Journal of Archaeological Science 33 (2006) 185e199 http://www.elsevier.

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An analysis of Folsom projectile point resharpening using quantitative comparisons of form and allometry
Briggs Buchanan*
University of New Mexico, Department of Anthropology, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA Received 22 April 2005; received in revised form 7 July 2005; accepted 11 July 2005

Abstract A sample of Folsom points from the Southern Plains of Texas and New Mexico is analyzed quantitatively in order to assess patterns of point resharpening in relation to distance to raw material source area and evaluate models of how resharpening was accomplished in terms of point design. A newly developed digitizing method is used to capture 12 interlandmark characters from coordinate data to describe point form. Principal components analysis is used to investigate size and shape variation in point form, and the symmetry and allometry of characters are used to explore the eects of resharpening on point dimensions. Size allometry illustrates the degree of association of relative point proportions, and other aspects of point form, with point size. Blade length, the leading edge of the weapon, was found to be isometric with point size, suggesting that this character was critical to the proper functioning of weapon tips. The regulation of blade length to point size supports a xed-in-haft model for Folsom point resharpening. Multivariate analyses show that reduction in point forms do not correlate with distance-to-source but are more consistent with the model of the cyclical resharpening and replacement of points. This research illustrates that multivariate and allometric analyses are useful methods for investigating models of technological organization and the eects of resharpening on point form. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Southern Plains; Paleoindian; Folsom; Resharpening; Digitizing; Multivariate analysis; Allometry

1. Introduction The recognition and analysis of Folsom point metric and raw material variation has held a signicant role in the formulation and development of Early Paleoindian models of adaptation in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain regions of North America [4,6,7,14e19,21,26, 44e47,53,75,79]. Considerable eorts also have been expended toward determining how and why Folsom points were manufactured and uted [2,3,20,26,29,31, 33,34,36,56,83,87,91]. This attention to a particular artifact type, however, is not unwarranted considering the limited nature of the Folsom archaeological record
* Corresponding author. 102-6385 Hawthorn Lane, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada. Tel.: C1 604 221 5647. E-mail address: briggs@unm.edu 0305-4403/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2005.07.008

(e.g., [30,42,48,54]), the apparent care and technical sophistication in the manufacture of such points (e.g., [29]), and the implicit importance of this weapon type in a highly mobile hunting culture [6,17,46,64,68]. Uniformity in Folsom point dimensions has been recognized as evidence for similarity in the manufacturing of points throughout western North America and as a result of satisfying strict requirements imposed by the hafting technique [5,63:47,64:164e176,88]. Folsom point dimensions are used to infer resharpening associated with the staged reduction of points between raw material source visits. Models of Folsom technological organization predict that as overall raw material supplies are degraded, and points made at the quarry are broken during use, replacement points are manufactured from akes detached from bifacial cores and eventually from the core itself [17,45,46,55]. Point

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resharpening analyses focus on point length and the proportion of reworked points within assemblages in relation to linear distance to raw material source, known as the retooling index [12,13,18:105e111,45,46], where point length and resharpening are the primary indicators of use, and within-assemblage variation acts as a measure of the state of lithic stores at any given position on the landscape [14]. The identication of projectile points modied by reworking and resharpening, however, can be an imprecise enterprise for archaeologists. Lanceolate projectile points, such as Folsom points, functioned primarily as weapon tips [65] and to keep them properly working after use, the tip and exposed edges had to be kept sharp [2,14,27:26,28:110e111]. Evidence of multiple attempts to sharpen edges in the form of overlapping ake scars often is obliterated by the last episode of aking. In cases of breakage and reworking, evidence of previous ake scarring may have been removed entirely. To compound these problems, recovered projectile points were deposited or lost from varying stages in their use-lives, ranging from unused to what appears in some cases to be completely exhausted, and it is dicult to ascertain where along the use-continuum a particular artifact is without knowledge of the original form of a particular point. It has been suggested that Folsom points were designed to facilitate resharpening. Ahler and Geib [2] have argued that Folsom points were designed to withstand breakage and to be used in the manner of a snap blade, in that points were made with expendable basal length and when the tip dulled or fragmented it could be repositioned in the haft and the newly exposed edges made sharp through removal of small akes. Others have argued [14] that the rehafting of points for resharpening was impractical and that point tips most likely were resharpened while xed-in-the-haft. The interrelationship between the characters describing point form is used in this analysis to evaluate these specic resharpening models. The present research uses statistical methods to analyze projectile point size and shape in the investigation of Folsom point resharpening. Quantitative analysis of points oers an objective method to discover patterns of size-related shape changes made to points throughout their use-lives. A sample of Folsom points from the Southern Plains of Texas and New Mexico is analyzed using 12 morphometric characters derived from landmark data. Only points made of Edwards chert were included in the analysis in order to simplify the examination of variation in point form in relation to distance from source area. Principal components analysis is used to explore point size and shape variation. The symmetry and allometry of characters also is used to analyze the eects of resharpening on points. Bilateral asymmetry in point blade dimensions is used

in the identication of resharpening [18:106,35]. Size allometry is used to explore morphometric variation to determine the degree of association of relative point proportions, and other aspects of point form, with point size. Allometry provides a method to examine resharpening, which essentially is a problem of identifying shape-related changes to points that are sequentially reduced in size. The objectives of this research are twofold: (1) to quantitatively identify the eects of resharpening on Folsom points and provide a more precise evaluation of the eects of distance-to-source on point form, and (2) to evaluate models of how resharpening was accomplished in terms of the design of Folsom points, i.e., the snap-blade model [2] opposed to the xed-in-haft model [14]. The results have implications for models of Folsom technological organization as well wider application in the study of resharpening within other point types.

2. Folsom assemblages in the analysis Folsom points from ve Southern Plains assemblages were used in the analysis (Fig. 1). Folsom sites on the Great Plains generally date between 10,900 and 10,300 14 C years BP [39,41,51:266,86]. More precise chronological ordering of assemblages within this period is dicult given the statistical error ranges associated with the dates. The ve assemblages are from Blackwater Draw (including the Mitchell Locality), Cooper, Lake Theo, Lubbock Lake, and Shifting Sands. The sites are located

Fig. 1. Orthophotograph of western Oklahoma, Texas, and eastern New Mexico showing the location of sites in the analysis and the Edwards Plateau region.

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on the Southern High Plains (Blackwater Draw and Lubbock Lake), the adjacent dissected Rolling Plains (Cooper and Lake Theo), and dune elds on the western edge of the Southern High Plains (Shifting Sands). Of the 47 points in the sample, 43 are Folsom points and four are described as Midland points (Table 1). The sample of points from Blackwater Draw (LA3324; also known as Blackwater Draw Locality No. 1, or the Clovis site) is derived from various kill and camp localities, as well as from spring conduits, throughout the site [16,18,40,43]. Blackwater Draw is located on the High Plains of eastern New Mexico between the cities of Portales and Clovis. The site is situated in an ancient basin that is connected to Blackwater Draw by a small channel that runs for 2 km south of the basin [50:57e75]. Folsom materials have been recovered from three primary geologic units: the diatomite, Brown Sand Wedge, and spring conduits [43]. Several Folsom bison kills are located in pond deposits (the diatomite) within the basin, and Folsom campsites are located along the basin margins in the brown-sand deposits that internger with pond deposits and along the adjacent uplands (e.g., the Mitchell Locality [16,84]). Several spring conduits containing diagnostic Folsom artifacts are located along the western basin margin [50:70]. Lubbock Lake (41LU1) is located within an ancient meander of the Yellowhouse Draw on the northwestern outskirts of Lubbock, Texas, on the Southern High Plains [57,58]. Folsom bison kills occur along the edges of pond margins in stratum 2A at Lubbock Lake [58]. More than half the points in the sample were recovered from stratum 2A, although only one point (from Area 18) was documented in association with bison remains [25].
Table 1 General provenience information associated with the sample of Folsom points included in the analysis Site Blackwater Draw No. of points Provenience 4 Gravel pit and surface of back dirt piles during original excavations 1962 excavations conducted by Jim Warnica Mitchell locality Surface Found in situ in stratum 2A along reservoir walls Area 18 Middle Kill Upper Kill Slump block Bone bed Surface Surface of dune blowouts References [18]

Cooper (34HP45) is located in northwest Oklahoma in the dissected Rolling Plains region northeast of the Southern High Plains [11e14]. The site contains three stratied Folsom bison kills within the ll of a small arroyo that drains into the North Canadian River. Lake Theo (41BI70) is located near the eastern escarpment of the Southern High Plains in Caprock Canyons State Park [23,37,38,59]. A bison kill and adjacent occupation surface were uncovered within a stratied terrace above Holmes Creek, a tributary of the Red River. Shifting Sands (41WK21) is located in the Andrews Dunes of western Texas on the western edge of the Southern High Plains. Over 5000 artifacts have been mapped and recovered from the surface of the site [8,48]. Several areas of artifact concentration have been identied. Although most of the concentrations may be attributable to dierential exposure, evidence of distinct activities at dierent areas has been noted, in particular, Area 2, represented by tool manufacturing debris and fragmented tools, and Area 3, a probable bison kill and processing area [48]. The Shifting Sands assemblage consists of points identied as Folsom (n Z 3), Midland (n Z 4), and points that have been described as both (n Z 3) [48]. The validity of the unuted Midland type, however, has attracted considerable debate and remains unsubstantiated [1,5,63,78]. Midland points generally are described as thinner, unuted typological variants of Folsom points [89]. It has been suggested that Midland and unuted Folsom pointsdwhich may be typologically indistinguishabledwere left unuted in response to having limited raw materials on hand when groups were far from suitable lithic source areas [5,46]. Dierences in the size and shape of Midland and Folsom points are examined. Also included in the sample from Shifting Sands are several diminutive, or miniature, Folsom points (n Z 5; less than 3 cm in length) made on thin akes with only marginal retouch [48:228e231].

[43:122e123]

3. Folsom use of Edwards Chert Edwards chert was selected as the single source in which to measure distance-to-site because it is the predominate raw material found at Folsom sites on the Southern Plains [6,45,46,48,49,72] (Table 2). Edwards chert is found in situ within deposits of limestone from the Edwards Formation found throughout the Edwards Plateau region of central Texas [9] (Fig. 1). Owl Creek, a black to dark-gray variety of Edwards chert, has been identied as a subtype that occurs north of Fort Hood, Texas [12:94], although further identication of subtypes within the Edwards Formation has been largely unsuccessful [32].

Lubbock Lake

2 3 3 1 6 1 1 2 1 15

[16:70e71] [58:104e107] [58:104e107] [25] [12,13] [12,13] [12,13] [23,37,38] [23,37,38] [8,48]

Cooper

Lake Theo Shifting Sands

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Table 2 Approximate straight-line distances (km) from assemblage locations to the Edwards chert source area Assemblage Approximate straight-line distance to Edwards Chert source area (km) 360 180 410 200 160 References

Blackwater Draw Lubbock Lake Cooper Lake Theo Shifting Sands

[43,45:393] [45:393,58] [11e14,45:393] [45:393] [45:393,48]

Chert of similar appearance to materials from the Edwards Formation has been identied in eastern New Mexico [9,80] and in gravels of the Antler Sands Formation of southeastern Oklahoma and along the eastern escarpment of the Southern High Plains [9,52]. These Edwards chert look-alikes are assumed not to have been used extensively by Folsom groups because of their inferior quality and small nodule size [47:396,71], although the degree to which this material is identied in assemblages is not known. It is assumed for this analysis that the material identied as Edwards chert was derived from somewhere within the Edwards Plateau region and not from look-alike sources. Another operating assumption for this analysis is that Edwards chert was procured directly at the outcrop source and not through trade, an assumption bolstered by the inferred highly mobile bison hunting adaptation maintained by Folsom groups and indirect evidence of embedded procurement of stone for tools [12,17,23, 45:305e306]. A strict distance-decay model, where the quantity of raw material diminishes as a function of distance traveled from source, which would indicate a direct correlation with movement or down-the-line trade of raw material from the source area, does not appear to t the distribution of Edwards chert on the Southern Plains [45,72]. Instead, there is a lack of correlation with distance-to-source and measures of toolstone resources, such as the proportion of resharpened points, in Folsom assemblages [17,45,46,55]. This suggests that linear-distance measures from site to source will not necessarily be accurate predictors of the distance raw materials have moved, but they are used as a baseline for comparative purposes in this analysis.

into the tpsDIG program (version 2.02) created by Rohlf [77] for two-dimensional outlining. A cursor placed over landmark positions was used to capture coordinate data, which then were saved to a le. The tpsDIG program can be used to magnify images and therefore permit close inspection of the form that is being digitized. Thirty-six coordinate pairs were used for each projectile point in the analysis. Four coordinate pairs were used to dene the scale. Two lengths (2 cm and 4 cm) were digitized with each image and the average used as the scale to compute interlandmark distances. Thirty-two landmarks (positions directly comparable among forms) and pseudolandmarks (positions used to record margins) were used to dene point boundaries (Fig. 2). Thirteen landmarks dene each edge and nine dene the base (with overlap). Three landmarks, one at the tip and two at the base, are considered

4. Methods 4.1. Digitizing projectile points and the denition of interlandmark distance characters Measurements were taken from digital images of projectile points following methods described in detail elsewhere [24]. Digital images of artifacts were imported

Fig. 2. Folsom point from Shifting Sands (catalog number 34) showing the approximate location where 11 of the 12 characters (character point area not shown) are measured and the location of the tip and basal landmarks. Character initials: EL, edge boundary length; TB, tip to base length; TW, width of tip to base length to maximum inection position; BL, blade length; MW, maximum width; BB, base boundary length; LB, linear measure of base; ML, midline length; OL, overall length; BW, basal width across rst third of point; LT, length from base to 1/3 along opposite edge.

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homologous (type I) landmarks [22]. In biological terms, a homologous landmark is fully comparable in histological and topological characteristics from specimen to specimen. The term is used here to identify positions that can be directly comparable across projectile point forms used in the analysis. Several landmarks represented maximum and minimum positions along the point outline (type II), and the remainder were used to dene the rest of the point outline (the pseudoor type III landmarks). The same sequence for digitizing projectile point outlines was followed for each artifact. The tip landmark followed by the basal landmarks was digitized rst and then the edges and base. The edges and base were digitized sequentially by approximating half of each length to be digitized and moving from the base toward the tip. Pairs of Cartesian coordinates associated with the landmarks were converted to Euclidean distances in Matlab 6.0 (release 12) to create the characters for the analysis. The 12 characters based on the interlandmark distances were used to delineate the general shape of points (Table 3; Fig. 2). Point area (PA) was taken by calculating the morphospace within the digitized outline of a point. For the analyses the square root of PA is taken to render it dimensionally equivalent to all other characters. The other characters are used to describe aspects of blade width (TW, BL, and MW), basal shape (BB, LB, BW, and LT), and aspects of length (EL, TB, ML, and OL). The term blade is used to refer to the portion of the point distal of the maximum width (MW). This denition uses an objective criterion to dene where the blade begins, in contrast to studies where the blade is dened as the portion of the point distal to the hafting area. The hafting area usually is dened by the limits of edge grinding (e.g., [2]; see also [66]). The absolute limit of edge grinding, however, can be dicult
Table 3 Characters used in morphometric analyses of projectile points Characters Description PA EL TB TW BL MW BB LB ML OL BW LT

to identify and may not actually represent the entire haft area, as demonstrated from high-power use-wear analyses on Folsom points (analyses by Kay as cited by Bement [14]). In addition to the 12 characters, maximum thickness measurements were taken directly from points using digital calipers or obtained from published sources, although these measurements are examined only in the univariate analyses. 4.2. Statistical and allometric analyses Prior to statistical analyses, data were transformed to the natural log scale to make dierences in size relative rather than absolute [67]. Univariate statistical analyses were conducted in SPSS 10.0 (release 10.0.1) and multivariate analyses were carried out using functions written for Matlab 6.0 (release 12). Univariate analyses include analysis of variance (ANOVA) with multiple comparisons to identify where signicant dierences occur [82:179e219]. Multiple comparisons were made by controlling the experimentwise type I error rate using the Bonferroni alpha correction [10:84]. In such cases an alpha value equal to 0.05/n, where n is the number of tests conducted, was used. Principal components analysis (PCA) is used to explore patterns of size and shape variation in points. PCA is an exploratory data-reduction technique used to identify a small set of uncorrelated variables (components) that account for a large proportion of the total variance in the original variables [73]. Because PCA is exploratory, homoscedasticity (i.e., the assumption that the variance in scores for one variable is roughly the same at all values of the other variable) and normality of the data are not required [73,82]. Eigenvectors and eigenvalues indicate the polarity and magnitude of variation in each variable and the relative percentages

Square root of the point area. Calculated as the area enclosed by the 32 landmarks outlining the point. PA, point area Average of edge boundary lengths. Calculated as the sum of interlandmark distances along the 13 landmarks that dene an edge. EL, edge boundary length Average of the linear lengths from the tip landmark to each of the base landmarks. TB, tip landmark to base landmark length Average of the distance from tip landmark to base landmark (character TB) to calculated maximum edge inection position along point edge. TW, width of tip-to-base length to maximum inection position Average of the distance from the calculated maximum edge inection position (character TW) to the tip landmark. BL, blade length Average of the distance from the calculated maximum edge inection position to the midline. MW, maximum width Base boundary length. Calculated as the interlandmark distances along the nine landmarks that dene the basal concavity situated between the two base landmarks. BB, base boundary length Base linear length. Calculated as the distance between the two base landmarks. LB, linear measure of base Midline length. Calculated as the distance from the tip landmark to the midpoint of the basal concavity (character BB). ML, midline length Overall length. Calculated as the distance from the tip landmark to the midpoint of the linear length between the base landmarks (character LB). OL, overall length Width at 1/3 total length above base landmarks. BW, basal width across rst third of point Average of length from base landmark to 1/3 total length point along opposite edge of point. LT, length from base to rst third distance along opposite edge

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of variation accounted for in each component. Principal component scores of a projectile point on a component are weighted averages of all the character states of that particular projectile point. Principal components (PCs) are computed from the covariance matrix of distance measures. Size allometry (opposed to growth allometry) of point form is examined using bivariate and multivariate approaches. For bivariate analyses of size allometry, the square root of point area (PA) is used as a proxy of overall point size. The more traditional measure of point size used in resharpening models (e.g., [45]) has been overall length, however the allometry of this character is of particular concern here and therefore is evaluated independently against size. One model of allometric shape change (Huxleys model) is y Z bXk, where X and Y are the sizes of two forms and k (the allometric coecient) is an exponential factor that relates the sizes. The allometric equation y Z bXk in logarithmic form is a simple linear relationship logeY Z logeb C k logeX, where Y is the character examined in relation to size, k is the slope or allometric coecient, and b is the yintercept [69]. Using a linear regression model, the regression coecient of logged Y on logged X is a direct estimate of k, the allometric coecient [70]. Allometric coecients indicate the manner in which given characters change in relation to point size. Values greater than unity (k O 1) indicate positive allometry (characters disproportionately larger relative to size), and values less than unity (k ! 1) indicate negative allometry (characters disproportionately smaller relative to size). Isometry is a property of characters that increase at the same relative rate with proportions remaining constant (k Z 1) [62]. Allometry is used to investigate size-related shape changes; and because shape cannot be dened uniquely, it must always relate to particular size variables [76,81]. Therefore, the choice of size variable in allometric studies will always aect results [74]. A multivariate generalization of the allometry equation attempts to alleviate this problem using PCA and examination of the isometry hypothesis for all variables simultaneously [61]. PC1, the size vector, is used as the best approximation for a composite measure of point size (given the similar sign and magnitude associated with PC1dsee below). Multivariate allometric coecients are derived by normalizing loadings from PC1. The resulting bivariate and multivariate allometric coecients are used to investigate point form variation in the sample of Folsom points.

in the right tail (Fig. 3). These longest points in the sample include a point from Blackwater Draw (36-1916; [18:77]) and a point from Lubbock Lake (TTU 4036-136; [58:107]). These two points are good examples of possibly unresharpened points. The log-transformed overall length (OL) and point area data (PA) by assemblage does not correlate with distance to source area (r2 Z 0.022, P Z 0.325 and r2 Z 0.000, P Z 0.997, respectively). The lack of a relationship between overall length and point area with distance to the Edwards chert source area is clear in the boxplots of these data by assemblage (Fig. 4). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of overall length and point area (using the log-transformed data that better approximate normality) indicate no signicant dierence between assemblages (P Z 0.566 and P Z 0.724, respectively). Blade length (BL), measuring the linear length from the point of maximum inection along the edge to the tip landmark, serves as a good proxy measure for remaining utility of a point. This portion of a point, described as the leading edge by Ahler and Geib [2:804], is most often subject to breakage and dulling and consequently receives successive resharpening attempts. ANOVA of blade length also shows no signicant dierence between assemblages (P Z 0.663; Fig. 5). Regression of blade length on distance to source exhibits no signicant correlation (r2 Z 0.001, P Z 0.820), nor is there a signicant correlation between blade length variance or sample size and distance to source (r2 Z 0.04, P Z 0.739 and r2 Z 0.01, P Z 0.853, respectively). ANOVA of the remaining nine characters by assemblage reveals that the only signicant dierences are in basal characters (BB, LB, and BW). Multiple comparison of basal characters using the Bonferroni adjustment indicates that point bases from Shifting Sands are signicantly smaller than all of the other points in basal length (LB), smaller than Cooper, Blackwater Draw, and Lubbock Lake points in basal boundary length
10

5. Results Examination of untransformed overall length (OL) data for the sample of Folsom points shows two points

14.0

18.0

22.0

26.0

30.0

34.0

38.0

42.0

Overall Length (mm)

Fig. 3. Histogram of untransformed overall length (OL) data (mm) for Folsom points in the analysis (n Z 47).

B. Buchanan / Journal of Archaeological Science 33 (2006) 185e199

5.0
PA OL

191

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5 N=

15 15

14 14

Shifting Sands(160)

Lake Theo(200)

Cooper(410)

Lubbock Lake(180)

Blackwater Draw(360)

Fig. 4. Boxplots of point area (character PA) and overall length (character OL) by assemblage (linear distance in kilometers to Edwards chert source area in parentheses after assemblage name, the correlations between OL and PA and distance to source are not signicant [P Z 0.325 and P Z 0.997, respectively]). Boxes represent the interquartile range containing 50% of the values, the line across the box indicates the median, and the whiskers are lines that extend from the box to the highest and lowest values.

(BB), and smaller than Blackwater Draw points in width at one-third-length above the base (BW). If the ve diminutive points [48] from Shifting Sands are removed from the ANOVA, no signicant dierences are found in basal characters between assemblages (LB, P Z 0.087; BB, P Z 0.146; BW, P Z 0.691).

3.6

Blade Length (mm [natural log])

3.4 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 N=

ANOVA of maximum thickness using most of the points in the sample (thickness was not available for two Lubbock Lake points that are now missing [58] and was not published for two of the points from the Mitchell Locality at Blackwater Draw [16]) exhibited no significant dierence between assemblages (P Z 0.684). A two-sample t-test, testing the hypothesis that the mean thickness is statistically dierent between points identied as Folsom and Midland, showed no signicant dierence (P Z 0.653; with equal variances assumed). This result is in agreement with Amicks [5] comparison of thickness using a much larger sample of Folsom and Midland points (n Z 626; PO0.05 [5:31]). Examination of overall mean variation by character (normalized from the covariance matrix) demonstrates that basal and width characters (TW, MW, BB, LB, BW, and LT) are the least variable (Table 4). Length characters (EL, TB, BL, ML, and OL) exhibit relatively more variation and the highest mean variation is expressed in midline and overall length characters. Bilateral asymmetry in point dimensions is an attribute considered useful in determining if point resharpening has been undertaken, along with reduced length, sinuous blade edges, and invasive overlapping negative ake scars [18:106,35]. In an eort to examine bilateral asymmetry related to resharpening, blade length (BL) is examined in detail. BL is averaged when employed in all subsequent analyses, but here the left and right blade lengths of each point are examined independently. A plot of the left blade length against the right blade length shows the degree of asymmetry for each point (Fig. 6). Because it was arbitrary which face of a point was analyzed, the direction of deviation from the t line for the total population (below or above the line) is not of interpretative relevance; however, the absolute distance from the line is an indication of greater blade asymmetry. Ninety-ve-percent condence bands are used to determine which points fell close enough to the tted line to be considered symmetrical; again, the results do not correlate with linear distance to source. Points from
Table 4 Overall mean variation by character Character PA EL TB TW BL MW BB LB ML OL BW LT Variation 0.215 0.281 0.289 0.193 0.236 0.159 0.171 0.150 0.302 0.300 0.157 0.186

mm (natural log)

15

3 Lake Theo(.16)

14

8 Cooper(.21)

Shifting Sands(.26)

Lubbock Lake(.22) Blackwater Draw(.31)

Fig. 5. Boxplot of blade length (character BL) by assemblage (standard deviations in parentheses; the correlation between BL and distance to source is not signicant [P Z 0.820]). Boxes represent the interquartile range containing 50% of values, the line across the box indicates the median, the whiskers are lines that extend from the box to the highest and lowest values excluding outliers, the open circles indicate outliers, and the asterisk indicates an extreme outlier.

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Shifting Sandsdthe closest site to the Edwards chert sourcedhowever, exhibit the lowest incidence of asymmetrical blades (6/11; 54.5%). All of the blades from Lake Theo are asymmetrical (3/3; 100%), nearly all of the blades from Lubbock Lake are asymmetrical (6/7; 85.7%), close to half the blades from Blackwater Draw are asymmetrical (9/14; 64.3%), and more than half from Cooper are asymmetrical (5/8; 62.5%). It is interesting to note that the expectation that longer blades should be more symmetrical and that asymmetry is introduced during resharpening is not demonstrated here. Points with longer blades plotted in the upper right of Fig. 6 are more divergent from the t line compared with points with shorter blades in the lower left of Fig. 6. Principal components analysis of all the characters and the total sample of points indicate that the rst two principle components account for 93.3% of the variation. The plot of PC scores from the rst two principal components shows signicant overlap of points from the Cooper, Blackwater Draw, Lake Theo, and Lubbock Lake assemblages (Fig. 7). The Shifting Sands points are dierentiated along the PC2 axis. When the Shifting Sands assemblage is divided into subcomponents based on descriptions of the dierent points [48] (R. Rose, 2003, personal communication), the points that are most dierentiated from the other points can be identied (Fig. 8). Four of the ve diminutive points made from thin akes [48] are distributed in the lower left-hand corner of Fig. 8 (the fth diminutive point clusters with points from the other assemblages). Three of the four Midland points as well as two of the Folsom/Midland

points also are dierentiated from the main cluster of points. The loadings for PC1 are all positive, and most are of similar magnitudedbasal characters BB and LB are slightly lower than the other charactersdindicating that overall this component accounts for the majority of size variation (Table 5). Loadings for PC2 indicate juxtaposition between length characters (EL, TB, ML, and OL) and width characters (TW, MW, BB, LB, BW, and LT) describing point-shape variation. Loadings for PA and BL on PC2 have relatively small (in magnitude) loadings and therefore can be disregarded in the interpretation of PC2. A vector plot (cf. [60,85]) graphically displaying eigenvalues for PC1 and PC2, illustrates the delineation of basal and width characters from length characters (Fig. 9). PC3 accounts for only a limited portion of the overall variation (4%) contrasting width (primarily TW and MW) and basal characters (BB and LB; Table 5). ANOVA of PC1 scores indicates no signicant dierence between assemblages (P Z 0.551), whereas ANOVA of PC2 scores indicates a signicant dierence between assemblages (P Z 0.000). Multiple comparison of PC2 scores using the Bonferroni adjustment reveals the source of dierence is between Shifting Sands and the other assemblages. If the diminutive points from Shifting Sands are removed from the comparison of PC2 scores, the only dierence found is between Cooper and Shifting Sands. If the diminutive, Midland, and Folsom/Midland points are removed from the comparison of PC2 scores, then there is no signicant dierence between assemblages (P Z 0.150).

3.6 3.4 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 SS CP LT LL BW

Left Blade Length (mm [natural log])

3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.0

Shifting Sands Lake Theo Lubbock Lake Blackwater Draw Cooper Total Population

PC2 (14.7%)

9.5

10

10.5

11

11.5

12

12.5

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

3.2

3.4

3.6

PC1 (78.6%)
Fig. 7. Plot of the rst principal component (PC1) scores against the second principal component (PC2) scores for points by assemblage showing centroids indicated by crosses and corresponding convex polygons that minimally enclose sets of points (PC scores) for each assemblage (SS, Shifting Sands; LL, Lubbock Lake; LT, Lake Theo; BW, Blackwater Draw; CP, Cooper).

Right Blade Length (mm [natural log])

Fig. 6. Left blade length plotted against right blade length by assemblage. Points plotted outside of the 95% condence bands are considered to have signicantly asymmetrical blade lengths (absolute distance from t line is an indication of asymmetry; whether a point is plotted above or below the t line is arbitrary).

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1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 SSmn 0.8 CP LT BW SSF SSf-m SSmid 0.6 LL 0.4 LB BB BW MW LT TW PA BL TB EL OL ML

PC2 loadings

PC2 (14.7%)

0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1

9.5

10

10.5

11

11.5

12

12.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

PC1 (78.6%)
Fig. 8. Similar plot as shown in Fig. 7, but with the Shifting Sands assemblage identied by subassemblage (SSF, Shifting Sands Folsom; SSf-m, Shifting Sands Folsom-Midland; SSmid, Shifting Sands Midland; and SSmn, Shifting Sands miniature points).

PC1 loadings
Fig. 9. Vector correlations of the 12 characters within the plane of the principal components shown in Fig. 7 (PA, point area; EL, edge boundary length; TB, width of tip to base length to maximum inection position; BL, blade length; MW, maximum width; BB, base boundary length; LB, linear measure of base; ML, midline length; OL, overall length; BW, basal width across rst third of point; LT, length from base to 1/3 along opposite edge).

Bivariate allometry of each character regressed on point area (PA, the single character proxy for overall point size) is used to examine point size and shape relationships among the total sample of points. Results of the regression analyses show that most characters describing dierent length measures (EL, TB, ML, and OL) are positively allometric with slopes greater than 1.0 (Table 6). Width and basal characters (MW, BB, LB, and BW) are negatively allometric with slopes less than 1.0. An exception to this pattern is LT, which is in opposition to the other length characters with a slope of less than 1.0. BL is the only isometric character with a slope not signicantly dierent from 1.0 (Table 6; Fig. 10). Multivariate allometry scales eigenvalues from the rst principal component to derive allometric coecients. The multivariate allometric coecients are similar to those derived from the bivariate analyses for all the characters (Table 7), suggesting that PA was a good
Table 5 Loadings for the rst four principal components Character % variation PA EL TB TW BL MW BB LB ML OL BW LT PC1 78.57 0.993 0.965 0.960 0.822 0.905 0.808 0.639 0.565 0.930 0.952 0.796 0.957 PC2 14.65 0.013 0.240 0.264 0.195 0.010 0.468 0.705 0.751 0.349 0.291 0.554 0.259 PC3 4.01 0.012 0.052 0.084 0.480 0.132 0.347 0.277 0.305 0.076 0.081 0.148 0.087 PC4 1.97 0.083 0.026 0.021 0.221 0.404 0.049 0.030 0.072 0.054 0.017 0.002 0.037

proxy for point size in the bivariate allometric analyses. Length characters (EL, TB, ML, and OL) are positively allometric, whereas width and basal characters (TW, MW, BB, LB, BW, LT) are negatively allometric and, again, BL is nearly isometric. The regression of blade length (BL) on point area demonstrates that the slope of blade length is nearly isometric (with a slope of 0.99). Ahler and Geibs resharpening model [2] predicts that there should be no correlation between blade length and point size (b1 Z 0). In their model the basal section of points are shifted upward and rehafted for resharpening; therefore, blade lengths should remain relatively constant regardless of point size or length and not proportional across points
Table 6 Linear regression results of each character regressed against point size (PA) for the total sample of points and results of testing the isometric null hypothesis (H0: b1 Z 1) Character EL TB TW BL MW BB LB ML OL BW LT
a b

y-intercept 0.07 0.24 0.89 0.38 0.06 0.73 1.09 0.42 0.39 0.66 0.32

r2 0.914 0.913 0.691 0.778 0.635 0.378 0.306 0.873 0.903 0.632 0.905

SE 0.055 0.056 0.084 0.085 0.080 0.124 0.115 0.071 0.062 0.080 0.042

ka 1.19 1.22 0.84 0.99 0.71 0.65 0.51 1.26 1.26 0.71 0.86

H0: b1 Z 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.065b 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

kZallometric coecient. Not signicantly dierent from a slope of 1.

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3.4 3.2 3 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2

(P Z 0.000; see Table 6 for regression statistics) indicating that blade lengths do not conform to the Ahler and Geib model. Because blade lengths are isometric with point area, a more plausible model may be that as the length of points was reduced through resharpening, the expendable blade portion of the point was reduced accordingly. This could have been done while the point was xed in the haft, thereby sparing the need to the remove the point from the haft for each resharpening event.

BL mm (ln)

6. Discussion
2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

PA mm (ln)
Fig. 10. Regression analysis of blade length (BL) on point area (PA) testing the isometry hypothesis (P Z 0.065). Solid line is the best-t line for data and dashed line is the hypothetical isometric line (see Table 6 for results).

of dierent sizes. Although the blade length character does not correspond directly to the most distal portion of the tip that Ahler and Geib suggest is designed to fracture, blade length (equivalent to Ahler and Geibs leading edge described as the portion of the point forward of its maximum width . that part which cuts and enters the target [2:809] and part of the blade shown above the haft bindings in their Figs. 5a, 5b, and 7) is assumed to have been adjusted when points were reset in the haft in proportion to the length of tip that was lost. Indeed, Ahler and Geib suggest according to their model that the length of blade elementsdthe portion exposed above the bindings or the leading edgedshould exhibit the lowest variability when compared to other point dimensions and thereby the measurement of these dimensions should provide a test of their model [2:813e814]. Regression of blade length on point area and overall length, testing the null hypothesis of no slope (H0: b1 Z 0), exhibited signicant correlations in both cases
Table 7 Multivariate allometric coecients for each character Character PA EL TB TW BL MW BB LB ML OL BW LT Multivariate allometric coecient 1.06 1.28 1.31 0.89 1.10 0.76 0.72 0.56 1.33 1.35 0.75 0.92

Size and shape variation in point form linked to resharpening was evident in the sample. The relatively limited number of longer points in the distribution of Folsom point lengths in the sample (Fig. 3) indicated that unresharpened points are rarely recovered. The prevalence of point resharpening was noted in the variation of length characters, particularly in overall length, compared to width and basal characters. Closer examination of blade length showed there was considerable within-assemblage variation in this character but that the variation did not correlate with linear distance to the Edwards chert source area. This evidence supports current resharpening and point-replacement models that suggest raw-material use is not simply a function of distance to source but most likely results from the number of resharpening events undertaken since the last lithic-quarry visit [17,45,46]. Investigation of bilateral asymmetry in blade lengths demonstrated the high degree of asymmetry present in each assemblage. Asymmetry in blade length is assumed to be a result of focused resharpening on dull or fragmented blade edges or through the use of one edge for cutting tasks. The unexpected result of blade asymmetry associated with the longest points in the sample, however, suggests that even the longest points in the sample may have been resharpened at least once or that symmetry was rarely achieved in Folsom point blades. However, without having an adequate comparative sample of points presumed to be at the beginning stages of use (such as from a cache), it is unknown to what tolerance Folsom points were permitted to be asymmetrical and the eect that asymmetry may have on the aerodynamic properties of points. A primary objective of this research was to determine if projectile-point size reduction resulting from the resharpening of dull and broken edges could be detected solely on the basis of quantitative characters. Newly manufactured projectile points do not begin their uselives at the same size, but if similar sets of rules or tolerances are followed during point production, regardless of initial blank size, it is assumed that the resulting points will be morphologically similar. With

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comparable starting forms, regardless of size, it is assumed that subsequent changes created by resharpening can be monitored using quantitatively measured characters. Principal components analysis demonstrated that the majority of variation in the 12 characters was attributable to size. The primary juxtaposition in point shape was between base and width characters and length characters. As length increases, basal and width characters decrease resulting in relatively narrow, long points. This relationship describes what can most likely be attributed to simple design criteria and the physics related to proper hafting and aerodynamic capabilities of points. If width characters were isometric or positively allometric, long points would quickly become too wide to haft, lose aerodynamic qualities, and likely be able to fracture easily. In fact, allometric analyses showed that Folsom points might well have been constrained to be disproportionately longer. Characters describing length have allometric coecients that generally are around 1.2. This attribute, or perhaps functional constraint, may reect not only the need for certain length to width ratios for proper hafting and weapon delivery but the need for disposable blade length while the point is still in its haft [14]. A signicant nding of the allometric investigation is the isometry of blade length. Blade length describes the leading edge of the point, the section of the point that penetrates the hide of prey targets. The conformity to proportionality of blade length with point size suggests the vital role that blade length played in keeping points functional. If blade edges were fractured or dulled through use, resharpening would be conducted and perhaps deliberately geared toward producing a suciently proportioned tip. The manner in which the resharpening of points was conducted, however, has been a matter of debate. The snap-blade model, proposed by Ahler and Geib [2] for the hafting and resharpening of Folsom points, where points are hafted to allow basal proportions to be expendable when more blade length is needed, is not supported by the ndings in this analysis. Ahler and Geib [2:813] note that blade length (what they describe as the portion of the point that extends beyond the dulling of the edges that indicate the limits of hafting; in this analysis blade length is described as the distance from the maximum inection point to the tip) should be the portion of the point that was under strict control. The isometry of blade length found in this sample suggests that the blade portion of the point was expendable and not the base as is predicted in the Ahler and Geib model. The potential for broken point tips to be rebasedd that is, the removal of akes to form new basal ears and a basal concavity on the fractured proximal edge of a tip fragmentdwas not specically identied in this analysis.

However, the relationships identied in the allometric analyses show that even if tip fragments were rebased, blade lengths were made proportional to size. On the whole, points in this sample do not exhibit disproportionately longer blade lengths, as would be expected if rebasing simply put a new concave base on a generally triangular tip fragment. Bement [14] has suggested that Folsom point dimensions and the hafting technique used may have been designed expressly to avoid fractures that would result in tip fragments that were long enough to be reworked. In his model, Bement [14] proposes that points were bound almost entirely in the haft leaving only enough exposed tip to do the penetrating and cutting function of the weapon. This arrangement would likely produce only snap fractures to the tip that could be resharpened while in the haft by cutting through the distal most haft bindings if needed. In this scenario, the potential for the rebasing and consequentially the rehafting of fractured point tips is minimized through the hafting mechanismdan implication not at odds with the ndings of the analysis presented here. Most of the diminutive points and Midland points from Shifting Sands clearly were dierent with respect to size and shape in relation to the other points. The diminutive points were made by the retouching of small, thin akes (and in one case from a channel ake [48:228]) and are pseudo-uted (marginal retouch around ventral ake surfaces). The distinctiveness of these points is a result of a dierent mode of manufacture not found in the other assemblages in this analysis, although, similar diminutive points have been recovered at the Lindenmeier site in Colorado [90] and the Adair-Steadman site in Texas [87]. Because this dierent method of manufacture is found along with other typical Folsom points and may be related to a functional response to limited availability or stores of raw material [46,48], it is assumed that the production of diminutive points was an alternative mode of production that does not follow typical production methods. Models of Folsom technological organization predict that as akes detached from bifacial cores become increasingly smaller, so will the size of the points made from them. However, other small points not specically identied as diminutive are found in the other assemblages (for example, the complete point A917-40 from Lake Theo is less than 3 cm long [23:132]) but they are not signicantly dierent in shape from larger points suggesting the diminutive points from Shifting Sands are dierent. Alternatively, diminutive points may have been used to hunt for smaller game or used by children as toys. The lack of diminutive points from other assemblages on the Southern Plains suggests that the unique production of diminutive points was seldom done. The majority of the Midland and Folsom-Midland points also were dierentiated from the other points

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along with the diminutive points. A number of researchers have suggested that Midland points do not represent a type distinct from Folsom based on the co-occurrence of Midland and Folsom points at excavated sites and the overall similarities in production and form [5,46,48,63]. At Shifting Sands, Folsom and Midland pointsdas well as points described as having characteristics of both Folsom and Midlanddwere recovered together. Some of the Midland points, however, exhibited distinctly dierent shapes compared with the entire sample of points. These points, together with the diminutive points, may reect a lack of raw-material provisions held by groups visiting the site. If replacement points were needed but only a limited amount of raw material was available, a solution could have been to alter the manner in which Folsom points were made, using lateral thinning instead of uting in the case of Midland points or by pseudo-uting small akes as was the case for diminutive points [5,46,48,63]. The use of morphometrics to describe the size and shape of Folsom projectile points in this study is not oered as a replacement for qualitative assessments of point resharpening that rely on the presence of attributes such as the sinuosity of blade edges and invasive overlapping negative ake scars, but as an additional method that can be used to investigate if changes in point form are the result of resharpening. The characters dened in this study can be used in conjunction with multivariate techniques to monitor shape dierences objectively across a range of points of dierent sizes. The allometry of point characters in particular proved to be a useful technique to investigate proportional changes in various characters describing point form across a wide range of points at dierent stages in their use-lives and from dierent assemblages. The results presented here, although based on a relatively small sample (n Z 47), demonstrate that Folsom point dimensions are inconsistent with the snapblade hypothesis proposed by Ahler and Geib [2]. Ahler and Geib formulated specic expectations for the manner in which Folsom point-dimensions should change over the course of successive point resharpening episodes. Quantitative testing of those expectations revealed that their model was unlikely for the sample of points studied here. Quantitative analyses of point dimensions did provide additional support for the current models of Folsom technological organization. Reduction in point forms did not correlate with distance-to-source but was more consistent with the model of the cyclical resharpening and replacement of points after sequential use episodes. This research outlines how allometry can be used to investigate the sources of variation that potentially eect the form of projectile technologies and to quantify functional constraints of points of all types.

7. Conclusions Variation in point form is fundamental evidence in the inference of Folsom technological organization and mobility. This variation however, previously has been monitored using only point length and qualitative descriptions of resharpening to interpret patterns among point assemblages. The analysis presented here developed a quantitative approach to the investigation of Folsom point form. Twelve interlandmark distance characters were used to describe point form. The source of most point size variation was determined to be related to the resharpening of point blades. None of the various length characters examined correlated with linear distance to raw material source supporting models of Folsom technological organization that propose point supplies were managed carefully with broken and exhausted points intermittently replaced after use and resharpening episodes. Allometric analyses showed that blade length was isometric with point area and length characters were positively allometric. In terms of the two objectives of this paper, it was found that variation in the sample of Folsom points from the Southern Plains primarily was a result of resharpening and the correlation of blade length with point size supports the xed-inhaft model for Folsom resharpening. This research has demonstrated that multivariate and allometric analyses are useful methods for investigating models of technological organization and the eects of resharpening on point form.

Acknowledgments The author is grateful to Richard Rose for allowing access to the Shifting Sands collection and for sharing his knowledge of the site and region. Leland Bement (Oklahoma Archeological Survey) provided digital photographs of the Cooper points. The points from Lake Theo were examined while on loan from the PanhandlePlains Historical Museum, Canyon, Texas (Je Indeck, Curator), and photographed and analyzed at the Museum of Texas Tech University. One of the Lubbock Lake points (TTU-A1000000) was photographed at the Lubbock Lake Landmark. Point TTU-A1000000 was generated during eldwork under TAC permit No. 36. The Lubbock Lake Collection is a state-associated heldin-trust collection. Thanks to Leland Bement, Marcus Hamilton, David Meltzer, Michael OBrien, and Richard Strauss for providing very helpful comments and advice that considerably improved the content of this work, although any errors solely are the responsibility of the author.

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Further reading
[66] L.H. Keeley, Hafting and retooling: eects on the archaeological record, American Antiquity 47 (1982) 798e809.