Sheet Metal Basics

PREVIOUS

Sheet metal forming involves a wide range of processes that manufacture parts for a vast amount of purposes, both seen and unseen. Sheet metal refers to metal that has a high surface area to volume ratio. Sheet metal work stock, used for sheet metal processes, is usually formed by rolling and comes in coils.

A distinction needs to be made between sheet metal and plate metal. Sheet metal is a 1/4 inch or less in thickness, while plate is over 1/4 inch in thickness. Sheet and plate have different applications. Plate is generally used for larger structural parts like boilers, turbines, bridges, and ships. Sheet metal is used in the manufacture of cars, trains, aircraft, farm equipment, office equipment, furniture, house appliances, computers, machine components, and beverage cans to name a few. Some of the sheet metal manufacturing processes may be applicable to plate metal as well, even though the work piece is referenced only as sheet metal. However plate, particularly thicker plate will provided its own set of problems in processing. Therefore, some of the sheet metal operations discussed may not be applicable to plate. Sheet metal manufacture is mostly performed on a press, and parts are formed between two die. The top die is called a punch. Sometimes sheet metal parts are referenced to as stampings. Parts are usually economical

and easy to mass produce. Sheet metal is usually formed cold, however warm or hot working of parts, (particularly plate), is possible. Generally for sheet metal applications there is essentially no change or negligible change in sheet thickness. For some processes like deep drawing, there is a slight and expected change in thickness, but this may also be neglected in most cases. Sheet metal products typically have high strength, good surface, and accurate tolerances.

Sheet Metal Mechanics And Testing Methods

Mechanical behavior of metal is important to understand when manufacturing sheet metal products. The metal forming basics section provides information on this topic. Generally a desirable property for metals is a large plastic deformation before necking. When necking of the metal occurs, diffuse necking is preferred over localized necking. A high total elongation of the material before fracture is also desirable for sheet metal forming. Some metals such as low carbon steels and aluminum-magnesium alloys may experience yield point elongation. This uneven yielding of the material may produce stretcher strains or Lueder's bands. These lines are actually small depressions in the material. Lueder's bands may not be acceptable in situations where surface finish matters. Grain size, structure and orientation are also important in a sheet metal work piece. Grains will effect the properties of the metal as well as surface finish. In addition to the standard tests for materials, (such as tension tests), there are tests that are used specifically to determine the formability of sheet metal. One common test is the cupping test. A specimen is secured over a round die cavity and a steel ball is pushed into the specimen until fracture of the material occurs. The greater the distance that the sheet metal can plastically deform before fracture, the greater the sheet's formability.

Anisotropy is an important factor in sheet metal forming. Anisotropy is the directional variation of mechanical properties. In other words, the material will react differently to stress applied in one direction than it would to the same stress applied in a different direction. If a sheet is isotropic, then its properties are the same in any direction. Cupping tests can be used to determine anisotropy. If the fracture occurring due to the applied force through the round ball is circular, then the sheet is isotropic. If a straight fracture occurs, this means that the sheet is anisotropic.

Many sheet metal operations will create a complex distribution of forces. Material elements experience different amounts and proportions of bi-axle stress and strain depending upon their location within the work. Sometimes a sheet metal is tested over a range of different bi-axle forces. A grid with inscribed circles is printed on the specimen. The grid and circles will deform with the metal.

Tests can then be performed to determine the metal's reaction to different combinations of bi-axle strain. Failure and safe zones for combinations of major and minor, (the two directions), strain can be established. Forming limit diagrams can then be created to display this information graphically. The forming limit diagram is a useful reference for sheet metal manufacturers.

Sheet Metal Classification

There are 3 major classes of processes of sheet metal working.

Cutting: Cutting is the use of shearing forces to remove material from a work piece. Technically not a
metal forming process, but of extreme industrial importance.

Bending: Bending is the forming of a sheet metal work about an axis. Deep Drawing: Deep drawing is the forming of a cup or box with a flat base and straight walls, from a
sheet metal blank.

Other Processes: Other sheet metal working processes such as ironing, spinning, rubber forming, and
high energy rate forming are also discussed in latter sections.

TOP

Sheet Metal Cutting

Sheet metal cutting is a major classification of many kinds of pressworking operations. Pressworking, a term referencing sheet metal operations in general, involves the working of a sheet between two die. In this section "sheet metal" and "sheet" will be referenced. Sheet and plate generally refers to rolled metal with a high surface area to volume ratio. The difference is that sheet metal is under 1/4 inch (6mm) in thickness, while plate metal is 1/4 inch (6mm) thick or thicker. Most of the processes discussed can be performed on both sheet and plate metal, although for many sheet metal operations difficulties will arise with increasing plate thickness. Usually "sheet" and "sheet metal" is also referencing plate. In pressworking the upper die is called a punch. Cutting operations involve the separation of material of the sheet in certain areas. This separation is caused by shearing forces acting on the metal through the edges of the punch and die.

Figure:245

One of the simplest types of press working operations is a straight cutoff. A punch separates a length of stock along a straight line. Industrial sheet metal working operations such as this will usually incline the punch so as to reduce the maximum force needed by distributing the required force over the cutting stroke. The angle the punch may be inclined varies from 4 to 15 degrees, however the higher the angle, the greater the magnitude of the horizontal force component acting to displace the work. For that reason angles are usually under 9 degrees. The metal sheet is fed through after each cutoff and the process can be repeated very quickly. Figure:246

Cutoff And Parting Of Sheet

Cutoffs need not be straight, rather they may be over several lines and/or curves. Partings are similar, in that a discrete part is cut from a sheet or strip of metal along a desired geometric path. The difference between a cutoff and a parting is that a cutoff can be nestled perfectly due to its geometry. With cutoffs the cutting can be

done over one path at a time, and there is practically no waste of material. With a parting the shape can not be nestled precisely. Partings involve cutting along two paths simultaneously. Partings waste a certain amount of material, that can be significant. Figure:247

Punching And Slotting

Punching involves cutting out a piece of material from a metal sheet. The material removed may be round or some other shape. This excess metal, once punched out is called a slug and is usually discarded as scrap. Slotting is a type of punching operation. Slotting refers specifically to the punching of rectangular or elongated holes.

Blanking

Blanking is the cutting of a sheet metal part along a closed contour in one step. The piece cut out is called a blank, and may be further processed. Many blanks are often continuously cut out of a sheet or strip. Blanking will waste a certain amount of material. When designing a sheet metal blanking process, the geometry of the blanks should be nestled as efficiently as possible to minimize material waste. A distinction should be made between blanking and punching, since essentially they are the same process. In punching the piece cut out is waste. In blanking, the piece cut out is the work and is kept. Figure:248

Slitting
Slitting is a shearing process in which the sheet metal is cut by two opposing circular blades, like a can opener. Slitting can be performed in a straight line or on a curved path. The circular cutters can be driven, or the work may be pulled through idle cutters. Slitting usually produces a burr that must be removed. Figure:249

Slitting is often very important early in the process of sheet metal part manufacture. Pressworking machines and die may require a strip of a certain

width. Sheet metal usually arrives to the factory in coil, (see metal rolling ). These sheets are usually much wider than needed and are cut into strips of desired width by slitting. Sheet metal coil can be cut into many strips at once by several simultaneous slitting operations. These strips provide sheet metal stock for further pressworking processes. Figure:250

Perforating
Sometimes it is desirable to punch many holes in a piece of sheet metal, often in a certain pattern. These holes may be round or some other shape. Perforating sheet metal will allow for the passage of light or fluid material through the material. It can often serve in ventilation and filtration of fluid substances. Perforated sheet is also used in structure and machinery construction to reduce weight and for cosmetic appearance. Special equipment is employed that punches many holes at once, and at a high rate. In industrial practice the size of these holes is usually from .04 inches to 3 inches, (1-75mm). The upper rate at which some special perforating machines can punch holes is 100,000 to 300,000 per minute. Figure:251

Notching And Seminotching

Notching is the removal of material from a sheet metal work piece, starting at the edge and cutting inward. The objective of notching is to create a sheet metal part with a desired profile. Notching is often performed as a progressive process, each operation removing another piece to make the correct contour. Seminotching is the removal of sheet metal material that is not located at the edge of the work. This process is practically identical to punching. The difference is that seminotching is part of a progressive process in the creation of a specific profile.

Progressive Processing In Sheet Metal Manufacture

Progressive processing means performing a series of sequential operations each of which contributes progressively towards the creation of a desired part. Often the order in which the operations occur is important. Sheet metal manufacture is a

good example of an industry that employs a large amount of progressive processing. Notching, as discussed, is generally a progressive process in the creation of a profile. Many other cutting operations may occur in a larger progressive process. The complete manufacture many also include bending and or drawing as cover in latter pages. Progressive processing is also discussed further in the cutting molds section, (see figure 261).

Nibbling
Punches for the cutting of holes and profiles may come in many different shapes and sizes. A machine called a nibbler uses a small straight punch to create the same geometric removal of sheet metal as that of a larger more complicated punch. It does this by rapidly punching many overlapping holes to make the larger cut profile. Nibbling is useful in producing intricate cuts with simple machinery. Nibbling may take longer than a punch specifically designed for a certain cut, however it may be an efficient alternative for small production runs.

Mechanics Of Cutting Sheet Metal

Mechanics of cutting sheet metal should be understood when designing a sheet metal manufacturing process. The work piece in such an operation is secured to the lower die, while the motion of the upper die, (called a punch), enacts the cutting. Edges of the punch and die do not line up precisely due to a clearance or space between them. The punch is designed to enter the matching hole in the lower die and is always at least a little smaller. Clearance size will vary with different process factors, and its selection will effect part quality. Figure:252

Force enacted through the punch causes it to move toward the work. The sheet metal is secured to the lower apparatus, it does not move when contacted by the punch. Instead pressure builds up between the punch and sheet. Plastic deformation of the surface metal occurs. This happens at the top and bottom surfaces since the bottom die is pushing up with the same force that the punch is pushing down. Figure:253

Penetration occurs next, as the force causes the punch and die to sink into the metal. This creates a penetration zone known as the burnish or burnish region. This burnish region may typically occupy 30% to 60% of the total thickness of the sheet. Actual thickness of this straight, smooth surface region is dependent upon

several factors. The more ductile the metal, the greater the thickness of the burnish relative to total sheet thickness. Increases in clearance or total sheet thickness will decrease the percent of burnish region. Burnish zones on the hole in the sheet metal occur at the top. On the metal removed, (slug or blank), the burnish zone will occur at the bottom. Concern over the edge quality of the metal cut or the hole depends on if the sheared material is a slug or blank. Figure:254

At some depth of punch penetration, the burnish region ends with crack propagation. This occurs from the edges of the punch on the top and from the edges of the die on the bottom. Figure:255

In a well designed cutting process, the cracks should meet each other and form a continuous break. This break will create the fracture region. The fracture region starts at the end of the burnish region and occupies most of the rest of the thickness of the cut with exception to the burr. Greater clearance, greater sheet thickness, and less ductility of the metal will increase the proportion of the fracture region relative to the total sheet thickness. Figure:256

The burr is a thin ridge of material that is formed due to the elongation of metal during the final separation. More ductile materials tend to form larger burrs. In practice, sharp tools can mitigate burrs. Examination of the edge surfaces of cut sheet metal will display differences between the burnish region and the fracture region. The burnish zone is straight and has a smooth surface, while the fracture zone is angled and has a rough surface. All surface zones of cut sheet metal occur in the opposite order on the sheet than on the blank or slug. For example, the burr forms on the bottom edge of the hole, while it forms on the top edge of the blank. Edge quality of cut sheet metal is very important in pressworking manufacture. One consideration is the amount of cold working that might have been experienced by the work metal at different areas around the cutting surface. This would vary, and be a result of material deformation that occurred during the operation. The angles, roughness, and features of the edge's surface would also be a consideration. Cutting factors have much to do with edges, for example a larger burnish zone would be indicative of a better edge surface quality. A large variety of deburring, chamfering, bending, and other secondary processing operations may be employed to produce sheet metal product with edges of the desired geometry and quality. Figure:257

Clearance
Clearance is an important factor in sheet metal process design. As discussed earlier, clearance is the straight line, lateral distance between the edge of the punch and the edge of the die hole. The way the metal separates, hence the cut, will be largely determined by clearance. Optimization of clearances, dependent upon specific process factors, will provide a quality cut. When clearances are correctly employed, the mechanics of sheet metal cutting should occur as described in the preceding section. Improper values could compromise the cutting process. More clearance than required causes the metal to get forced between the cutting edges. Fracture occurs incorrectly and the resulting edge is usually not desirable. Figure:258

If not enough clearance is provided, the fracture lines propagating from the punch and die will not line up. Noncontinuous fracture lines in the sheet metal usually result in secondary shearing and a deformed edge surface. Figure:259

The greater the sheet metal thickness, the higher the clearance value should be. In manufacturing industry there is a range of optimum values for specific processes, clearances may span from 1% to 30% of sheet thickness. Generally, typical values span from 3% to 8% of sheet thickness. A large factor is the type of work material and its temper. Aluminum alloy sheet might have an optimum clearance value of 4%, a brass sheet 6%, and a hard steel sheet 7.5%. If the hole size is small relative to total sheet thickness, extra clearance could be needed. There is a question of weather to add the clearance value to the punch or the die. That depends on if it is a blanking or a punching operation. Basically, given a certain size, does the hole have to be that size or is it important that the blank be that size. For a blank of a certain size the hole in the die should be the correct size, therefore, subtract the clearance from the punch. In blanking the punch will be smaller than the desired blank size. When punching for a hole of a certain size, the punch should be the correct size. In this case the clearance is added to the hole in the die making it larger than the desired hole size.

Cutting Considerations

Lubrication is an important factor in maintaining cutting molds. Sheet cutting operations are powered mainly by mechanical presses, the crank press is often used, (see presses). The lower die are straight near the top of the hole, then an angular clearance is provided to allow for the expansion of the blank or slug after it is forced out of the hole. Another consideration concerning the blank or slug is its tendency to warp due to the forces involved during the cutting process. Figure:260

Sheet Metal Cutting Molds

The mold for sheet metal cutting consists of the punch and die, as discussed. Punch and die material is usually tool steel or sometimes carbides. Some molds will allow for the performance of several operations at once with a single movement. These are termed compound die. Often a work piece will undergo a series of operations at different die. The work is transferred from one die to another after each operation is complete. These transfer die are sequenced and aligned together in such a way as to constitute the larger process. Progressive die allow for many different sequential operations that could be performed at several stations, to be performed at a single die. The operations are lined up linearly in the direction of feed. With every stroke each operation is performed once. The work is incremented forward a step, each step being a constant distance. With each step each section of sheet metal will experience the next operation in line. Bending or drawing operations may also be incorporated along with cutting in a larger progressive process. The sheet metal sections stay attached to the original strip while these operations are occurring. All operations will occur once on each individual section. The last operation cuts the section from the strip. Each section, when removed, comprises an individual part.

Figure:261

Cutting Forces In Sheet Metal Manufacture

The amount of cutting force required is a critical factor when selecting machinery, during sheet metal process design. The maximum amount of force needed will gauge if the machine's capacity is adequate for the process. Often the machinery capacity far exceeds the necessary force for a particular operation. In many cases a rough approximation of the maximum required force for a sheet metal cutting operation can define the sufficiency of available machinery. Without including clearance or friction, maximum force required for a sheet metal cutting operation can be estimated by: Forcemax= (Length Of Cut)(thickness)(Ultimate Shear Strength). Forcemax is the maximum force required for the operation. Length of cut is the length of the perimeter of the area of sheet metal to be removed. Thickness is the thickness of the sheet. The ultimate shear strength of the work material can be referenced, and is usually about 70%-80% of the ultimate tensile strength. There are solutions employed in manufacturing industry for cases of inadequate tonnage capacity. Punches or dies may be beveled, reducing force by distributing the cut over a length of the stroke. Parts may be redesigned for manufacture or a different work material used. Larger cuts can be divided into several smaller cuts that require less force but ultimately remove the same material. Another alternative is to use higher capacity machinery.

Shaving
Edge surfaces of cut sheet metal are not typically smooth and straight. Even in properly cut metal the fracture zone will be angled and rough. In sheet metal cutting, the lower the clearance value the higher the edge's quality. Shaving is a secondary process that can be used to improve edges of cuts that have already been made. Shaving uses very little clearance to perform a straight, smooth, accurate cut to only the end of the edge. Shaving is a chip removal type process and should not be used to cut large amounts of material. Figure:262

Fine Blanking
It is possible to employ fine blanking for many cutting processes, particularly those involving lower total sheet thickness. Fine blanking is an advanced precision pressworking operation that can create cuts having close tolerances and straight smooth edges, without shaving or other secondary processes.

A press forces a pressure pad on the sheet metal holding the work tightly between the lower die and the pressure pad. Close to, outside, and all around the edge of the cut, a v-shaped ring projecting from the bottom of the pressure pad impinges the work piece. This further secures the work from movement, and restricts metal flow. The cutting punch for this operation has a very small clearance with the lower die, usually 1%. As pressure is applied to the work, the punch cuts through the metal at a slow rate. Simultaneously another punch applies force to the other side of the sheet in the opposite direction. The secondary punch delivers less force than the cutting punch. Its purpose is to help with the cut and to prevent warping of the bank, a common problem in sheet metal blanking operations. The force of the support punch is less than and in the opposite direction of the cutting punch, therefore the summation of both vectors indicates that the total force, (and hence the movement), will be in the direction dictated by the cutting punch. Fine blanking cutting precision will employ a triple action press. These presses are usually hydraulic, and each action can be controlled individually. Figure:263

Other Sheet Metal Cutting Processes

In manufacturing industry other methods are also employed for the cutting of sheet, (and plate). Particularly in the primary cutting process of converting the

initial sheet to strip. Flame cutting is popular and can cut through thick plates. Sawing such as with a band saw, is a machining process that can also cut thick plates. Sawing like other machining operations is a material removal process. Laser beam cutting uses lasers to cut sheet metal. Laser beam cutting can be computer controlled and produce very accurate cuts. Water jet machining is also used in the cutting of metal. In water jet machining, a powerful, concentrated jet of water provides the force for the cutting operation.

Sheet Metal Bending

Bending of sheet metal is a common and vital process in manufacturing industry. Bending is the plastic deformation of the work over an axis, creating a change in the part's geometry. Similar to other metal forming processes, bending changes the shape of the work piece, while the volume of material will remain the same. In some cases bending may produce a small change in sheet thickness. For most operations, however, sheet metal bending will produce essentially no change in the thickness of the sheet metal. In addition to creating a desired geometric form, bending is also used to impart strength and stiffness to sheet metal, to change a part's moment of inertia, for cosmetic appearance and to eliminate sharp edges. Figure:264

Bending enacts both tension and compression within the material. Mechanical principles of metals particularly with regard to elastic and plastic deformation are important to understanding bending, and are discussed in the fundamentals of metal forming section. The effect that material properties will have in response to the conditions of manufacture will be a factor in sheet metal process design. Usually sheet metal bending is performed cold but sometimes the work may be heated, to either warm or hot working temperature. Most bending operations involve a punch die type setup, although not always. There are many different punch die geometries, setups, and fixtures. Tooling can be specific to a bending process and a desired angle of bend. Bending die materials are typically gray iron, or carbon steel, but depending on the work piece, the range of punch-die materials varies from hardwood to carbides. Force for the punch and die action will usually be provided by a press. A work piece may undergo several bending processes. Sometimes it will take a series of different punch and die operations to create a single bend. Or many progressive bending operations to form a certain geometry. Sheet metal is referenced with regard to the work piece when bending processes are discussed in this section. However, many of the processes covered can also be applied to plate metal as well. References to sheet metal work pieces may often include plate. Some bending operations are specifically designed for the bending of differently shaped metal pieces, such as for cabinet handles. Tube and rod bending is also widely performed in modern manufacturing.

Bending Processes
Bending processes differ in the methods they use to plastically deform the sheet or plate. Work piece material, size and thickness are an important factor when deciding on a type of bending process. Also important is the size of the bend, bend radius, angle of bend, curvature of bend, and location of bend in the work piece. Sheet metal process design should select the most effective type of bending process based on the nature of the desired bend and the work material. Many bends can be effectively formed by a variety of different processes, and available machinery will often determine the bending method.

One of the most common types of sheet metal processes is V bending. The V shaped punch forces the work into the V shaped die and hence bends it. This type of process can bend both very acute and very obtuse angles, also anything in between, including 90 degrees. Figure:265

Edge bending is another very common process, and is performed with a wiping die. Edge bending gives a good mechanical advantage when forming a bend. However, angles greater than 90 degrees will require more complex equipment, capable of some horizontal force delivery. Also wiping die employed in edge bending must have a pressure pad. The action of the pressure pad may be controlled separately than that of the punch. Basically the pressure pad holds a section of the work in place on the die, the area for the bend is located on the edge of the die, and the rest of the work is held over space like a cantilever beam. The punch then applies force to the cantilever beam section causing the work to bend over the edge of the die. Figure:266

Rotary bending forms the work by a similar mechanism as edge bending. However, rotary bending uses a different design than the wiping die. A cylinder with the desired angle cut out serves as the punch. The cylinder can rotate about one axis, and is securely constrained in all other degrees of motion by its attachment to the saddle. The sheet metal is placed cantilevered over the edge of the lower die similar to the setup in edge bending. Unlike in edge bending, with rotary bending there is no pressure pad. Force is transmitted to the punch causing it to close with the work. The groove on the cylinder is dimensioned to create the correctly angled bend. The groove can be less than or greater than 90 degrees allowing for a range of acute and obtuse bends. The cylinders V groove has two surfaces. One surface contacts the work transmitting pressure and holding the sheet metal in place on the lower die. As force is transmitted through the cylinder it rotates, causing the other surface to bend the work over the edge of the die, while the first surface continues to hold the work in place. Rotary bending provides a good mechanical advantage. This process provides benefits over a standard edge bending operation, in that it eliminates the need for a pressure pad and it is capable of bending over 90 degrees without any horizontally acting equipment. Rotary bending is relatively new and is gaining popularity in manufacturing industry. Figure:267

Air bending is a simple method of creating a bend without the need for lower die geometry. The sheet metal is supported by two surfaces a certain distance apart. A punch exerts force at the correct spot, bending the sheet metal between the two surfaces. Figure:268

Punch and die are manufactured with certain geometries in order to perform specific bends. Channel bending uses a shaped punch and die to form a sheet metal channel. A U bend is made with a U shaped punch of the correct curvature. Figure:269

Many bending operations have been developed to produce offsets and form the sheet metal for a variety of different functions. Figure:270

Some sheet metal bending operations involve the use of more than 2 die. Round tubes, for example, can be bent from sheet metal using a multiple action machine. The hollow tube can be seamed or welded for joining. Figure:271

Corrugating is a type of bending process in which a symmetrical bend is produced across the width of sheet metal and at a regular interval along its entire length. A variety of shapes are used for corrugating, but they all have the same purpose, to increase the rigidity of the sheet metal and increase its resistance to bending moments. This is accomplished by a work hardening of the metal and a change in the sheet's moment of inertia, caused by the bend's geometry. Corrugated sheet metal is very useful in structural applications and is widely used in the construction industry. Figure:272

Edge Bending Processes

Sheet metal of different sizes can be bent and innumerable amount of ways at different locations, to achieve desired part geometries. One of the most important considerations in sheet metal manufacture is the condition of the sheet metal's edges, particularly with regard to the part after manufacture. Edge bending operations are commonly used in industrial sheet metal processing, and involve bending a section of the metal that is small relative to the part. These sections are located at the edges. Edge bending is used to eliminate sharp edges, to provide geometric surfaces for purposes such as joining, to protect the part, to increase stiffness, and for cosmetic appearance. Flanging is a process that bends and edge, usually to a 90 degree angle. Figure:273

Sometimes the material is purposely subjected to tensions or compressions, in the processes of stretch flanging and shrink flanging respectively. In addition to bending the edge these operations also give it a curve. Figure:274

Beading is common in the edge treatment of sheet metal parts, and can also be used to form the working structure of parts such as hinges. Beading forms a curl over part's edge. This bead can be formed over a straight or curved axis. There are many different techniques for forming a bead. Some methods form the bead progressively with multiple stages using several different die arrangements. Other sheet metal beading processes produce a bead with a single die. In a process called wiring the edge is bent over a wire. How the bead is formed will depend on the specific requirements of the manufacturing process, and sheet metal part. Figure:275

Hemming is an edge bending process in which the edge of the sheet is bent completely over on itself. Figure:276

Seaming is a sheet metal joining process. Seaming involves bending the edges of two parts over on each other. The strength of the metal resists breaking the joint, because the material is plastically deformed into position. As the bends are locked together each bend also helps resist the deformation of the other bend providing a well fortified joint structure. Double seaming has been employed to create watertight or airtight joints between sheet metal parts. Figure:277

Roll Bending
Roll bending provides a technique that is useful for relatively thick work. Although sheets of various sizes and thicknesses may be used, this is a major process for the bending of large pieces of plate. Roll bending uses three rolls to feed and bend the plate to the desired curvature. The arrangement of the rolls determines the exact bend of the work. Different curves are obtained by controlling the distance and angle between the rolls. A moveable roll provides the ability to control the curve. The work may already have some curve to it, often it will be straight. Beams, bars, and other stock metal is also bent using this process.

Figure:278

Roll Forming
Roll forming is a continuous manufacturing process that uses rolls to bend a sheet metal cross section into a certain geometry. Often several rolls may be employed in series to continuously bend stock. Similar to shape rolling, but roll forming does not involve material redistribution of the work only bending. Like shape rolling, roll forming usually involves bending of the work in sequential steps. Each roll will form the sheet metal to a certain degree, in preparation for the next roll. The final roll completes the geometry. Channels of different types, gutters, siding, and panels for structural purposes are common items manufactured in mass production by roll forming. Rolls are usually fed from a sheet metal coil. The entry roll is supplied as the coil unwinds during the process. Once formed, continuous products can be cut to desired lengths to create discrete parts. Closed sections such as squares and rectangles can be continuously bent from sheet metal coil. Frames for doors and windows are manufactured by this method. Sheet metal coil is often roll bent into thin walled pipe that is welded together at its seam. The welding of the continuous product is incorporated into the rolling process. Roll forming of channels is a continuous alternative to a discrete channel bending process, such as the one illustrated in figure 269. Figure 279 shows a simple sequence used to produce a channel. Figure:279

This channel could be produced with a punch and die. However in that case, the length of the channel would be limited by the length of the punch and die. Roll forming allows for a continuous part, limited practically to the length of the coil, that can be cut to whatever size needed. Productivity is also increased, with the elimination of loading and unloading of die. Rolls for roll forming are typically made of grey cast iron or carbon steel. Lubrication is important and effects forces and surface finish. Sometimes rolls will be chromium plated to improve surface quality.

Mechanics Of Sheet Metal Bending

To understand the mechanics of sheet bending, an understanding of the material properties, characteristics, and behaviors of metal, is necessary. Particularly important is the topic of elastic and plastic deformation of metal. Information on the properties of metals with relation to manufacturing can be found in an earlier section, fundamentals of metal forming. It should be understood also that bending produces localized plastic deformation and essentially no change in sheet thickness for most operations. It does not create metal flow that effects regions away from the bend. The force required to perform a bend is largely dependent upon the bend and the specific process, because the mechanics of each process can vary considerably. Proper lubrication is essential to controlling forces and has and effect on the process. In punch and die operations, the size of the die opening is a major factor

in the force necessary to perform the bending. Increasing the size of the die opening will decrease the necessary bending force. As the sheet metal is bent the force needed will change. Usually it is important to determine the maximum necessary bending force to access machine capacity requirements. The important factors influencing the mechanics of bending are material, sheet thickness, width over which bend occurs, radius of bend, bend angle, machinery, tooling, and specific bending process. Bending a sheet will create forces that act in the bend region and through the thickness of the sheet. The material towards the outside of the bend is in tension and the material towards the inside is in compression. Tension and compression are opposite, therefore when moving from one to the other a zero region must exist. At this zero region no forces are exerted on the material. When sheet bending, this zero region occurs along a continuous plane within the part's thickness, called the neutral axis. The location of this axis will depend on the different bending and sheet metal factors. However a generic approximation for the location of the axis could be 40 percent of sheet thickness measured from the inside of the bend. Another characteristic of the neutral axis is that because of the lack of forces the length of the neutral axis remains the same. To one side of the neutral axis the material is in tension, to the other side the material is in compression. The magnitude of the tension or compression increases with increasing distance from the axis. Figure:280

If a relatively small amount of force is exerted on a metal part, it will deform elastically and recover its shape when the force is removed. In order for plastic deformation of metal to occur a minimum threshold of force must be reached. The force acting on the neutral axis is zero and increases with distance from this region.

The minimum threshold of force required for plastic deformation is not reached until a certain distance from the neutral axis in either direction. The material between these regions is only plastically deformed due to the low magnitude of forces. These regions run parallel to, and form an elastic core around, the neutral axis. Figure:281

When the force used to create the bend is removed the recovery of the elastic region results in the occurrence of springback. Springback is the partial recovery of the work from the bend to its geometry before the bending force was applied. The magnitude of springback depends largely on the modulus of elasticity and the yield strength of the material. Typically the results of springback will only act to increase the bend angle by a few degrees, however, all sheet metal bending processes must consider the factor of springback. Figure:282

Methods Of Eliminating Springback

Techniques have been developed in manufacturing industry that can eliminate the effects of springback. One common technique is over bending. The amount of springback is calculated and the sheet metal is over bent to a smaller bend angle than needed. Recovery of the material from springback results in a calculated increase in bend angle. This increase makes the recovered bend angle exactly what was originally planned. Figure:283

Another method for eliminating springback is by plastically deforming the material in the bend region. Localized compressive forces between the punch and die in that area will plastically deform the elastic core preventing springback. This can be done by applying additional force through the tip of the punch after completion of bending. A technique known as bottoming or bottoming the punch. Figure:284

Stretch forming is a technique that eliminates most of the springback in a bend. Subjecting the work to tensile stress while bending will force the elastic region to be plastically deformed. Stretch forming can not be performed for some complex bends and for very sharp angles. The amount of tension must be controlled to avoid cracking of the sheet metal. Stretch forming is a process often used in the aircraft building industry. Figure:285

Sheet Metal Bendability

Bendability of sheet metal is the characteristic degree to which a particular sheet metal part can be bent without failure. Bendability is related to the more general term of formability discussed in sheet metal basics. The bendability will change for different materials and sheet thicknesses. Also the mechanics of the process will effect bendability, since different tooling and sheet geometries will cause different force distributions. Bending tends to be a less complicated process than deep drawing in the analysis of forces acting during the operation. One simple method to quantify bendability is to bend a rectangular sheet metal specimen until it cracks on the outer surface. The radius of bend at which cracking first occurs is called the minimum bend radius. Minimum bend radius is often expressed in terms of sheet thickness, (ie. 2T, 4T). The higher the minimum bend radius, the lower the bendability. A minimum bend radius of 0 indicates that the sheet can be folded over on itself. Anisotropy of the sheet metal is an important factor in bending. If the sheet is anisotropic the bending should be performed in the preferred direction. A test to determine anisotropy is discussed in the sheet metal basics section. The condition of a sheet metal's edges will influence bendability. Often cracks may propagate from the edges. Rough edges can decrease the bendability of a sheet metal part. Cold working at the edges, or within a part can also reduce bendability. Vacancies within sheet metal can be another source of material failure while bending. The presence of vacancies will reduce bendability. Impurities in the material, particularly in the form of inclusions, can also propagate cracks and will decrease bendability. Pointed or sharply shaped inclusions are more detrimental to bendability than round inclusions. Surface quality of the sheet metal can make a difference in bending manufacture. Rough surfaces can increase the likelihood of the sheet cracking under force. To mitigate these problems and optimize the bendability of sheet metal care should be taken all the way through the manufacturing process. High quality sheet metal comes from high quality metal. Effective refining techniques, along with a sound sheet metal rolling process should close up vacancies, break up or eliminate inclusions, and provide a sheet metal product with a smooth surface. Edge treatment such as trimming or fine blanking can improve edge quality. Sometimes cold worked areas can be machined out. Annealing the part to eliminate regions of cold working and increase ductility also improves bendability. Bending operations are sometimes performed on heated parts because heating will cause the metal's bendability to go up. Sheet metal may also on occasion be formed in a high pressure environment, which is another way to make it more bendable.

Cutting And Bending Processes

Some processes involve both cutting and bending of the sheet metal. Lancing is a process that cuts and bends the sheet to create a raised geometry. Lancing may be used to increase the heat dissipation capacity of sheet metal parts, for example. Another common process that employs both cutting and bending is piercing. Not to be confused with the forging process of piercing. Piercing is used to create a hole in a sheet metal part. Unlike blanking, which creates a slug, piercing does not remove material. The punch is pointed and can pierce the sheet. As the punch widens the hole the material is bent into an internal flange for the hole. This flange may be useful for some applications. Figure:286

Tube Bulging
Tube bulging is a process in which some part of the internal geometry of a hollow tube is subjected to pressure causing the tube to bulge outward. The area being bulged is usually constrained within a die that can control its geometry. Total length of the tube will be decreased because of the widening of the bulging area. There are different bulging techniques employed in manufacturing industry.

One main group of processes uses an elastomer plug, usually polyurethane. This plug is placed within the tube. Pressure is applied to the elastomer causing it to bulge. Expanding outward the plug bends the sheet metal tube. Upon removal of the force the elastomer plug returns to its original shape and can be easily removed. Polyurethane plugs are durable and will create a good pressure distribution over the surface during bending. Hydraulic pressure may also be used to produce the same bulging effect. However elastomer plugs are cleaner, easy to remove, and require less complicated tooling. Split dies are used to facilitate the removal of the part. Figure:287

Tube Bending
Tubes, rods, bars and other cross sections are also subject to bending operations. It should be remembered that when bending a metal part, springback is always a factor. Several special processes have been developed for the bending of hollow

tubes. These operations can also be used on solid rods. Hollow tubes have the characteristic that they may collapse when bent. Tubes may also crack or tear, the material's ductility is important when considering tube failure. As the bend radius goes down, the tendency to collapse increases. Bend radius in tube bending is measured from the tubes centerline. The other major factor determining collapse is the wall thickness of the tube. Tubes with a greater wall thickness are less likely to collapse. Bending a thick walled tube to a large radius is usually not a problem as far as collapse is concerned. However, as wall thickness decreases and/or bend radius goes down, solutions must be found to prevent tube collapse. One solution is to fill the tube with sand before bending. Another method would be to place a plastic plug of some sort in the tube then bend it. Both the sand and the plastic plug act to provide internal structural support, greatly increasing the ability to bend the tube without collapse. Stretch bending is a process in which a tube is formed by a stretching force parallel to the tubes axis, and a simultaneous bending force acting to pull the tube over a form block. The block is fixed and the forces are applied to the ends of the tube. Figure:288

Draw bending involves clamping the tube near its end to a rotating form block. A pressure pad is also used to hold the tube stock. As the form block rotates the tube is bent. Figure:289

Compression bending is a tube bending process that has some similarities to edge bending of sheet metal with a wiping die. The tube stock is held by force to a fixed form block. A wiper like die applies force bending the tube over the form block. Figure:290

Deep Drawing

Deep drawing is a process that is used extensively in the forming of sheet metal into cup or box like structure cooking, containers, sinks, automobile parts, such as panels and gas tanks, are among a few of the items manu This process is sometimes called drawing and is not to be confused with the bulk deformation process of draw basic deep drawing operation could be the forming of a flat sheet into a three dimensional cup, or a box. The is not limited to a circle or square, more complex contours are possible. However as the complexity goes up, difficulties increase rapidly. It is best to design the shape of a deep drawing to be as simple as possible. For th process the part will have a flat base and straight sides.

Figure:291

The Process

Deep drawing is performed with a punch and die. The punch is the desired shape of the base of the part once matches the punch and is a little wider to allow for its passage as well as clearance. This setup is similar to sh operations. As in cutting, clearance is the lateral distance between the die edge and the punch edge. The sheet blank, is placed over the die opening. A blankholder, that surrounds the punch, applies pressure to the entire s the area under the punch), holding the sheet metal work flat against the die. The punch travels towards the bla work, the punch forces the sheet metal into the die cavity, forming its shape.

Equipment for sheet metal deep drawing would involve a double action, one for the blank holder and one for and hydraulic presses are used in manufacturing industry. Typically the hydraulic press can control the blankh separately, but the mechanical press is faster. Punch and die materials are usually tool steels and iron. Howev for punch and die can range from plastics to carbides. Parts are usually drawn at speeds of 4 to 12 inches per s

Figure:292

Deep Drawing Pra

Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process that involves co force distributions. As mentioned, the punch and die setup is so operation, such as cutting or blanking. Two main factors will ca drawing to draw the metal into the die cavity rather than shearin

One major factor in deep drawing is the die corner radius and th When cutting the punch and die edges do not have a radius. Sha and die cause it to cut. A radius on and edge will change the for the metal to flow over the radius and into the die cavity. The oth punch to draw the sheet metal and not cut it, is the amount of cl cutting operations is relatively small, usually 3% to 8% of sheet drawing manufacture if the clearance is too small, then the shee (not well), despite the radius. Clearance in deep drawing manuf thickness, usually clearance values are 107% to 115% of sheet t

For many calculations the sheet metal thickness is assumed to r there are changes in thickness in certain areas, due to the forces the side walls of the part material must flow from the blank's pe radius, then straight in the direction of the punch. Material form under tensile stress that will naturally cause it to thin. Deep draw controlled to mitigate thinning, but some thinning is unavoidabl most likely occur on the side wall near the base of the part. A co have up to 25% reduction in thickness in some areas.

Figure:293

Drawing Ratio

Measurement of the amount of drawing performed on a blank c be done with the drawing ratio. The higher the drawing ratio, th of drawing. Due to the geometry, forces, metal flow, and materi there is a limit to the amount of drawing that can be performed operation. Drawing ratios can help determine the maximum am Drawing ratio is roughly calculated as DR = Db/Dp.

Db is the diameter of the blank and Dp is the diameter of the pun noncircular the maximum diameter is sometimes used, or occas calculated using surface areas. The limit to the drawing ration f or under. Actual limits to the amount of drawing possible is also of drawing, punch radius, die radius, anisotropy of the sheet, an

Reduction

Another way to express drawing ratio is the reduction (r). Red the same variables as drawing ratio. Reduction can be calculate

Db and Dp being blank and punch diameters respectively. Reduc under. Often expressed as the percent reduction r = (Db - Dp)/(D reduction should be 50% or under.

Redrawing Sheet M

If required percent reduction is over 50%, the part must be form Redrawing is the subsequent deep drawing of a work that has al drawing process. By using more than one operation a greater m can be accomplished.

Figure:294

The amount of forming of the sheet metal that can be accompl less than on the original draw. For the original drawing of the b rarely used during industrial manufacturing practice. The initia to 45%. First redraw is commonly performed at a 20% to 30% can typically range from 13% to 16% reduction. If a severe am performed, and several redrawing operations are necessary, the annealed every two operations. This will recover the material f

Deep drawing process design must include the drawing of inte situations requiring redrawing. For every redraw to be perform intermediate part.

Figure:295

Intermediate shape design is important, and unique tooling and each intermediate step. Each operation will effect the next one for each step. When designing intermediate shapes the reductio and in most cases it can be assumed that the surface area on th shapes, and the part to be the same.

Reverse redrawing, or reverse drawing is sometimes used to re redrawing the intermediate part is flipped over before being pl operation. This will cause the part to now be drawn in the oppo draw.

Figure:296

Forces In Deep Dra

Force used to accomplish a deep drawing operation must be ade for the materials deformation and flow during the process, and t Magnitude of force must not be too high or applied incorrectly o metal may occur. The punch and the blankholder will exert a se analysis should be done for both.

Understanding the material flow during the process is essential acting on the work. Imagine placing a piece of paper flat on a ro a piece of sheet metal on a round die cavity. Now, imitating the paper is forced into the cup to take the cylindrical form of the cu paper folds or wrinkles in the process. This is not how a sheet m in a deep drawing operation. One reason is that metal material c So instead of the paper, place a piece of aluminum foil on the cu but it still wrinkles when force into the cup. The reason why alu forced into the cup is because of the inadequate thickness of the

Imagine now, a sheet metal blank being deep drawn into a roun material under the punch gets forced into the cavity, pulling ma walls of the part. Sometimes in drawing an amount of material i and forms a flange around the completed part. However, during all of the material not yet drawn over the die radius and into the to as the flange. During the ongoing process material from the f forced into the die. The diameter of the die cavity is smaller tha blank, and metal is flowing from the outer peripheral inwards.

Figure:297

It can be illustrated that more material is being forced into smal

material from the peripheral is moving into a circle of smaller d

Figure:298

Metal flow can be observed in the figure above. As the deep dra from zone A is forced into zone B, metal from zone B is forced zone C is forced into the die cavity. This continues until eventu the final product), even the material in zone A is forced into the space will cause compressive forces to act within the material. T present in the flange because of the drawing of the metal into th

Figure:299

Compressive forces on material elements in the flange can be re metal beam in compression, such as the one illustrated in the fo

Figure:300

Now imagine decreasing the width of the beam. If the width bec to length the beam will tend to buckle under stress.

Figure:301

This is similar to the situation in the flange during a deep drawing operation. As mentioned, the force exerted on the beam is similar to the compressive forces acting on the blank's material. Reducing the width of the beam is equivalent to reducing the thickness of the sheet metal. The buckling of the beam is manifested the wrinkling of the sheet metal. The thicker beam has a high enough width to allow for proper metal flow. A metal beam of greater width is equivalent to a thicker sheet metal blank. It is now evident that the lower the sheet metal thickness the more likely it is to wrinkle during deep drawing. Wrinkles start in the flange. Once wrinkling starts it will continue to propagate. Wrinkles that start in the flange are pulled into the die and will end up in the part's walls. Figure:302

In order to solve the problem of wrinkling a blank holder is used. By applying pressure to the surface of the blank, the blank holder can prevent wrinkling for many parts. The blankholder would be the equivalent to force applied over the side of the thinner beam, causing it to compress properly rather than buckle. However remember this is only an analogy to help understand the mechanics occurring. The actual situation is different, since forces and material flow are also occurring simultaneously in other directions. Figure:303

Sheet metal thickness is an important aspect of deep drawing process design. Thickness to diameter ratio is a major factor used to quantify the geometry of a blank, and can be calculated by t/Db. Thickness is represented by t, and Db is the diameter of the blank. For noncircular parts the maximum diameter is sometimes used. Usually it is expressed as a percent t/Db X 100%. Blankholders are generally effective for thickness ratios of 1% and over. Ratios of .5% to 1% are marginal, and for thickness ratios under .5% even a blankholder may not prevent wrinkling. Die corner radius and punch corner radius are important in force distribution and material flow during the process. Figure:304

Corner radius should be sufficient to allow for smooth metal flow. If a radius is too small the sheet metal can tear. Often this occurs as the material is traveling over the corner. Optimization of corner radius should be achieved, because if the radius is too large it may cause wrinkling. Low corner radius can also be a source of stress that can initiate tearing at another location in the part. However, sometimes the location of the occurrence of the tear in the sheet metal will be an indication of the cause.

Figure:305

Forces involved in the formation of the part wall are also important. Figure:306

As the punch progresses it draws material from the flange into the cavity, increasing the length of the part wall. Metal forming the part's walls is in tension. Even though material is constantly being draw from the flange region to supply the growing part walls, the tension forces will tend to create a thinning effect. Thinning will usually be greatest near the part's base. The decrease in thickness

occurring in the walls of a deep drawn part is mitigated by control of process parameters. A certain level of thinning is usually unavoidable. Often, the manufacturing process of ironing is employed to finish deep drawn parts by evening the wall thickness. Punch force and blankholder force should be determined when designing a particular deep drawing operation. Punch force will vary throughout the operation. Commonly, the punch force will reach its maximum at about 1/3 of the stroke. Both punch force and blankholder force are dependent on punch and die geometry, punch and die radius, blank geometry, blank thickness, blank material, and friction. Although it will differ, a common value for the blankholder force is about 30% to 40% of the maximum punch force. References are available to calculate these forces based on these variables.

Blank Optimization
Blank material, thickness and shape are major elements in deciding the nature of the metal flow and forces. All the factors involved in a deep drawing process will have an effect on the quality of the part. Sheet metal parts can be tested for formability. Blanks are often printed with a square grid with circles in each grid box. The squares and circles distort with the sheet metal as the process occurs. After drawing, the blanks can be studied to determine blank distortion, thinning, and the general direction of metal flow as a result of the deep drawing process. By examining different proportions of bi-axial straining and areas of tearing, an understanding of the blank's behavior can be created. Forming limit diagrams are often constructed to quantify the results of these experiments. One major goal is to optimize the shape of the blank for a certain deep drawing process. Excess material in the work can interfere with metal flow and increase forces acting within the blank while drawing. In order to optimize blank shape the flow of material during an operation must first be known. A common deep drawing is a square box. When a square box is drawn from a square blank it is obvious that the metal does not flow evenly into the die from all directions. Metal flows faster and easier into the die cavity from the sides of the blank than from the corners. More complex metal flow at the corners causes more impedance to movement. Less metal is draw from these sections as a result. Removal of material from areas such as this will improve metal flow and reduce forces. The optimal blank shape will vary for different parts and contours. Computer programs have been developed to predict such shapes given the parameters. However, it should be remembered that actual trail and error testing is a vital part of deep drawing process design.

Defects In Deep Drawing

Defects that occur during deep drawing of sheet metal can be controlled by careful regulation of process factors. Tearing is one of the most common defects. Excessive thinning in parts of the sheet metal is also an unwanted defect. Causes of these are mostly too high or improper force distribution and material considerations. Many times the reduction ratio needs to be evaluated. Ratios for initial reduction are usually 35% to 45%, but can be lower. Redraws are always less. Reduction ratios may need to be lower, or annealing of the metal may be necessary to allow for sufficient redrawing. Usually maximum thinning of the cup wall occurs near the base. For this reason, tearing of the sheet metal is most likely to occur in this region even if the stress is originating somewhere else. Another reason for the tearing of the sheet metal may be excessive force caused by material impediments, due to an inefficient blank shape. When tearing occurs at the corners of the wall it may indicate a problem with the blank's geometry. Surface of the blank is important also, gouges, scratches, and pits can all cause propagation of cracks. Blankholder force must be sufficient. However, friction between blankholder, blank, and die surfaces will act to resist the movement of the blank's material into the die. Thus, excess friction will increase the force the punch exerts to draw the part. Higher punch forces usually cause a tear in the weakest spot, predominately in the cup wall near the base. For this reason the blankholder force must not be too high. Figure:307

Die and blankholder surfaces must be as smooth as possible, they should be ground and lapped to mitigate friction. Any type of friction will increase force, hence stresses in the material. Friction between the punch and work surfaces as well as friction over corners can be a source of failure. Lubrication is important in deep drawing of sheet metal. Lubrication will allow for easier metal flow and more uniformly distributed metal strains, due to decreasing friction. Lubrication also helps to reduce wear on tooling and machinery. Lubricants are applied to both sides of the blank. Common lubricants used in deep drawing include oil, soap, emulsions, wax, and sometimes solid lubricants. Wrinkling is another common defect and was discussed in detail earlier. Wrinkling may often occur if the blankholder force is too low. Therefore optimization of blankholder force is necessary, since too high a force will cause excess friction. Sheet metal thickness is an essential parameter. As stated earlier, with a thickness ratio of .5% or under even a blankholder may not stop wrinkling. If corner radius is not high enough tearing may occur, but if the corner radius is excessive this may also cause wrinkling. Corner radius, like holding force, must obtain an optimum value. Earing is a problem characteristic to deep drawing. Earing is the formation of wavy edges at the open end of the cup. These are usually trimmed. The anisotropy of a particular sheet metal blank is the predominant source of earing. Surface scratches or irregularities may appear on drawn parts. Make sure punch and die surfaces are smooth. Other causes of surface scratching could be improper clearance, or inadequate lubrication.

Drawbeads
Drawbeads are sometimes used to help regulate metal movement during deep drawing. Drawbeads bend and unbend metal as it travels into the die cavity, thus altering its flow. Drawbeads can reduce the necessary blankholder force. Figure:308

Drawing Without A Blankholder

In some situations sheet metal deep drawing can be performed without a blankholder. This makes the process simpler and tooling cost lower, in cases that it can be applied to. The process requires a high thickness ratio to avoid wrinkling. For drawing without a blankholder thickness ratio should be at least 3%. A sheet metal blank is placed on a die and pushed through by a punch, similar to the standard deep drawing process. The die when drawing without a blankholder will have a special curve to facilitate the forming of the part in this manner.

Irregular Deep Drawings

Common non standard deep drawing part geometries include steeped, tapered, and domed cups. Stepped parts can be created by partial redrawing. Domed cups are formed with a stretch forming type process. Tapered cups can be manufactured by first producing stepped cups and then the sides are formed to create the tapered shape. Figure:309

Embossing
Embossing is a sheet metal forming operation related to deep drawing. Embossing is typically used to indent the metal with a design or writing. This process has been compared to coining. Unlike coining, embossing uses matching male and female die and the impression will effect both sides of the sheet metal.

Designing A Deep Drawing Operation

Designing a deep drawing process will require planning, calculations, and probably some in house testing. Calculate the surface area of the finished part and allow for a trimming allowance. Set the surface area of the part equal to the surface area of the blank, and solve for Db. Extra material can be added to the blank, (ie. +10% Db), this will create a flange that can be trimmed off latter. This can help calculate a standard optimum blank shape for the operation. Measure the thickness ratio = t/Db X 100. Thickness ratio should be over 1% or wrinkling may be a problem. Calculate reduction ratio. r = (Db - Dp)/(Db) X 100. If

the reduction ratio is over 50% plan for redrawing operations. Redrawing will require the design of intermediate shapes. When designing intermediate shapes, consider the reduction ratio, and set the surface areas of the blank, intermediate parts and final drawing to be equal. Required punch and blankholder force can be calculated based on blank shape, blank thickness, punch and die shape, punch and die corner radius, sheet metal material, and friction. Process iteration through trial and error can optimize the operation over time. Process factors such as amount of reduction, blank shape, corner radius, or blankholder force may have to be adjusted based on the results of previous processes.

Ironing

Ironing is mostly used to achieve a uniform wall thickness in deep drawings. Variation in wall thickness often exists in such parts as discussed in the previous section. Ironing can be incorporated into a deep drawing process or can be performed separately. A punch and die pushes the part through a clearance that will act to reduce the entire wall thickness to a certain value. While reducing the entire wall thickness, ironing will cause the part to lengthen. The percentage reduction in thickness for an ironing operation is usually 40% to 60%. Percent reduction can be measured (ti - tf)/ti X 100%. With ti being initial thickness, and tf being final thickness. Many products undergo two or more ironing operations. Beverage cans are a common product of ironing operations.

Figure:310

Spinning

Spinning, also called conventional spinning, is the forming of an axis-symmetric part over a rotating mandrel tool with a rounded end or a roller. A flat, or possibly preformed, work piece is held between a mandrel and t rotates, the tool applies localized pressure to the work while it gradually moves up the mandrel. This causes th wrapped over the mandrel, thus taking its shape. Spinning is commonly performed cold, but in some cases pa or hot spinning. Spinning is capable of producing large parts with diameters as high as 20 feet.

Figure:311

The tooling in a spinning operation is generally made from too some cases may be made of wood. Containers with bottle or ta manufactured on collapsible mandrels, that are disassembled a formed parts. Set up costs for spinning are usually low. Condu is relatively expensive on a per unit basis. Deep drawing is usu manufacturing method for producing parts. In contrast, deep dr initial investment for set up, while the cost of production per p reasons, deep drawing is more useful for mass production of pa for small numbers of parts, unique, curved, or varied parts, and is important in spinning. CNC machinery is now replacing the CNC spinning gives a high quality consistent product.

Shear Spinning

Shear spinning is a process related to conventional spinning, an turning and spin forging. In a conventional spinning operation formed by bending. There is usually not much change in thickn diameter of the work in conventional spinning must be large en size of the final part. Shear spinning involves forming the work metal flow within the work. This metal flow will act to reduce it is formed. The initial diameter of the work can be smaller in the amount of reduction of work thickness exist in order to pre normally used in shear spinning, since this process can generat rollers, (tools), may be used, two will provide a better balance operation. Shear spinning of some materials will be conducted

Figure:312

Tube Spinning

Tube spinning is performed on cylindrical parts. Tube spinning in that metal flow occurs within the work. This metal flow acts the metal. While using tube spinning to reduce the thickness of will be increased. This process can be performed externally wit or internally with the tube enclosed by a die. The tool can also i during the operation, in order to create contours or features on t tube.

Figure:313

High Energy Rate Form

High energy rate forming is the forming of sheet metal by a high energy surge, delivered over a v forming of the metal occurs so quickly, desirable materials for (HERF) will be ductile at high def

Explosive Forming

Explosives can deliver a huge amount of power. Although most explosive detonations are destructive, the pow charge can be used to manufacture parts. An explosive forming process commonly used for the production of standoff system. Typically the mold and work piece are submerged in water. The sheet metal is secured over Air is drawn out, creating a vacuum in the die cavity. An explosive is placed between the die cavity and the w the work. This distance is called the standoff distance. Standoff distance depends on the size of the work, for about half the diameter of the blank. The explosive itself is also deeply submersed in water. Upon detonation, through the water and delivers great energy to the work, forming it to the die cavity near instantaneously. Thi process can be used to form big thick plates.

Figure:316

Explosive forming has a long cycle time, and is suitable for low large, unique parts. Mechanical properties imparted to the mate explosive forming process are similar to mechanical properties manufactured by other forming processes. Molds can be made to shape materials, or molds can be made more permanent. Ma aluminum, wood, concrete, plastic, iron, and steel. If a mold is material such as plastic, the low modulus of elasticity will grea resulting in higher accuracy.

The amount of explosive depends upon the type of system used pressure needed to form the part. The shock wave generated by an expanding spherical front. Much of the energy from the sho the work piece. A modified setup of the standoff system uses r energy surge. This provides a more effective use of power and used to form the same part. Another system called a confined s explosive or cartridge. This is usually used for relatively small system. All of the energy is directed into a closed container, th die cavity. The energy from the canned explosive forces the sh the mold forming the part. Safety is always a consideration wh explosive forming, particularly with the confined system, wher concern.

Figure:317

Electrohydraulic Fo

Electrohydraulic forming, also called electric discharge formin forming process. This process uses the energy from the combu Two electrodes, with a wire connecting them, are submersed in similar to the standoff system described above, however this pr relatively smaller parts. A sheet metal blank is secured on top o clamp, and a vacuum is created in the die cavity under the blan stored in a capacitor bank. The electricity is discharged through wire, instantly vaporizing the wire, creating a shock wave that This shock wave forms the sheet metal to the mold cavity. Elec produces a shock wave of relatively low magnitude, and is bes The wire needs to be replaced after every operation. Electrohyd considered to have a low production rate.

Electromagnetic Forming

Electromagnetic forming is a popular high energy rate forming process that uses a magnetic surge to form a s electromagnetic process, also called magnetic pulse forming, an electric coil is placed near a metal work piec charged up, and a large electrical surge is sent through the coil. The current creates a magnetic field. When a a magnetic field it produces a current in that material, this is called an eddy current. Due to the close proximit metal to the coil, the coils magnetic field is disrupted, and eddy currents are generated in the work piece. The metal produce their own magnetic field that opposes the original magnetic field of the coil. The opposing forc and form the work. The coil may be placed inside or over the work depending upon the desired effect. Many operations are used to bulge tubes, or form tubes over other parts such as rods and cables. Electromagnetic fo thinner sheet metal parts.

Figure:319

Rubber Forming

Rubber forming uses a flexible material such as rubber or polyurethane to form a sheet metal work piece. The container and serves as a punch. A work piece is placed over a rigid die. The punch forces the work into the r around the work creating pressure and forming the metal onto the die. This is also known as the Guerin proce processes are limited in the depth of parts they can produce. Limitations exist because the pressure generated 1500 lbs/in2, (10MPa). The same rubber die can be used for many different forming blocks. Rubber forming i industry to produce sheet metal components. Low cost tooling makes setup for rubber forming inexpensive. T production of small quantities of parts.

Hydroforming Of Sheet Metal

Hydroforming is an effective sheet metal forming process. Hydroforming can typically obtain deeper draws th drawing operations. Hydroforming uses a rigid punch to push a sheet metal work piece into a rubber membra membrane is a chamber of pressurized fluid. When the work is pressed into the chamber the rubber membran and the pressure of the fluid forces the sheet metal to form on the punch.

Fluid pressure can be controlled during the operation, and can be as high as 15,000 lbs/in2, (100MPa). Due to distributed pressure on the work piece very deep draws, ( high percent reduction), can be performed with hyd reduce tensile stresses in the material during the process. Lubrication effects friction and is an important facto forming process. One advantage that rubber forming processes possess is that the rubber of flexible material w damage the surface of the sheet metal part.