalsofor for world, only personal problems broader and economic political problems.
PopulistReligionas a Recipe forSuccess

the parallelsbetween Havingillustrated politicalpopulismand the Charismatic intheir movement of their anti-establishment, mobilization, style and class-crossing solutions as wellas their anti-hierarchical, drive, simple andbackward one vision ofa society shared morals and values, governed by remains: is so attractive? question Why populist religion someroots inthePhilippine Wecited ofpolitical system populism political above.Buttheattractiveness hasdeeperroots thanthe ofpopulist religion of thepolitical to populism. These rootslie in the responsiveness system aswell as failed successful modernization modernization, questions posedby modernization. To put it very modernization erodes successful simply: and modernization erodes material emotional and failed cognitive security, Masscommunication moral confronts individuals with security. competing of become that there are alternatives to their aware systems; way life. people Institutions like churchesand families thatformerly providedmoral and lose their Economic foster guidelines monopoly. processes migration modern education forsocialmobility. offer systems People opportunities anddecisions Do I migrate toSingapore havechoices tomake: increasingly tooffer children traditional theopportunity ofbetter Do I trust my schooling? healers or try togetaccesstoWestern Do I stay medicine? with my partner or leave him for good? Where industrialization and processes of modernization have failed toimprove ofliving for the thestandard majority as is thecase in thePhilippinesmodernization of increases thenumber with existential material crises and extreme peopleconfronted poverty. enables inmodernization Populist religion peopletoparticipate processes and offers from their bothsuccessful and otherwise. drawbacks, protection of the interviews members of Charismatic with Summing up the results wecanstate that meets a range ofdifferent needs. groups, populist religion The religiously worldview and moraloutlookof Charismatic legitimated foreveryday decisions and general conduct of teachings giveorientation life.Spiritual the emotional needed to cope experiences provide energy thestrains with ofeveryday life. a socialnetwork and Membership provides thesense ofbelonging toa community. Theseaspects render theCharismatic movement topeopleofdifferent attractive in socioeconomic backgrounds, different andfor different reasons. Pooranduneducircumstances, personal catedpeoplemay be attracted ofhopefor betterment and bythemessage as well as material assistance. thefragility of spiritual Peopleexperiencing
41 Poewe, Charismatic as a GlobalCulture, Christianity p. 12.

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be attracted socialtiesofthe networks their might bytheclose-knit family Middle-class andwell-educated be attracted communities. peoplemight by theCharismatic offers ina world andvalues that worldview theclearmorals full ofchoices. materialistic Therefore, alongthelinesof the"opiumof explanations thesuccess ofpopulist fall short ofexplaining Thereis themasses" religion. todesperate but ofreligion that theaspect conditions, meaning living gives thancomfort. Thiskindofcomfort there is moretoCharismatic religiosity Charismatic hastooffer aremeaning, isoffered What religion. religion by any for their anda socialcohesion individuals whoretain and orientation ability thiscombination to choose. It is exactly of acknowledging theirright as independent, individuals empoweredpersonsand simultaneously in a socialnetwork tobe embedded theneedofindividuals acknowledging to lifewhich renders orientation and meaning Charismatic thatprovides The Charismatic movement offers a (modern) religionso attractive. access to God as well as the comfort of the (pre-modern) individual the political This combination resembles blend of populist community. and politics based on sharedvaluesand civilrights modernindividual relations. personal
Conclusion

inpejorative treats terms. more Muchoftheliterature However, populism research has broken with this view. Canovan and recent negative Taggart, that is notnecessarily haveshown forinstance, anti-democratic, populism of the people in representative but mayaddressinclusivist aspirations As outlined fortheinterests of democracies.42 above,thepopulist support modern democratic is based on the of thecommon people concept equal theethics offace-to-face interaction for Reintroducing rights equalcitizens. aims to democratic intocomplex legitimize political procedures leadership on sharedmoral Atthesametime, reliance and government. populism's in a modern the plurality of valuesand lifestyles valuesdelegitimizes the need for and democracy, by disregarding specialization and in a modern, differentiated it deprives administration functionally society institutions oflegitimacy. state andpopulist attack thedrawbacks ofmodernity. Political religion populism of stable social structures caused by criticize the breakdown They and try to protect traditional and pluralization social individualization the of modern institutions caused structures. Theyreject complexity by reducesthe "Gestaltungsmacht" becausethiscomplexity of differentiation,
42 Margaret Politics tothePeople:Populism as theIdeology ofDemocracy," in Canovan, "Taking and the YvesMenyand YvesSurel,eds.,Democracies 2002); Populist Challenge (Basingstoke: Palgrave,
Politics. ofRepresentative Pathology Taggart,Populismand the

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their ownlives(and their with ordinary peopleto determine relationship advocate and solutions, God). They simple comprehensible bynon-experts as the applicable bylaity. Theyreject impersonal procedural relationships basis ofsociety, as these insocial structures. deprive peopleofembeddedness in fighting the perceived ills of modernity and appealingto However, and populist on the premodern qualities, political populism religion rely modernnotionof individual and freedom to choose. This very rights ofpopulism results in ambiguous societal itcanfoster ambiguity potential: withits reliance on individuals'rightsand it can foster democracy authoritarian with itsquestforsimplicity and intolerance towards regimes those whoareperceived as different. retains this ambivalent character with todemocratization Populism regard iftransferred to thereligious in thePhilippines sphere. Populist religion has a pro-democratic in as as much it fosters an ethicofhonesty potential and accountability in If Christian this ethic values. grounded gainsground within thepolitical thecurrently ofpolitical sphere, lacking legitimization institutions could be effectively improved. Populistreligionmayalso in other itsinfluence on political strengthen democracy ways, although culture and political attitudes is indirect, convoluted and ambiguous. The effect of a that the democratizing theology emphasizes personal relationship toGodover thechurch's function hasbeenanalyzed intermediary byHatch in detail. to his individual liberates (1989) According analysis, spirituality from subordination. one's to God and own people dogmatic Finding way to circumstances relating spiritual experience personal requires independent a requisite usuallyattributed to democrats.As religious thinking, individualism in churchschisms, it erodesthinking producesfrequent hierarchies andcentralized and accustoms organization, authority questions - again, important people to a pluralistsocial reality requisitesfor democracies.Martinhas made a similarpoint about contemporary Protestantism as a "creator offree socialspace"with to evangelical regard Latin America.43 It is assumed thatthesereligious characteristics wouldsoon spillover intoother of not in the least the domain. However, spheres life, political the anti-elitist and anti-authoritarian thrust of Philippines religion populist is muchweaker thanin theUnitedStates theSecondAwakening. during Given thepredominantly Catholic character ofthePhilippine Charismatics, itisquestionable whether conclusions drawn from Protestant predominantly Charismatics can be transferred to the Philippines. As the Catholic Charismatic is firmly Movement embeddedin the CatholicChurch's hierarchical itscapacity tocreate "free more socialspace"issurely structure, limited than that ofPentecostal In theUS,religious orEvangelical churches.
43 Martin, Tongues ofFire,p. 279.

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went handinhandwith andits assault Jeffersonian Republicanism populism Such a politicalmovement is missing in the on political authority.44 the elements of thenewreligiosity Moreover, contemporary Philippines. suitable fordemocratization must be weighed considered the up against and apoliticalelements of populistreligion.One is the authoritarian hierarchic internal structure of mostCharismatic and layorganizations a traittheysharewithotherintermediary Pentecostal and churches, institutions in thecountry, suchas NGOs. supposedly democratizing Another counterdemocratic element is thefundamentalist tendencies in theCharismatic aim to builda society inherent movement's rootedin Christian faith. Christian ethics with a Enforcing family bylawin a society the democratic substantial Muslimminority contradicts principleof In a very minorities. basic themoral outlook andenchanted sense, protecting of Charismatic Christians can be criticized as anti-democratic: worldview believesthathis or her politicalopinionsreflect divine whoever truly havedifficulties in a democratic discourse to revelation participating might forthebestarguments. The Charismatic Renewal therefore search might and theocratic vision ofsociety. a Christian authoritarian foster abouttheLatinAmerican context: Stollhas askedsimilar "Is questions a step on the road to demystifying, Latin AmericanPentecostalism aspredicted andrationalizing Latin American Martin, by society, secularizing, - that - as argued ismagical andmystifying orisitinevitably thaumaturgical Protestantism or do ... Is LatinAmerican caudillistic, basically byBastian? to fragmentation itstendencies giveit moredemocratic implications?"45 has aptlycalled this ambiguity "anti-enlightened Strobele-Gregor "46 enlightenment. ofpopulist On balance,the"anti-enlightened enlightenment" religion to but a highly inthePhilippines indeed contribute may democracy, certainly little for social a that offers action. conservative democracy, democracy scope coincides with thefactthatmostCharismatic Suchan assessment groups in their So farnoneofthem work. hardly go beyond charity development topoverty alleviation andsocial unless a systematic change, approach pursues and individual renewal as such an one regards spiritual evangelization approach. do affect thatreligious attitudes we are convinced people's Although in if a social movement likethepopulist embedded behaviour, especially

45 David Stoll,"Introduction," in Virginia Garrard-Burnett and David Stoll,eds., Rethinking America Protestantism inLatin Press, 1993),p. 14. (Philadelphia: TempleUniversity
46 Juliane Stroebele-Gregor, Dialektik derGegenaujkldrung. ZurProblematik und fundamentalistischer bei den urbanenAymarain La Paz (Bolovien) (Bonn: Holos Verlag, 1988), Missionierung evangelikaler in der sudlichenHemisphdre. Sektenund religiose Eine Bewegungen quoted in: Yves Bizeul, Christliche

44 Hatch, TheDemocratization ofAmerican Christianity, p. 10.

Literaturstudie Bischofskonferenz, 1995),p. 143. (Bonn:Deutsche

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Charismatic All a caveat. we concludethisarticle with renewal, religious in considerations thepotential effects ofthis movement regarding political thePhilippines aretheresult ofdeductive ofempirical rather than thinking Thisishardly theenormous analysis. surprising, methodological considering in establishing difficulties tested causalrelations between religion populist andtheactual behaviour ofCharismatic, Pentecostal andEvangelical political Christians. Our study thescopeand quality ofpopulist explored religion; itslasting and effects willbe thechallenging researching tangible political task offuture work. promising
ArnoldBergstraesser Institute and research, forsocio-cultural Freiburg, Germany, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitdt, Freiburg, Germany August 2005