The Evolution of Science Museums

The Evolution of Science Museums Author(s): Silvio A. Bedini Source: Technology and Culture, Vol. 6, No.
1, Museums of Technology (Winter, 1965), pp. 129 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press and the Society for the History of Technology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3100949 . Accessed: 06/08/2013 02:44
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Museums ofScience
SILVIO A. BEDINI
The Evolution
He who viewsonlytheproduce ofhisowncountry maybe said toinhabit whoseeandconsider theproa single world;whilethose ofother worlds before them. ductions inreview climes bring many
C. LINNAEUS1
Sciencemuseums aregenerally in thefield considered newcomers of inasmuch of present and as themostoutstanding scientific museology ofthetwenmuseums havebeenestablished sincetheturn technological tieth traces its Yet,as shownin Table 1, thesciencemuseum century. cabibackward time to the and libraries origins through greatprivate netsof curiosities and wealthy amaof Renaissance scholars, princes, RenIn fact, included teurs. someofthescientific memorabilia in these aissancecabinetshave survived to formthe the centuries through have nucleusaroundwhich some of the modernscience museums grown. Published worksaboutthe history have neverisolated of museums it from its thesciencemuseum as an entity norattempted to separate this of For the natural the museum of purposes counterpart, history. forthepreservation a science is defined museum as a repository study, sciences to thephysical andexhibition ofcollections relating specifically and technology. fromseveral the modern museum is derived typesof Historically, suchas those treasure The earliest was theprivate collections. chamber, authors. classical of antiquity described by Homer,Cicero,and other and varweremany behind these collections The personal motivations
Mr. Bedini is Curatorof the Division of Mechanicaland Civil Engineering, of works on the history Institution. He is the authorof numerous Smithsonian In 1962he was awardedthe AbbottPaysonUsherAward of the Sotechnology. "The Compartmented ofTechnology forhispaper, Cylindrical cietyfortheHistory Vol. III (Spring1962). and Culture, Technology Clepsydra," 1 C. Linnaeus, MusaeumAdolphiFriderici 1754); thePreface Regis (Stockholm, on theStudyofNature(Lonas Reflections was translated EdwardSmith by James in his Tracts (London, 1798). don, 1758) and reprinted
TABLE 1
EARLY SCIENCE COLLECTIONSAND MUSEUMSTHROUGHTHE NINETE
Name
Denmark: Olaf (or Ole) Worm(1588-
Dates
Location
Collection
1654)
Mid-seventeenth century Copenhagen Early eighteenth century Copenhagen
Natural and artificial curiosit
Royal CopenhagenMuseum establishedby King Christian V (1671-1730)
Natural and artificialcuriosi mechanicalapparatus
France: Jean de Berry,Duke of Late fourteenth and early fifteenth Burgundy (18340-1416) century Fabri de Peirsec (15801637)
r,
Clocks,raregames,foreign shel mechanicaland scientific ins
Early seventeenth century Aix 1640-70 Castres
Natural and artificial curiosit antiquities
MaistrePierreBorel
naturaland artifi Antiquities,
Conservatoire Nationaldes Established1794,to pres- Paris Artset Metiers ent Germany: LandgraveWilhelmIV (1532-99) ElectorAugustusI ofSaxony (1553-86) Late sixteenth to century present Late sixteenth to century present Kassel Dresden
Machines, mechanicalmodels, struments
Scientific instruments and appa
Kunst-und-Naturalienkamm ry,coinsand medals,art wor scientific and ph instruments, hibits
EmperorRudolph II (1552-1612) PrinceGottorp
Late sixteenth and early seventeenth century Seventeenth century
Prague
Art objects, Orientalidols and instruments, games,scientifi tools
Gottorp
Natural and artificial curiositi
TABLE 1-Continued Name Germany-Continued MicheleBernhardValentini (1657-1729) Dates Location
Collections
Late seventeenth century Giessen
"Things sacredand superstiti anatomical, surgical, chem apparatus, naturalcuriositi
CasperF. Einckel(C. F. Neickelius) Franz ErnstBriickmann (1697-1758) Great Britain: CharlesI
........................
Hamburg
Artifacts relatingto the arts a
curiositi century Wdlfenbuttel Natural and artificial Early seventeenth ments,anatomicalappliance ca. 1645-49 Seventeenth century 1662-1781 London Oxford London Fauxhall
JohnEvelyn Royal Society JohnTradescant,Sr. (?-1637), and Jr.(160862) Elias Ashmole(1608-62) JohnBargrave Royal ScottishMuseum
Proposed a "Philosophic-Mat
Scientific instruments and appa natural history specimens
century Lambeth, Early seventeenth London
Natural and artificial curiosit numismatics
...................................... Late seventeenth century Canterbury Seventeenth century Edinburgh
Combined collectionformeda sity in 1682. AshmoleanMu scientific Archeological,
Startedfromprivatecollection ofUniversity Museum,later um of Science and Art, late Museum (1904) Science and technology
ScienceMuseum of South Kensington
Established 1857
London
TABLE 1-Continued
Name Dates Location Collections
Italy: Galeazzo Visconti(138471402)
1380-1530
Pavia
an Armillary sphere,terrestrial and chained bo manuscripts trarium
46
Museo Medici: ca. 1560 to present LorenzotheMagnificent (1449-92) Archduke Cosimo I (1519-74) Francesco1 (1541-87) CardinalGiovanniCarlo (1611-63) FerdinandII (1610-70) PrinceMattias (1618-77) CardinalLeopold(161775)
Florence
Coins and medals,armsand arm carved gemstone sculpture, ins preciousstones,scientific paratus
Pier AndreaMattioli(1501- Mid-sixteenth century 77) Giulio Cesare Scaliger
Siena Milan Milan Florence Milan San Miniato Verona
(1484-1558)
Mid-sixteenth century Mid-sixteenth century to Mid-sixteenth century present Late sixteenth century Late sixteenth century Late sixteenth century
GirolamoCardano (150176) AndreaCesalpini(15191608) Gian VincenzoPinelli (1535-1601) MicheleMercati(1541-93) FrancescoCalzolari (or Calceolari) (fl. 1566-86)
Mathematical and philosophi coins,medals, fossils,archeo
Natural and artificialcuriosit
armsand a Natural curiosities, vices,ancient inscriptions, st
TABLE 1-Continued
Italy-Continued Mapheus Cusanus
........................
Verona Naples Rome
Medicine and pharmacy Natural history
and FrancescoIm- Late sixteenth to early Ferrante seventeenth century perati Museo Borgiano Nicolao Gualtieri(16881744) Seventeenth century
Natural and artificial curiositi sionaries
Early seventeenth century Florence
curiosit Natural and artificial
GiovanniGius- 1677-98 Monsignor tino Ciampini

t-I1
Rome
natura artifacts, Archeological tificapparatus and instrum
Contede LuigiFerdinando Late seventeenth century Bologna to 1803 Marsigli(1658-1730)
Books, scientific instruments natural curiosities
GiacomoZanoni (1615-82) Late seventeenth century Bologna SignorMicconi Ulisse Aldrovandi (15271605) and Genoa Late seventeenth century earlyeighteenth and early Mid-sixteenth seventeenth century Bologna
Natural and artificial curiositi instrumen metals,scientific
TABLE 1-Continued
Italy-Continued SenatorFerdinandoCospi Galeria Settala Lodovico Settala (15521633) Settala(1600Manfredo 1630) Musco Kircheriano
to Late sixteenth century eighteenth century
Milan
c Artificial curiosities, including instruments tions,scientific p automatons,optic machines, locks and keys,armsand arm etc.
1651 to present
Rome
Netherlands: to Haarlem PieterTeylervan derHulst Late eighteenth century present
scientif Art,naturalcuriosities, apparatus,machinesand mec ata, archeologicaland ethn and botanica pharmaceutical
apparatus, scien Experimental
C",
UnitedStates: Samuel Vaughan
Late eighteenth century
Philadelphia Philosophicalapparatus, "petr
som specimens, century Philadelphia Natural-history CompanyofPhila- Early eighteenth Library ratus delphia So- Late eighteenth American century Philosophical ciety Dr. AbrahamChovet Museum American CharlesWillsonPeale (1741-1827) RobertLeslie Baker (?-1799) Gardner 1774 1782 1784 1789-93 1792-1800 Philadelphia Philadelphia Philadelphia
mechan Scientific instruments, tions,natural curiosities
Wax museumof anatomical sp Natural history
Philadelphia Lectures,machinemodels,natu curiosities
Philadelphia Models ofmachinesand tools,r and technolo manufactures, New York
Wax workswithexhibitsofnew as automaticair gun,patents tine,self-moving carriage
The Evolution Museums ofScience
wealthforpersonal ied: hoarding a craving for possessions, security, and the acquiring of valuables forsocialprestige. These private treasuresdeveloped intopatristic the historical relics of a collections, family, or nation.2 community, organization, collectors wereobjects claimed to be enParticularly among popular dowedwithmagical or supernatural The favorites werethose powers. extension ofnormal andincrease offertility and life, promising healing, sexual As menbecamemoreinquisitive abouttheir natural enpowers. curiosities." vironment, theyviewedthesemagicalobjectsas "natural The closerelationships and earlyreliscience, among magic, primitive be seenin thefactthat thetemple oftheSyrian gionmayperhaps goddessat Hieropolis barbaric thejawboneof a snake, displayed garments, and thetusks of an elephant, whilein the temple of JunoAstarte at were exhibited skins of women from Africa. Carthage hairy savage In Western Christendom theMiddleAges natural curiosities during and magicalobjectsrivaled relics and ecclesiastical treasures for holy attention. To this nucleus were later added artifacts popular brought back fromforeign landsby travelers, and crusaders. These pilgrims, treasuries attracted not onlythepiousbut also thosewhosecuriosity their werethefamous collections surpassed piety. Outstanding examples in Veniceandthemonastery oftheCathedral ofSt. Mark's of St. Denis inFrance, still survive andcontinue bothofwhich to drawconsiderable crowds. The earliest scientific collections datefrom thegeneral revival of intheRenaissance and earlymodern terest in scienceduring The times. in all increase offluid theinterest thatpertained to classical ancapital, of eachmanto leavehisparticular anda prevalent desire mark tiquity, of private on history collections. led to a resurgence As the general of inquiry and invention becamemorewidespread, natural and spirit were addedto the customary artificial curiosities relics, archeological the collectors coins and medalsand statues. were themFrequently or wealthy to selvesscholars, make their collections amateurs, eager As thescholars scholars. becamemoreinvolved available to interested withthecollections, thenumber and importance of scientific artifacts increased. libraries andmemorabilia scientific with associated Similarly, In manner the thesecollections this science museums early developed. Theircollections anda causeof theRenaissance. became bothan effect of ournatural weretheprototypes museof natural curiosities history anatomical and botanical rocksand minerals, fossils, ums,combining andstuffed animals from all overtheworld. specimens,
2 Alma Stephanie The Museum, Its Historyand Its Tasks in Education Wittlin, (London, 1949),chap. iii.
SilvioA. Bedini
museums of physical scienceand technology had their Our modern that of "artificial curiosities." in of This another type collection, origins of man as from works of nature. works featured distinguished category werethetoolsof travelers and explorers, as well Of particular interest were Included these as of earlymathematical practitioners. among Also astrolabes. and instruments, maps,compasses, globes,drafting were primitive stoneand metaltools,mafoundin thesecollections and arms andarmor, chines andmechanisms, devices, automata, lighting locksandkeys. had becomenumerthesecollections By theend of theRenaissance butwereactualbenotonlyformed theprototypes ous.Someofthem flourished in the sevenmuseums which of the several great ginnings collections available to the the numerous did So teenth private century. seventeenth lists of the the become that, century, beginning by public as for and werebeing ofthem compiled published guides travelers.3 in everysenseof theword,came The first greatsciencemuseums, The intobeingin seventeenth-century Germany, Italy,and England. centers of museums as cabinets into from evolution republic private natural influenced the was considerably search andlearning philosoby the the samemenwho simultaneously supported phersof thattime, virtuosi These and academies. scientific otiosi, curiosi, developing newly time-advocated the use of -curious and veryable menwithleisure control over nature and thedevela means of as exercising knowledge thevalue and human of Theyrecognized ingenuity superiority. opment the world and for of natural curiosities the and artificial ofnatural study collections assembled in this The scopeof themajor of history. period men Renaissance who ofthese isindicative ofthewideinterests scholars, universali. strove to be uomini and artificial curiosities of bothnatural By thistimethe collecting for ofsupplying materials as a means andrecommended wasrecognized forthefuof history artifacts research intothepastand of preserving in thedeclaraof this was to be found ture. thebeststatement Perhaps established in Lonof of thefirst tionof purpose Society Antiquaries, donin 15724
Raretez,. . . de la Ville et Comte de Castres s Pierre Borel, Les Antiquitez, et autrechoses cabinets curieux, 1649),"Roolle des principaux d'Albigeois(Castres, Villes de I'Europe"; JakobSpon, Reremarquables qui se voyenten principales de la Ville de Lyon (Lyon, 1673); Johann cherches des Antiquitiset Curiosites Daniel Major, Dissertatioepistolicade cancriset serpentibus petrefactis (Jena, de bene ordinanda 1664); and Daniel WihelmMoeller,Syllogealiquotscriptorum de technophysiotameis," et ornandabibliotheca(Frankfort, 1728), "Commentatio pp. 228ff. 4Archaeologia, London,Vol. I (1770).

...
from of modern to sift evidence; criticism, history by thesagacity in an age wherein of science is to every part advancing perfection, notafraid andin a nation of penetrating intotheremotest periods of their or of deducting from it anything thatmayreflect origin, dishonour to them. The word"museum" did not comeintogeneral usageuntilthelate sixteenth from It was derived theGreekwordmouseion meancentury. oftheMuses"andrelated in which to anycenter ing"a temple learning It was first revived to describe thegreat was cultivated.5 Medicicollectionin Florence, whichcombined artobjects and natural and artificial curiosities withone of theearliest collections to relating the physical andtechnology. sciences Priorto thegeneral of theword "museum," collections application of artificial wereknown curiosities various by designations. In Francethe favored was cabinetde curiosite, a phrase denoting or in which a collection closet of rarities was The study displayed. term was subsequently intoother as well and used adopted languages to describeprivateprincelycollections.' particularly Interestingly the well into the eighteenth enough, terminology persisted century, collected ceasedto be merecuriosities. theobjects The Gerlongafter mandesignations wereRaritdtenkammer, andKunstRaritdtenkabinet, the the of which latter was most and continued in kammer, popular used the use. The Italians terms tribuna and the latter galeria, general derived from theshapeofthelong, inwhich salons high-ceilinged being In the eighteenth Dr. Samuel the collections were exhibited. century oflearned a museum as "a repository defined with curiosities," Johnson becamecommon that"repository" theresult usagein Englandto demuseum collections. scribe collections whichformed a linkbetween One oftheearliest the great was thatof theDuke of Burgundy, MiddleAges and theRenaissance becauseof Jeande Berry(1340-1416).It was particularly significant mechanical and clocks and scientific of theimpressive instruments; array invention and skills withan underin human interest thesecombined the common emotional refrom of as nature, distinguished standing to sponse curiosities.6 A Historyand A Guide (Garden City,N.Y., 1961), Alexandria, 5E. M. Forster,
research and preservatimes a museum 113.Even in ancient 31-32, implied pp. 19-20, research collection on science and is to be tion of objects.Considerable emphasis in the thirdcentury at Alexandria foundeven in the greatMouseionestablished Soter. forPtolemy Phalerus B.C. by Demetrius of of of the Dukes were by farthe mostimportant collections The Burgundy 6 the fifteenth centurybut afterde Berry'sdefeatat the battleat Agincourtin
to contributeto separatefalsehoodfrom truthand tradition
10
A. Bedini Silvio
in theevolution Nextof importance of science museums werethree of natural and artificial Germanprivate curiosities which collections collections of scientific into instruments and became major developed thesixteenth research of scientific In Prague, centers century. during filled four vaulted rooms in hiscastle Emperor Rudolph II (1552-1612) from the world of his toand he withobjects time, brought gathered of the and finest artisans and scholars of Eumany gether supported who workedin theEmperor's The bestknownof the artisans rope.7 was Erasmus and some oftheinstruments he produced Habermel, shops in havesurvived thefinest theworld.Tycho there as unquestionably at theEmperor's Brahe(1546-1601)spent hislasttwo years residence, whoserved ofhismost andJohannes during many Kepler(1571-1630), Mathematician" in Prague,namedhis yearsas "Imperial productive Tables" for his "Rudolphine imperial patron. planetary The Landgrave Wilhelm IV of Hesse (1532-92) at Kasselnot only andinstruments in great butwas collected scientific apparatus profusion of mathematics and astronomy. a student his himself During father's with instruments made and inhe made celestial observations reign, a under movable roof the in castle. Christoffel his craftsmen stalled by and Justus as an astronomer, was employed Rothmann (1522Burgius for oband instruments clocks astronomical 1632) produced improved additions madesubstantial Wilhelm's successors to the colservations. lection.LandgraveKarl (1670-1730) visitedItaly in 1700 for the new opticalinstruments of acquiring fromGiuseppe specific purpose included Later additions instruments madeby Campani(1635-1715). an who for founded scientific instruChristian industry Breithaupt, usedby members ofthefaculty andinstruments of the at Kassel, ments inthenineteenth The Gewerbeschule Kasseler Hohern century. original a most collection hastodaybecome science important sixteenth-century Kabinett of the Hessischen theAstronomische-Physikalische museum: Landesmuseum.8
workin his collection muchof the famous was sentto themintto 1415, goldsmith The objectsthatescaped destruction providefundsfor stateexpenses. eventually of the Hapsburgs at Vienna,who were related foundtheirway to the collections Die Schatzkammer and to theroyalpalace at Madrid.See J.Schlosser, by marriage, des Allerhoechsten Kaiserhauses(Vienna 1918); J. Schlosser,Die Kunst- und derSpaetrenaissance Wunderkammern (Leipzig,1908). 7 A. Ventury, "Zur Geschichte der Kunstsammlungen KaiserRudolph," "Repertorium 1885). fuerKunstgescbichte (Stuttgart, 8Ernst Dippel, "Die Astronomisch-Physikalische Sammlungin Hessischen Landesmuseum zu Kassel,"Mitteilungen des HessiscbenBezirksvereins Deutscher XVIII (June,1928),1-9; A. Coesterand E. Gerland, der Ingenieure, Beschreibung
The EvolutionofScienceMuseums
11
IV that ofLandgrave Wilhelm It was in theworkshops manyof the the Dresdener that became of wereproduced instruments scientific part The I of Elector formed Kunstkammer Augustus (1530-86) Saxony. by of the the Electorwas inspired mineralogist Georgius writings by a Kunst-und-Naturalienkammer, embracto form (1494-1555) Agricola of the Like the other collections and sciences. the arts major ing both research center. into a theKunstkammer Begunin developed period, in sevengreatroomsof the GriineGewolbe 1560,it was installed Featured wereworks in (GreenVaults)oftheroyal palacein Dresden. mathematical treasure art instruments, chests, metals, objects, precious and worksin stoneand mechanical tools,mirrors, objectsof nature, thecollections Elector His sonandsuccessor, metal. Christian, amplified In Saxonrulers. as dideachofthesubsequent withhisownacquisitions, ana were and an theseventeenth shop laboratory century apothecary and withimportant Bothwere filled nexedto themuseum. specimens with in connection the research in wereactively employed furthering collections theycontained.9 in history resulted fromthe museum One of the earliest complexes The had Dresden. collections at of Kunstkammer the rapidgrowth had to transinstruments be that the scientific so grown considerably ferred to the Zwinger palace to forma Mathematische-Physikalische fortheroyaltreastherepository Salon.The GreenVaultsremained housed collections werelater andnatural-history andtheartworks ures, of the A feature forthepurpose. special in specialbuildings designed muwhichwas lateroccasionally at Dresden, museum copiedin other which forthe displayof curiosities was a cabinet seums, d'ignorance wereinvited thevisitors andforwhich or classified, couldnotbe named identifications. to suggest in Italyduritsgreatest museum achieved The science prominence five where seventeenth half of the second the largesciencentury, ing flourished simultanecenters withresearch combined collections tific Aldroof Ulisse museum The and Rome. at Florence, ously Bologna, to his consuming vandi(1527-1605)at Bolognabecamea monument
Geoddtischer und Physikalischer Apparateim Kdnigl. Astronomischer, Sammlung "AstronomischMuseumzu Kassel (Kassel, 1878), and Paul Adolph Kirchvogel, in Kassel aus der Zeit der Spiitrenaissance," Kunstwerke mechanische Hessenland, No. 3/4 (1939),pp. 69-78. 9 HermannAdolphDrechsler, des K6nigl.mathematischKatalog der Sammlung Die SammSalons (Dresden,1874); WilhelmGotthelf Lohrmann, physikalischen in Instruments auf der Modelkammer lungen der matbematisch-physikaliscben Dresden (Dresden, 1835); J. G. T. Graesse, A DescriptiveCatalogue of the Green Vaults(Dresden,1874).
12
SilvioA. Bedini
ambition all of external of natural to record nature in an encyclopedia One illustrated he for artists this history by employed purpose. painter was paid 200 crownsa yearfora periodof 30 yearsforthiswork. was in metals, bothas minerals interest Aldrovandi's Although primary and as manufactured the collection embraced products, manyfields. of thisgreatenterprise havesurvived Remnants at the University of where his works are also Bologna preserved.x0 manuscript museum withthatof an the Aldrovandi was merged Subsequently amateur andmechanician named Ferdinando Senator physicist Cospiof theMuseoCospiano whichwas particularly Bolognato form popular withvisitors on the Continent." achieved note as the Cospi personal themuof histimeand he did muchto popularize nobilomechanico center. thatthecataseumas a scientific It might be notedin passing of -ofashis featured "instruments collection (-of mathematics, logue -ofmusic, -ofgeometry, -ofwar)." tronomy, The greatest centerof scientific in Italygrew aroundthe activity The museum assembled merchant the Medici at Florence. by princes hadbeenbegun Archduke who collections Cosimo I (1519-74), speby cializedin numismatics, armsand armor, and paintings and sculpture. Thisnucleus wassupplemented madeby hisson,Francesco byadditions andworkscarvedin rockcrystal and other I (1541-87),of gemstones own of which were in his stones, semiprecious many produced palace
1to in libros iiiidistributum, Ambrosinus Musaeummetallicum UlisseAldrovandi, exhaustive thatAldrovandi's composuit(Bologna,1648). It was inevitable projects himas well,and he died in a Bolognahospital exhausted in 1605, blindand totally mass of worksin manuscript. The Senate poor. He leftbehindhima tremendous of Bologna,cognizant of Aldrovandi's two professors of contributions, employed of Bologna,Thomas Dempsterand JohnCornelius the University to Uterverius, edit the manuscripts and preparethemfor publication. Only a smallpart of the was published, in however,and almostthreehundredmanuscripts manuscripts own hand remainto the present timein the Museo Universitario at Aldrovandi's to be studiedand renderedinto publishedformby future Bologna, hopefully scholars. Aldrovandi's of which publishedworksfilled13 large folio volumes;the first described rarerocks,minerals, earths, appearedin 1599.His Musaeummetallicum and metals,as well as fossilsand primitive stone tools, and treatedmetalsnot statebutin their natural use as well. manufactured onlyin their of boasted severalotherimportant of somewhat laterdate collections, Bologna than that of Aldrovandi. The botanistand apothecary, Giacomo Zanoni (1615of natural a museum and artificial rarities whichwas oftenvisited 82), established fromothercountries. It was continuedafterhis death by his son, by travelers Pellegrino. 11L. L. Cremonese, Museo Cospiano annessoa quello del famosoAldrovandi (Bologna,1677).
TheEvolution Museums ofScience
13
an unusual and whichrepresented workshops aspectof contemporary the the of next thenumseveral archdukes technology.12 During reigns and conwas substantially at the same berofartobjects time increased, was to the tools of science. The earliest siderable emphasis given acquiin this weremaps executed sitions andgeographical designs by category P. Buonsignori andEgnazioDantito supplement thegreat astronomical clock of Lorenzo della Volpaia in the Palazzo Vecchio. Numerous werealready clocksandmathematical featured instruments in theearly andby themid-seventeenth themuseum flourished inventories, century intoan active center forscientific research. The four of thenew sonsof Archduke Cosimo II wereall enthusiasts and all contributed of scientific instruadditions sciences, important mentsand apparatus CardinalGiovan'Carlo to the family museum. of inventors in Rome; and instrument-makers (1611-63) was a patron PrinceMattias(1613-67),returning fromthe ThirtyYears' War in an important in Augsburg selection ofinstruments Germany, purchased and Nuremberg; Ferdinand artisans Archduke II (1610-70) employed and apparatus in his palaceworkshops to produce forthe instruments use of scholars at hiscourtas well as forhisown scientific endeavors; andPrince del Cimento, the theAccademia Leopold(1617-75)initiated first scientific society.13 Evenmore was thesupport than collections their scientific significant whichtheMediciprinces and and theopporartisans scholars gaveto The adforthetwo to worktogether. scientific tunity theyprovided vancesof Galileoand hisdisciples weremadeunder Mediciprotection forresearch and utilized theMedicicollections, whichwereavailable and study. The scientific climate whichprevailed in Florenceforthe greatdecade between1657 and 1667 duringwhich the Accademia With the of science. flourished was never equaledagainin thehistory instruments were of the Accademia in scientific its 1667, disbanding enhanced in the and were Pitti Palace, subsequently carefully preserved collections of VincenzoVivianiand RobertDuddley. by theprivate WhentheHouse ofLorraine theHouse of Mediciearlyin supplanted the to rebuild new effort theeighteenth rulers made the century, every of the museum nucleus and scientific and became the collections; they a di Fisicae di Storia which was as Gabinetto Naturale, public opened
12The history in the of thiscollectionand the techniques and tools employed "A Renaisunusualaspect of the lapidaryart is the subjectof an articleentitled and Culture. issueof Technology sance LapidaryLathe" to appearin a subsequent 13Giuseppe Boffitto, Gli Strumenti della scienza e la scienza degli strumenti del museo di (Florence, 1929); (Maria Luisa Bonelli), Catalogo degli strumenti storiadella scienza (Florence,1954).
14
A. Bedini Silvio
theGalleria thedirection ofManfredo Under Settala (1600-1630)18 in Settala andexpanded, (Fig. 1) flourished particularlythedirection ofthe sciences manual arts. Hisprimary andthe preoccupation physical of optical waswith a great andthecollection featured variety optics, observainstruments. He used astronomical ofthetelescopes for many of themicroscope andhis experiments withthedevelopment tions, inoperatskilled were with those ofGalileo. Personally contemporary
14Saggio del Real Gabinettodi Fisica e di storianaturaledi Firenze (Rome, e l'Osservatorio Fiorentina "La TradizioneAstronomica 1775); Guglielmo Righini, di Arcetri," IV, fasc.2 (1962), 139-48. Physis, many 1tLodovico Settalawas a celebrateddoctor of medicinewho published worksin his fieldand achievednoteforhisworkin theplagueof 1630. 18Manfredo himself in law andlanguages, buthe devoted received Settala degrees He traveled to a study of the sciences-mathematical, and mechanical. physical, in Italy and foreign countries to collect antiquities, worksof art,and extensively forthe family He was subsequently canon of the museum. otherrarities appointed atMilan. BasilicaofSS. Apostoli oftheacademy ofpainting andbecamethedirector
museum in 1775.FeliceFontana(1730-1803)was thefirst of director thenewmuseum, of mechanics. and Giuseppe served as Pigri professor A specialannex a great was constructed in whichcraftsmen produced new for of and scientific instruments, models, apparatus experivariety mental use. The Gabinetto andflourished intothenineteenth century. developed In 1801it initiated thepublication of a museum annual entitled Annali del Museo Imperiale which di Fisica e di StoriaNaturale di Firenze, contained When Vincenzo of scholarly highquality. papers extremely Antinori in 1829 he appointed becamedirector Leopoldo Nobili to Antinori teach andGiovanni Battista Amici to teach astronomy. physics in 1839 alsoorganized thefirst to be heldin Italy, scientific congresses muandin 1841, the with andduring thesciences histenure developed, seumas the scientific center. After1859,whenCosimoRidolfi succeededAntinori thefirst decas director, until theinstitution declined its adesof thetwentieth about brought century reorganization.14 and Another museum whichwas begunlatein thesixteenth century which center was esviedwiththeFlorentine installation as a scientific tablished at Milanby LodovicoSettala (1552-1633)in hispalaceon the Via Pantano.'5 Not onlywas he a notedphysician, but he was also of the well-known a manof letters, as a philosopher, and a member relAccademia numerous He accumulated archeological degliInquieti. to viswere and which ics,paintings, displayed manuscripts curiosities, weremainscholars. and thegalleria thelibrary iting Upon hisdeath, tained his Manfredo. son, by
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FIG. 1.-Interior of Settala's Galeria in Mlilan,seventeenthcentury.Reproduced from Scarabelli's M Studio del Sig. Canonico Manfredo Settala ... (Tortona, 1666). (Courtesy of the Trustees of the Br
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FIG. 2.-Interiorof Kircher'sMuseumat the Collegio Romano,second half of from De Sepi Valesius'RomaniCollegiiSocietatis seventeenth century. Reproduced of the Trusteesof the ... (Rome, 1709). (Courtesy JesuMusaeumCeleberrimum British Museum.)
15
latheand desirous of reviving the art of ing an ornamental turning in Settala exhibited numerous miniatures turning Italy, complicated whichhe had himself in wood,ivory, turned and other materials. The collection of timepieces, of Settala's own and including many design was and the in finest in construction, undoubtedly largest Europe this Also exhibited were numerous mathematical andmeastrolabes, period. chanical and a largedisdevices, automata, machines, perpetual-motion playofchemical apparatus."7 The GalleriaSettalaservedas a scientific research center.Settala maintained closecontact withtheFlorentine scientific and community thermometric and other instruments withArchduke Ferdiexchanged nandII. Missionaries from thefarcomersof theworlddereturning curiosities and at the sentgifts to museum; posited manuscripts princes the collection; and scientists visited his collections Settalato observe and his worksin progress, and occasionally to donatespecimens of interest.18 The museum remained in the family until1751,when the Senateof Milanturned it overto theBiblioteca whereit Ambrosiana, remained on publicviewuntil WorldWar II.19 It was from theGalleriaSettala thatthefourth Italianscience great the Museo in Kircheriano Rome derived itsinspiramuseum, (Fig. 2), tion.It grewout of a private collection of arttreasures and curiosities assembled namedAlfonso who willedit Donnino, by a publicofficial to theJesuit Romano his death in 1651. Assembled in a Collegio upon corridor to thelibrary, it was placedin thecharge of Athanaadjacent siusKircher, S. J. (1602-80). A morecapablecurator could not have been foundthanthisprofessor of mathematics, and Oriental physics,
17Pier FrancescoScarabelli, Museo o GalleriaAdunatadal Sapere,e Dallo Studio del Sig. CanonicoManfredoSettala,. .. et hora in Italianodal Sig. P. F. Scarabelli (Tortona,1666).
I, 275; The Works of JosephAddison (London, 1811), II, 15ff. "Remarkson Several Parts of Italy,etc., in the Years 1701,1702,1703";LettersWrittento a Friendby theJudicious and LearnedSir AndrewBalfour, M.D. (Edinburgh, 1700), Misson,A New Voyage to Italy (London, 1699), II, p. 245; FrancisMaximilian de Montfaucon, The Antiquities 196-98;and Bernard of Italy (London,1725),pp. 16-17. l9 Priorto the of Milanin 1943, themanuscripts, and arttreasures books, bombing of the BibliotecaAmbrosiana were removedinto safekeeping. Only the Settala collectionremained on displayand unprotected. and specimens which Fragments survived werecollectedintowoodencratesand stored. of scholars Efforts to examine the recoveredremnants have been unsuccessful, and no inventory was apmade after the bombing. Until the Biblioteca is readyto makean assessparently mentof the remains, thereis no way of knowing whathas survived.
18Ray,op. cit.,I, 202-9;John Diaryand Correspondence (London,1879), Evelyn,
16
A. Bedini Silvio
at the Collegio.In thismuseum Kircher triedto present a languages of science and from to relatively complete history technology antiquity histime.20 The collection swelled withgifts from andwealthy travelers and instruments usedby hiscontemporaries. Kircher featured patrons scientific of matheapparatus, especially optics, catoptrics, hydraulics, and medicine. He had models constructed matics, magnetism, operating ofhistorical machines andmechanisms, withparticular on calemphasis and automata. For the devices, machines, culating perpetual-motion ofmanhe exhibited an impressive ofarcheological artifacts study array andethnological specimens.21 After deathin 1680 the museum Kircher's wentinto a periodof decline andneglect, andmany werelostor stolen. significant specimens the collection was in the of Eventually placed charge FilippoBonanni, S. J.(1638-1725), a numismatist andenthusiast ofthesciences. He comthe moved them better into collections, pletely reorganized quarters, andacquired from members of thefaculty ofthe many significant gifts Romano and their A associates. a Collegio pharmaceutical laboratory, and botanical were addwell-equipped workshop, garden subsequently ed to themuseum.22 accounts tellof scholars and Manycontemporary drawn travelers from all overEuropeto study at theMuseo KircheriIn 1871thescientific ano.23 collections wereremoved to thenewlyestablished MuseodelleTerme inRome.24 to the Museo Kircheriano was the private museum asComparable sembled Giovanni Giustino (1633-98) ofRome, byMonsignor Ciampini who had accumulated an impressive collection of archaeological artifacts andnatural curiosities. In 1677Ciampini becamethefirst director of the Accademia Fisicomatematica founded underthe paRomana, of Queen Christina of Sweden.This Accademia included all tronage theforemost in Italyand manyforeign scientists memcorresponding bers.The members in Romemettwiceweekly in Ciampini's palaceto deliver on their work and to in the papers perform experiments physi20 Riccardo G. Villoslada,S.J.,Storia del Collegio Romano (Rome, 1954),pp. 183-87, 232,239. 21GiorgioDe Sepi Valesius,RomaniCollegiiSocietatis JesuMusaeumCeleberrium(Amsterdam, 1678). 22Rev. Filippo Bonanni,S.J.,MusaeumKircherianun ... in CollegioRomano SocietatisJesujam pridemincoeptum, nuper restitutum, et auctum,descriptum iconibus illustratum (Rome, 1709). 23Balfour, op. cit.,p. 134;Misson, op. cit.,II, 117;and Evelyn,op. cit.,I, 125. 24An exhaustive searchmadein Rome in May, 1963, revealedthat by the author the scientific collections had been storedin the Museo delleTerme in recenttimes and havesincebeenremoved to a Jesuit schoolin therebuilt E.U.R. section ofRome.
17
theinstruments and scientific usedforthispurcal sciences; apparatus were then exhibited museum. in the There were pose manysimilarities between forbothwere theCiampini museum and theGalleria Settala, created of scientific forthepursuit and in both resulted investigations research centers.25 internationally recognized The fifth of the seventeenth greatItaliansciencemuseum century which an important became scientific center was established in Bologna Marsigli(1658-1730),a wealthy by the Conte de Luigi Ferdinando and In soldier. addition to books,scientific innaturalist, geographer, struments and apparatus, worksof art,and antiquities, he mechanisms, amassed of rocks and minerals and botanical collections important specia laboratory mens.He installed in his homeso thathis friends and who a the banded themselves into called associates, scholarly group their could in various fields Philosophi Inquieti, experiments perform of competence. In 1690Marsigli and hishome, collections, bequeathed the of to be an to as instilaboratory University Bologna perpetuated tution forpublicinstruction whichwas to be knownas the Istituto An astronomical delleScienze. were anda physical cabinet observatory addedto thelibrary A staff and laboratory. of fivespecialists-includandmathchemist, librarian, ingan astronomer, experimental physicist, ematician-was and sixdepartments of studies wereformed employed; withoneprofessor in charge ofeach.The Istituto was unique in having thefirst andwas thefirst to adopttheexperimenuniversity laboratory talmethod of teaching.26 Benedict in the becameinterested XIV, a nativeof Bologna, Pope institution and tookeveryopportunity to supplement its services and In 1747he purchased collections. thecontents of theoptical workshop of Giuseppe in Rome,donated and arranged it to theIstituto, Campani fora curator to maintain it and to produceopticalworksfortheIstituto.Although theinstitution theeighteenth during century, prospered its collection of opticalequipment and machines little was vandalized; remained the time that the was with the Istituto by merged University in 1803.27 Duringits lifetime the Istituto withthe Medici competed museum as a scientific center forteaching andresearch.
26Ferdinando Instrumentum de Marsigli, Donationum & excellentisillustrissimi, simi viri Domini ComitisAloysii Ferdinandide Marsiliisfavoreillustrissimi et excelsiSenatuset Civitatis Bononiaein gratiam novae in eademScientiarum Institutionis(Bologna, 1712). For the laterhistory of the Istituto see G. G. Bolletti, e de' progressi dell'Istituto delleScienzein Bologna (Bologna,1763). Dell'origine 27Silvio A. Bedini, "The Optical Workshop of Giuseppe Campani," [Yale] XVI (1961), 18-38. of theHistoryof Medicineand Allied Sciences, Journal 25VincenzoLeoni, Vita degliArcadi Illustri(Rome, 1710),Part II, pp. 195-254.
18
Silvio A. Bedini
in theaccounts of Othercollections of scientific interest werenoted these were the museum at travelers. Giesseventeenth-century Among Bernhard senorganized Valentini (1657-1729);28thecollecbyMichele who laterwroteunder Einckelof Hamburg, tionof CasparFriedrich thepseudonym ofC. F. Neickelius;29 andtheGottorp at Kunstkammer Gottorp.30 museums on theContinent, With establishment of important it was inevitable thattheglowing accounts of theEnglish travelers not only in England wouldinspire thefounding ofsimilar institutions butwould in also increase interest the alreadyexisting The collections. private nucleioftheEnglish museums whichwereformed after themiddle of wereprivate collections theseventeenth assembled by travelers century and scientists. In general theywereguidedby individual plansof reto specific search or by conformity ideas.In 1649Charles I "designed forartists, Fauxhall as a place of resort mechanicks, etc.,and a depot formodels and philosophical ... [where]. . . experiments apparatus ofprofitable andtrials should be carried on." A decadelater inventions of Bailliol at Oxford JohnEvelyn College planned"a Philosophicwhere men Mathematic retired of could continue College" learning their and whichwouldhave"an elaboratory witha repository studies, forrarities." The poet Abraham "a keeperof Cowley contemplated etc." to increase of the his Philoinstruments, engines, utility proposed and proving sophicCollegeand to be used forweighing, examining, of Nature,delivered "all things to us by former [and ages thereby] the lostinventions landsof the and,as it were,drowned recovering ancients."3' In 1662whentheCouncilof theRoyal Societyconsidered suitable schemes for"improving Natural withthespecialdesign of Knowledge from thetruth, A Repository forInstruments separating superstitution and Specimens" was found instruments scientific necessary. Important and "engines" of all types fortheexamination of thenature of bodies, and were others assembled mechanical, chemical, optical, by Robert Hooke of Christ Church An collection of rarities College. impressive madeby a Mr. Hubbardwas purchased fortheRoyal Societyat the sametime. The collections continued to be enriched by theacquisition of apparatus demonstrated at meetings of the Societyand by natural
28 M. B. Valentini, MuseumMuseorum(Frankfort, 1704and 1714).
29 C. F. Neickelius, ed. D. J.Tanold (Leipzig,1727). Museographia, 30A. Olearius, Kunstkammer 1674). (Gottorf, Gottorfische
81H. Hoff,Charles I, PatronofArt (London,1942).
19
contributed SirHans history specimens bytheHudson's BayCompany, and others. In 1781 the of the collection Sloane, greater part Society's was donated to theBritish andsomematerials werepresented Museum, to theCollegeof Surgeons. The Principal Librarian was unableto find a place for theinstruments in of science the NationalMuseum, and in the custody of the Royal Society.82 Such itemsas theyremained survived weresubsequently donated to theScienceMuseum in London andto Oxford University. A collection whichattracted wide interest in seventeenth-century was assembled Tradescant and his son of John (?-1637) England by thesamename(1608-62)andexhibited at their home in Lambeth, LonIt was acquired in 1659by EliasAshmole, who combined it with don.33 hisowncollection andlater(1682) donated thecombined collection to where it became thenucleus of thegreat Ashmolean Museum. Oxford, It is reported that "abouttwelve cartloadsofrarities" weremoved into thenewbuilding and for constructed museum in designed purposes that The Ashmolean Museum was installed on the floor, year. uppermost anda Chymical Librarie andLaboratorie was featured on thefirst floor. The museum considerable the first few decenjoyed activity during ades of its existence, but a period of stagnation ensuedduringthe There was a revivalduring the earlynineteenth eighteenth century but the increase in science at madethefacilicentury, teaching Oxford tiesinadequate; thecollections were dispersed theColleges of through theUniversity thelatenineteenth and theAshmolean during century, was usedforother Not untilearly in thetwentieth building purposes. whenDr. Lewis Evansassembled an important collection of century, sundials and otherinstruments, was the building turned over forthe purpose. Another British museum whichcan traceitsorigins to thelate great seventeenth is the Scottish which had its beMuseum, century Royal in the collections of two Sir ginnings private Edinburgh physicians, Andreas Balfour and Sir RobertSibbald. Balfour was a notedtraveler who visited the Europeanmuseums and collections of his timeand on them in a work which has become a basic sourceon the reported
82NehemiahGrew,MusaeumRegalisSocietatis; or,a Catalogueand Description and artificial rarities to theRoyal Society,and preserved of the natural belonging at Gresham 1686). College (London,1681, Museum or Collectionof RaritiespreTradescantianum; 3sJohnTradescant, servedat SouthLambeth, nearLondon (London,1656);R. T. Gunther, and Oxford the Historyof Science (London, 1934),pp. 29-36; C. H. Josten, "Elias Ashmole, F.R.S.," Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London,XV (July,1960), 221-30.
20
A. Bedini Silvio
and To the Balfour in theseventeenth of museums century.34 history in considerable wereaddedspecimens Sibbald collections numbers, parin the eighteenth in thefieldof natural by century history, ticularly Baldwin Gerard andlater andJameson, Walker Professors by Professor MutheUniversity werecombined to form Brown. These collections of Museum Science became which the seum, Edinburgh subsequently anditsnamewas andArt.It continued to growin sizeandimportance, in the Museum Scottish to 1904.-, Royal changed formally in was gaining the sciencemuseum Meanwhile groundelsewhere muwas the seventeenth-century Europe.One of themostsignificant Olaf Worm at Copenhagen seumestablished by theDanishphysician archeolof prehistoric calledthe father (1588-1654),who was often esMuseum with it was the Royal Copenhagen ogy.-3 Contemporary and featured scientific V which Christian tablished mathematiby King at the was established ofimportance Another collection cal apparatus."3 Ernst Franz of the (1697century by eighteenth beginning Briickmann named Pieter a Dutchmerchant Later, 1753)ofW6lfenbuttel.38 Teylor reforscientific a Stichting, or foundation van der Hulst established had who Marum Martin van in in Haarlem. 1778 search, (1750-1837) and electricity, of chemistry in the fields eminence achieved already director. Some of hisexperimental becameitsfirst notably apparatus, anda widevariety in thecollection; hassurvived hiselectrical machine, were added and apparatus instruments and scientific of other physical of science forefront in never the theyears. museums, Although through and pretwo centuries foralmost has existed theTeylerfoundation a significant science serves collection.3" of one the beginning witnessed The end of theeighteenth century whichhas survived everassembled, of the greatest studycollections Nationaldes Artset M6tiers. timeas theConservatoire to thepresent to serveas a schoolforthe studyof the applied designed Originally
Essays on Natural History 84J. Walker, "Memoirsof Sir AndreasBalfour," (London,1812),pp. 364-65. Their Historyand Their Use (Glasgow, 1904),I, Museums, asDavid Murray, 153,217. . . . in Musaeo Olai Wormii(Hafrariorum methodica a8 GeorgeSeger,Synopsis (London,1655). niae,1653);MuseumWormianum seu catalogusrerumtam naturalium, 87OligerusJacobaeus, Musaeum regium, V (Hafniae,1696). ... Christiani quae in Basilicabibliothecae quam artificialium, 38 FranzErnstBriickmann, 1742),pp. 39-47, Epistolaeitinerariae (W61fenbuttel, 81-84. 57-60, 89Elize van der Ven, Origineset but de la FondationTeyler et de son Cabinet de physique(Haarlem,1882).
21
whenit was first artsand sciences of theNational organized by order Convention in 1794, itacquired thecollection ofmachines andmechanithe models assembled cal by greattechnologist JacquesVaucanson and in it was 1814 a of (1709-82); supplemented by largecollection and apparatus. In 1866themodels scientific instruments and other machines andinstruments of theAcademie was added RoyaledesSciences totheConservatoire, andtheresulting collection became a unique referencecollection forspecialists.40 With the establishment of important scientific museums in England and Europe,it was inevitable that a number of so-calledmuseums wouldbe organized in theAmerican colonies. Almost these invariably of smallcollections consisted of natural not history specimens specififoreither callyorganized studyor publicdisplay; theydid not serve research any purpose. The earliest to form a museum of sciencein the accepted attempts in Philadelphia, senseoccurred wherenumerous cabinets of curiosities existed the to end of the Revolution. the was prior Among pioneers SamuelVaughan, theEnglish the of PhilaWhig,41 Library Company whichassembled natural and scientific delphia,42 specimens history apthe and American which a made brief but unsucparatus, Academy, cessful effort to establish a museum.43 A moreimportant to organize a museum was madeby the attempt American and a substantial number of thescienPhilosophical Society, tific andmechanical instruments models from thisearlycollection have to the present. survived Another learnedgroupcalled the American in Philadelphia in 1766forthe promotion of Societywas established and someof themodels submitted to it werepreserved in a inventions, In 1768theAmerican "Cabinet." withthe American Societymerged and the "Cabinet" was maintained Society, Philosophical by the new
40ArthurJulesMorin,Cataloguedes Collections de le Conservatoire des Arts et Mitiers (Paris,1852). 41Catherine Van Courtlandt Mathews,Andrew Ellicott,His Life and Letters to Americawhat AndrewEllicottde(New York, 1908),pp. 52-53.He brought scribedas "thebestPhilosophicall in theUnitedStatesand a greatvariety Aperatus of Petrifactious Fossils." 42Sharesin the company were exchanged fordesirable In 1738John acquisitions. Penn presented the company witha costlyair pumpbrought from England;gifts receivedfrom before1749includeda pair of 16-inch others and globes,a telescope, an electrical machine. See Austin K. Gray,Benjamin Franklin's Library(New York, 1936). 43 BrookeHindle, "The Rise of the American Philosophical Society,1766-1787" of Pennsylvania, Ph.D. dissertation, 1949),pp. 31-42. (unpublished University
22
Silvio A. Bedini
to supervise it. The "Cabiwiththree curators organization, appointed and particularly withantiquities scientific net" dispensed emphasized members of a which used in research the Society, practice apparatus by ofnatural existed until1840. continued Sinceno museum during history for natural thisperiod, the Societybecamethe unwilling repository these weretransferred as well,butin thenineteenth curiosities century to theAcademy ofNatural Sciences.44 a natural climate formuseums, and to provide Philadelphia appeared immade establish Another other were to numerous them.45 attempts American institution that to collect andpremadesomeattempt portant serve wasthemuseum artifacts ofscience andtechnology established by of mostfamous Charles WillsonPeale (1741-1827)in 1784.Perhaps devoted it was to natural American museums, early primarily history.46 of the sameperiodwhichis relatively museum Another enterprise time was a museum unknown to thepresent of technology established in Philadelphia in about 1787or 1788by RobertLeslie,a watchand clockmaker. Leslie'sinterest in technology was first announced in a he in which that advertisement in 1788 suggested "anygennewspaper small or Modles, either fortrying Machines tlemen wanting philosophical or mechanical have them executed to may Experiments according their to said Leslie."47An editorial Directions, particular by applying
44RobertP. Multhauf, and Models in the Possession Catalogueof Instruments 1961). of theAmerican Philosophical Society (Philadelphia, of theFirstAmerican and Biography, Museum," Pennsylvania Magazineof History XIII (1889),351.In 1774Dr. Abraham Chovetassembled a wax museum of anatomiwhichcould be viewedby thepublicuponpayment cal specimens ofadmission, and Museum was openedto thepublicby Pierre in 1782theAmerican Eugenedu Simito naturalhistory with the tiere.This was devoted exclusively and terminated deathin 1784. founder's
45William "Du Simitiere, andNaturalist, Artist, J.Potts, Antiquary, Projector
46 Oliver Jensen, "The Peales,"AmericanHeritage,VI (April, 1955), 100-101; CharlesWillson Peale, Discourse on the Science of Nature (Philadelphia, 1880); Also Charles A Catalogue WillsonPeale andA. N. F. J.Beauvois, ofPeale'sMuseum, on natural lectures hisdaughter 1796).Peale delivered (Philadelphia, history, played an organ,his sons individually and special exhibits from were featured lectured, timeto time.Occasional"moving which he showedwere in actuality a pictures" mechanicaldevice presentedby Peale. Several operatingmodels of machines were exhibited, and in one room a slave boy namedMoses operated"Hawkins' of visitors. whichdrewprofiles ingenious Physiognotrace" 47 in variousenterprises, Robert Leslie was associatedwith Thomas Jefferson ofthefamous and he was themaker two-faced clockat Monticello. He alsoinvented severalimportant for watchesforwhich he receiveda patentfrom developments
Museums TheEvolution ofScience
23
machines from comment on a communication GreatBritain regarding in noted in a Philadelphia formanufacturing newspaper May, 1789,48 that to hearthat it will be a great ... at thiscrisis, publicsatisfaction has comMr. RobertLeslie,a nativeof Maryland, theingenious of collecting forthe purpose menced a MUSEUM in Philadelphia, of any machine, or description implement everymodel,drawing in manufactures countries in anyforeign is employed or toolwhich a member of the Mr. Lesliehasbeensomeyears arts. or theuseful and in this clockmakers watch and of city, has company respectful business curious that skill in and of several proofs dexterity given
of MECHANISM.
the"Proposals described of theproject The nextpublicmention by in the Cityof Philadelphia." a Museum RobertLeslieforestablishing modelsof the of operating a collection was to feature The museum as well as in and manufacturing used in agriculture various machines and repbe were to arts. of theuseful branches other complete They movetheir all and to machines inminiature theoriginal resent perform for investigating an opportunity The modelswere to provide ments. of machines merits of a largenumber thecomparative simultaneously, in main result whichhopefully effecting great improvements might in chines use.49 currently was openedto the publicin the following Leslie'smuseum spring model was of an operating and an earlyexhibit withapparent success, until was quitesuccessful mill.The enterprise of OliverEvans'flour to England.5o of 1793,when Leslie movedhis family the beginning American the Leslie Museumwas the earliest short-lived, Although and a of science to establish museum technology. attempt and BakerMuseum was theGardner A counterpart of thisproject in 1792,and whichsubsequently initiated Waxworkin New York,51 new inventions from Bakerfeatured Museum. becametheTammany
ca. 1795. theBritish in 1789and from theStateat Large ofPennsylvania government Clock Designer,"Proceedingsof the See Silvio A. Bedini, "Thomas Jefferson, AmericanPhilosophical Society,No. 108, part 3 (June 28, 1964); Pennsylvania Packet,August27, 1788, p. 3, col. 3. 48Pennsylvania Packet,May 28, 1789, p. 3, col. 2. 49Ibid.,June col. 3. 23, 1789, p. 3, OliverEvans 6, 1790, p. 3, col. 1; Grevilleand DorothyBathe, so Ibid.,November 1935), pp. 28-30,40-42,50-53,294; Dunlap's Advertiser, April 15, (Philadelphia, 1793, Supplement, p. 2, col. 1. 51 The Diary,or Loudon'sRegister, 16,1792. February
24
Silvio A. Bedini
a waxworks. The growing withscientific collections in theUnited preoccupation Statesparalleled theinterest whichexisted in Europeand whichpreof museums devotedexclusively paredthestagefortheestablishment to science andtechnology. Thiswas accomplished withtheexpanfirst sionof several of the earlier collections of artificial rarities in Europe the nineteenth The Landesmuseum at Kassel and the during century. Salon of the Museum as Dresden Mathematisch-Physikalische Zwinger notonlysurvived thepassage oftime butalsobecame established firmly as theearliest of thescience museums. In FrancetheConservatoire National des Artset Metiers from a school of arts and developed applied sciences intoa museum withtheacquisition of important collections of scientific and machines the nineteenth ceninstruments, models, during At thesametimetheTeylerStichting in Holland survived the tury. the nucleusfor the addition of long periodsof neglectand formed other collections. The mostimportant event in the development of thesciencemuseumsin thenineteenth was a proposal madeby thePrince Concentury sortof England fortheestablishment of a science museum in London, of 1851.In 1857theSouth by theGreatExhibition inspired Kensington Museum was organized, andin 1876a SpecialLoan Exhibition of scientific wasassembled. Muchoftheloaned material wasacquired apparatus Museum and led to theformapermanently by theSouthKensington tionof thepresent ScienceMuseum in SouthKensington, whichwas so named in 1909.Meanwhile, theSouthKensington Museum had forbecome the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1899. mally With the tradition of theseinstitutions well established, it was inevitable thatothermuseums of scienceand technology would come intobeingin thetwentieth In 1903thegreatDeutsches Mucentury. seumwas organized in Munich, followed of theTechby theopening nisches Museum undGewerbe Industrie in Viennain 1918, fiir formed the ofother combination small after halfa century almost museums, by ofplanning. In 1931theRijksmuseum voorde Geschiedenis derNatuur52 Weekly Museum,December21, 1793;The Columbian 3, Gazeteer, February March31,1794;The [New York]Herald,March18, 1794;The Columbian Gazeteer, 1795;The Argus, 11,1796. January
time totime, anautomatic airgun which fired 20times withincluding outrecharging, invented a man from Rhode in Island 1792, by young andthe American steam Pearsall inthe jackofJoseph patent following The Tammany Museum wascontinued after death Baker's in year.52 his but 1799 it returned to its status of by widow, eventually original
Museums The Evolution ofScience
25
was openedin Leiden,followed of by the completion wetenschappen the TekniskaMuseetin Stockholm and by the organization of the MuseoNazionaledellaScienzae dellaTecnicain Milanin 1949. In a reviewof sciencemuseums thefivecenturies of their through it is possible to discern the development of a museum development, to methods of preservation of specimens, classification science, relating andexhibition, andmuseum architecture. Little can be recovered about and restoration methods in private collections preservation employed and science museums to thenineteenth As faras can be century. prior determined from was a matter of accounts, contemporary preservation littleconcern and of no preoccupation withthe ownersof museum collections. times hasthesubjectbeenrecognized Onlyin mostrecent foritsimportance andhavecareful studies beenassembled fortheguidance of museum technicians. Classification of specimens withthe gradual shift in emdeveloped the from "curio" or or phasis objecthaving magical supernatural powersor prized foritsprecious content to specimens illustrated that only, the worksof nature or provided evidence of human skill.This shift was directly influenced the of "the man" of the advent by compleat Renaissance with hiswidemental horizon an appreciation that embraced of theworksof nature and of man. The earliest at museum were attempted efforts with classification natural whichweresubdivided intothethree of curiosities, categories and mineral. The continued of natural animal, vegetable, popularity curiosities was notovershadowed in artificial curiosities by theinterest at first, anda direct lineof evolution can be traced from thespecialized of rocksand minerals, collections and fossils, botanical petrifactions and of animal life to the of formation the natural specimens, examples museum as it known is history today. classification becamestandard withnatural curiosiPrimary practice ties.In theAldrovandi werepresented thespecimens accordmuseum, The planemployed of homo ingto species."3 beganwiththeskeleton followed those of and to and animals, proceeded plants minsapiens, by eralsin fairly articulated The presentation subdivisions. a displayed reasonable amount of coherence and wholeness in the as represented tableof contents of thecatalogue of theMuseoCospiano.54 A similar notquiteas formalized, was arrangement, although perhaps at the Museum The basic Wormianum at classiemployed Copenhagen.
53 See n. 10.
54Cremonese, op.cit.(seen. 11).
26
SilvioA. Bedini
fication forexhibition was separated intosubdivisions of theusualminand or The of the museum other. walls were eral,vegetable, animal, linedwiththree continuous and were acshelves, specimens arranged to On the floor and the on two lower shelves were cording category. withearths smaller placedboxesandtrays containing objects beginning and saltsand proceeding in orderthrough themineral, and vegetable, animal and and with Freaks of animals. oddities categories ending parts werehung between andamong thetrays andfrom theshelves. Statuary, stuffed birds,and miscellaneous antiquities, petrifactions, specimens were placedon the highest The upperpartsof thewalls were shelf. coveredwithstuffed and arms tortoises, lizards, crocodiles, skeletons, and armor. from the of a were the stuffed bodies Suspended ceiling a and an fishes and well various as as bear, shark, birds, largepolar Eskimo kayak. Artificial curiosities achievedsuchpopularity thatthe early finally them hisfrom natural museologists eventually separated completely These artificial were accuriosities classified tory specimens. thereupon to raw in with in accordance materials, cording Pliny'scategories his NaturalHistory.This becamea fairly standard framework for the science collections of thesixteenth and seventeenth as centuries, in the GreenVaultsof theElectorAugustus of Saxony. Aldrovandi utilized thesameclassification buthe went by materials, a stepfurther and exhibited in boththeir them natural and manufactured state. suchas ironores, be displayed in relation Minerals, might to armsand armor or locksand keys.In the Cospi collection, which was laterjoinedto it,thecose artificiose formed a continuation of the classifications. were subdiman-animal-vegetable-mineral Categories videdandthedivisions weredivided as in theCospiclassificafurther, tionof "instruments -of astronomy, -of geometry, (-of mathematics, and-ofwar)-vases (arranged to raw -ofmusic, materials)according ancient sarcophagi-medals-idols-etc." more than theMuseoKircheriano the Perhaps anyother, exemplified museum of First Kircher all, acceptedseventeenth-century practices. utilized a feature whichwas considered to be particularly desirable by This consisted of exhibiting several seventeenth-century museologists. at the entrance of the museum to attract the conspicuous specimens visitor's werea crocodile, a stuffed or bear,tiger, eye.Recommended which was to lion,a dried whale,or a similar object designed impress thepublicby means of its"splendour, venerable character or ferocious Kircher selected a as his main attraction fortheenmummy looks."5
55Bonanni, op. cit. (see n. 22).
Museums The Evolution ofScience
27
sequence: ad Sacrificia-Anathemata-Sepulchra-FragIdola et Instrumenta menta Eruditae . . . numisma anulli, (stilli, Antiquitatis sigillae, . . .)-Lapides, Rerum habet Fossilia, aliasque glebas Apparatum Animalia Marina ... Plantae TerMarinae, Peregrinarum-Plantae Animalia Terrestria-Instrumenta Mathematica-Tabula restria, ... Signa Numismata marmorea, ... , etc. pictae Theseclassification standards intotheeighteenth persisted century. thepresentation of museum Neickelius advocated "in a specimens and summarized the classification learned manner" emcustomarily before histime. He suggested that natural andartificial curiosiployed be displayed in themuseum tiesshould Naturalia separately gallery. ononesideofthe room andrange from should human begin anatomy, andmummies andproceed thequadrupeds, skeletons, fishes, through curiosities wereto be exhibited andminerals. Artificial to according materials on theopposite sideoftheroom, andat thenarrow endof the twodisplays should be joined theroom forcoins with bycabinets over them. Stuffed were be animals to suitably arranged portraits hung In spite on definitive from theceiling. ofhisemphasis classification of anadvocate Neickelius wasnevertheless thedisplays, oftheutilization as in a storeroom. Sincethecenter ofallavailable ofthegallery space he wasleft that the should be not andthat free, suggested wasted, space be utilized a table with it could best reference works.57 byinstalling forclassification wereemployed Similar in almost all of the plans intotheeighteenth collections Without evicentury. exception they to exhibit denced a determination owned in each colevery specimen tobe anindication andduplication wasconsidered oftherichlection, ofthe collection. ness The third ofmuseology, ofthescience museum arnamely, aspect
Museographia, op. cit. 57 C. F. Neickelius, S. J.,De Kircher, 68Athanasius rebuset de quibusdam omnibus aliis (Rome,1674).
in the arrangement He departed somewhat of to themuseum. trance and instead the from the customary categorization employed specimens andsomemore," in which themost of "allthings incongruous principle were beside each other. He was by objects undoubtedly placed inspired De omnibus the titleof one of his own published rebuset de works, was not only kaleidoscopic aliis,5"and the result quibusdam by the but and A conof theexhibits startling memorable. better veryvariety from thetableof conceptof hisplanof organization maybe derived whichwas published tentsof the catalogueof the museum in 1709. The three weresubdivided intoclasses withthefollowing majorparts
28
Silvio A. Bedini
remained almosttotallyunconsidered untilrecenttimes. chitecture, Whereas Cosimode' Medicihad a special"Galleria delleStatue"built for Vasari the of and by Giorgio display sculptures, specialchambers ofpaintings in themajorFrench, weredesigned fortheexhibition Gerart in the and Italian of sixteenth and seventeenth man, repositories no specialprovision was made for collections of artificial centuries, and scientific de curiosities II, thePrince Jean Berry, objects. Rudolph of Gottorp, theLandgrave of Hesse,and ElectorAugustus of Saxony theircollections in existing chambers of theirpalacesand displayed forthispurpose. The greatcollection castles reserved of the Medici at Florencewas displayed in glazed cabinets or "closets"in princes The Galleria inMilanwas displayed rooms setasideinthepalace. Settala in longgalleries of thefamily while the Museo Kircheriano was palace, in existing rooms of theCollegioRomanoand overflowed housed into thesmall enclosed and filled thecorridors as well.To notejust garden another exhibited his museum in hisown example, Ciampini Monsignor were wherever in and Rome, objects placed palace spacepermitted. The first of museum architecture trueexample designed specifically fortherequirements of a science museum was a building but planned neverconstructed fora Collegeof Sciencein Londonby Sir ChristoWren.The planofthis wasincorporated, ifnotbyWren building pher at leastby others, himself in theAshmolean Museum at Oxford, which was completed in 1682. Thiswasunquestionably theearliest of example a architecture for science museum. The next special housing example did not come intobeinguntilthe late eighteenth with the century, in Haarlem. TeylerStichting as well as museum Science museums, science,progressed slowly the from centuries their until they through haphazard beginnings in thesecondhalfof thenineteenth achieved fullstatus Folcentury. more than a of the cabinets of curiosities century growth, lowing thestatus of truescience achieved in thesecondhalfof the museums seventeenth in With the museums of the century, particularly Italy. and in the Kircher, Settala, Medici, Ciampini, Marsigli, particular muattained seumofscience itsmaximum usefulness. It notonlyserved the basicfunctions ofthepreservation andexhibition ofscience for objects thepublic, butit also becamea research center forscholars and scientists. This combined usefulness was achieved also by the Ashmolean Museum in thesameperiod. at Oxford The science museum as an institution thenwentinto a periodof declinefromwhichit recovered
29
thelastdecadesof theeighteenth and resumed briefly during century a new periodof progress in thesecondhalfof thenineteenth century. There can be no doubtthatthe seventeenth-century rescientific whichflourished as a part of and resultof scientific searchcenters collections role in the scientific of ferment playeda mostsignificant thatmostfruitful in the of science. This was history period probably becausethe collections were assembled, and studiedprimaintained, instead of by wealthy amateurs. marily by scholars Not untilthenineteenth has the samescientific climeprecentury vailedagainthroughout theworld, and oncemorethemuseum of science beganthe fulfilment of its designated role in the increase and diffusion of knowledge. Itsfuture can bestbe summarized in thewords of Linnaeus58 who stated: We arebuton theborderland ofknowledge; muchremains hidforfar-off who will prosecute the exden,reserved generations, amination of their workin remote Creator's and make countries, discoveries for the pleasure and convenience of life.Posmany willsee itsincreasing museums andtheknowledge of divine terity wisdom flourish and the at same time and histogether; antiquities thenatural sciences and practical of themanual sciences arts tory, willbe enriched.59
58C. Linnaeus, in translation in James Edward Smith's op. cit.,"Preface" Reflectionson theStudyofNature (see n. 1). 59The writer the invaluable advice and suggestions of gratefully acknowledges Miss DeborahJ. Mills,Department of Scienceand Technology, Smithsonian Institution.

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The Evolution of Science Museums Author(s): Silvio A. Bedini Source: Technology and Culture, Vol. 6, No.

EARLY SCIENCE COLLECTIONSAND MUSEUMSTHROUGHTHE NINETE

Mid-seventeenth century Copenhagen Early eighteenth century Copenhagen

Natural and artificial curiosit

Royal CopenhagenMuseum establishedby King Christian V (1671-1730)

Natural and artificialcuriosi mechanicalapparatus

Clocks,raregames,foreign shel mechanicaland scientific ins

Early seventeenth century Aix 1640-70 Castres

Natural and artificial curiosit antiquities

naturaland artifi Antiquities,

Machines, mechanicalmodels, struments

Scientific instruments and appa

Kunst-und-Naturalienkamm ry,coinsand medals,art wor scientific and ph instruments, hibits

EmperorRudolph II (1552-1612) PrinceGottorp

Late sixteenth and early seventeenth century Seventeenth century

Art objects, Orientalidols and instruments, games,scientifi tools

Natural and artificial curiositi

TABLE 1-Continued Name Germany-Continued MicheleBernhardValentini (1657-1729) Dates Location

Late seventeenth century Giessen

"Things sacredand superstiti anatomical, surgical, chem apparatus, naturalcuriositi

CasperF. Einckel(C. F. Neickelius) Franz ErnstBriickmann (1697-1758) Great Britain: CharlesI

Artifacts relatingto the arts a

Scientific instruments and appa natural history specimens

century Lambeth, Early seventeenth London

Natural and artificial curiosit numismatics

...................................... Late seventeenth century Canterbury Seventeenth century Edinburgh

Combined collectionformeda sity in 1682. AshmoleanMu scientific Archeological,

ScienceMuseum of South Kensington

Italy: Galeazzo Visconti(138471402)

an Armillary sphere,terrestrial and chained bo manuscripts trarium

Pier AndreaMattioli(1501- Mid-sixteenth century 77) Giulio Cesare Scaliger

Siena Milan Milan Florence Milan San Miniato Verona

Natural and artificial curiosit

Natural and artificial curiosit

Natural and artificial curiosit

Natural and artificial curiosit

Mathematical and philosophi coins,medals, fossils,archeo

Natural and artificialcuriosit

armsand a Natural curiosities, vices,ancient inscriptions, st

Italy-Continued Mapheus Cusanus

Verona Naples Rome

Medicine and pharmacy Natural history

Natural and artificial curiositi sionaries

Early seventeenth century Florence

curiosit Natural and artificial

GiovanniGius- 1677-98 Monsignor tino Ciampini

natura artifacts, Archeological tificapparatus and instrum

Contede LuigiFerdinando Late seventeenth century Bologna to 1803 Marsigli(1658-1730)

Books, scientific instruments natural curiosities

Natural and artificial curiosit

Natural and artificial curiosit

Natural and artificial curiositi instrumen metals,scientific

to Late sixteenth century eighteenth century

Netherlands: to Haarlem PieterTeylervan derHulst Late eighteenth century present

apparatus, scien Experimental

UnitedStates: Samuel Vaughan

Late eighteenth century

Philadelphia Philosophicalapparatus, "petr

mechan Scientific instruments, tions,natural curiosities

Wax museumof anatomical sp Natural history

Philadelphia Lectures,machinemodels,natu curiosities

Philadelphia Models ofmachinesand tools,r and technolo manufactures, New York

Wax workswithexhibitsofnew as automaticair gun,patents tine,self-moving carriage

The Evolution Museums ofScience

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